VariableFrequencyDrives
By:VincentW.Wedelich
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ACInductionMotors
MotorEfficiencyandAssessment
MotorControllers
VariableFrequencyDrives
Harmonics
ApplicationConsiderations
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Induction
Motors
For industrial
applications, the
three-phase
induction motor is
used to drive
machines
Large three-phase
induction motor.
(Courtesy
Siemens).
Housing
Motor
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Electrical
system
e, i
Electric
Machine
Mechanical
system
T, n
Motor
Energy flow
Generator
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2.
3.
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Motor Construction
The Stator
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2.
3.
4.
XP Explosion Proof
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XP Explosion Proof
Similar to TEFC but enclosures are cast iron
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Induction Machines
Construction
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Each motor has a plate mounted on its frame, with electrical and
mechanical information
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1.Whichofthefollowingisleastlikelytobe
foundonaninductionmotornameplate:
a)frequency
b)motorweight
c)fullloadcurrent
d)rpm
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7.Whichofthefollowingisleastlikelytobe
foundonaninductionmotornameplate?
a)fullloadp.f.
b)designcode
c)frequency
d)fullloadcurrent
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8.A60HzACmotorisrunningat1178rpmsat
halfload.Themotorhashowmanypoles?
a)2
b)4
c)6
d)8
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9.Whichofthefollowingisleastlikelytobe
foundonaninductionmotornameplate?
a)fullloadrpm
b)fullloadhp
c)fullloadcurrent
d)fullloadtorque
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Amotornameplateindicatesthefollowing:
HP=50ServiceFactor=1.25Voltage=460
Current=53RPM=1145CodeLetter=BPhases
=3DesignLetter=B
TemperatureRise=25 FFrequency60Hz
10.Thismotorhashowmanypoles?
a)8
b)6
c)4
d)2
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Amotornameplateindicatesthefollowing:
HP=50ServiceFactor=1.25Voltage=460
Current=53RPM=1145CodeLetter=BPhases
=3DesignLetter=B
TemperatureRise=25 FFrequency60Hz
11.Themotormaximumhorsepoweris:
a)50
b)62.5
c)70
d)57.5
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Amotornameplateindicatesthefollowing:
HP=50ServiceFactor=1.25Voltage=460
Current=53RPM=1145CodeLetter=BPhases
=3DesignLetter=B
TemperatureRise=25 FFrequency60Hz
12.Startingcurrentatratedservicefactoris
mostnearly:
a)175
b)200
c)225
d)275
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ThemotorhasinsulationclassFandaservice
factorof1.15.
Thismeansthatitswindingtemperatureis
allowedtoriseto155 Cwithanadditional
10 Chotspotallowance.
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MotorLifevs.Temperature
Mostinsulatingmaterialshaveanegative
temperaturecoefficient;thatis,their
resistancedecreasesasthetemperature
increases.
Therefore,electricalstressesaremorelikelyto
causeinsulationfailureatelevated
temperatures.
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MotorLifevs.Temperature
Insulationagingmaybeattributable,afteryearsofservice,
tothermalweakening,evenatratednameplate
temperatures.
Thisprocessisgreatlyacceleratedbyoperationathigher
thannormalcurrentratingbecauseheatingincreasesas
thesquareofthecurrent.Continuedoperationatelevated
temperaturesproducesembrittlementandmechanical
deteriorationofinsulation.
Hence,currentnameplatevaluesareexceededatthe
expenseofdecreasedinsulationlife.
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MotorLifevs.Temperature
Insulationdegradationisachemicalaction
andhighertemperaturesacceleratethis
process.
Arrhenius(IEEEC57.911981paragraph3.4.3)
expressedthechemicalreactionratebythe
followingequation:
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MotorLifevs.Temperature
T=Absolutetemperatureindegreeskelvin,(C
+273)usingthetemperatureatthehottest
spotinthewinding.
AandB=Constantsthatvarywiththetype
insulationsystem.TypicalvaluesforaClassA
insulationwouldbeA=11.968andB=
6328.8.
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MotorLifevs.Temperature
Althoughtheabovegivesageneralfeelforlife
expectancyduetotemperaturechanges,
othervariablessuchasvibration,moisture,
switchingsurges,etc.mustbefactoredinto
determinetheactuallife.
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NEMAMotorDesign
NEMAalsousesletters(A,B,C,andD)toidentify
motordesignsbasedontorquecharacteristics.
ThemotorisadesignBmotor,themostcommon
type.
MotordesignAistheleastcommontype.
ThecharacteristicsofmotordesignsB,CandD
arediscussedinthiscourse.
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SpeedTorqueCurveforNEMAB
Motor
Becausemotortorquevarieswithspeed,the
relationshipbetweenspeedandtorqueisoften
showninagraph,
calledaspeedtorquecurve.
Thiscurveshowsthemotorstorque,asa
percentageoffullloadtorque,overthemotors
fullspeedrange,shownasapercentageofits
synchronousspeed.
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TorqueandMagneticFields
Torque,moment ormomentofforce isthe
tendencyofaforcetorotateanobjectaboutan
axis,fulcrum,orpivot.
Justasaforceisapushorapull,atorquecanbe
thoughtofasatwisttoanobject.
Mathematically,torqueisdefinedasthecross
productoftheleverarmdistanceandforce,
whichtendstoproducerotation.
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TorqueandMagneticFields
Looselyspeaking,torqueisameasureofthe
turningforceonanobjectsuchasaboltora
flywheel.
Forexample,pushingorpullingthehandleof
awrenchconnectedtoanutorboltproduces
atorque(turningforce)thatloosensor
tightensthenutorbolt.
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TorqueandMagneticFields
Thesymbolfortorqueistypically,theGreek
lettertau.Whenitiscalledmoment,itis
commonlydenotedM.
Themagnitudeoftorquedependsonthree
quantities:
theforceapplied,
thelengthoftheleverarm connectingtheaxistothe
pointofforceapplication,
andtheanglebetweentheforcevectorandthelever
arm.Insymbols:
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Machinetorque
Torqueispartofthebasicspecificationofanengine:
thepoweroutputofanengineisexpressedasits
torquemultipliedbyitsrotationalspeedoftheaxis.
Internalcombustionenginesproduceusefultorque
onlyoveralimitedrangeofrotationalspeeds(typically
fromaround1,0006,000rpmforasmallcar).
Thevaryingtorqueoutputoverthatrangecanbe
measuredwithadynamometer,andshownasatorque
curve.
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TorqueandMagneticFields
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TorqueandMagneticFields
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Torquemultiplier
Atorquemultiplierisagearboxwith
reductionratiosgreaterthan1.Thegiven
torqueattheinputgetsmultipliedasperthe
reductionratioandtransmittedtotheoutput,
therebyachievinggreatertorque,butwith
reducedrotationalspeed.
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ACInductionMotors
MotorEfficiencyandAssessment
MotorControllers
VariableFrequencyDrives
Harmonics
ApplicationConsiderations
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EfficiencyGains
Wemayviewthissystemasveryinefficient.
Wearelockedintowhateverefficiencies
themotorcanprovide,givenasomewhat
variableamountofloading.
Ifthemotorhappenedtobeanalternating
current(AC)motor,typically,thefollowing
wouldbetrue:
1. Themoreloadonamotor,themore
efficientthatmotoris.
2. Thehigherthemotorshorsepower(HP)
rating,thehighertheefficiency.
3. Thehighertheoperatingspeed,themore
efficientthemotor.
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Constantandvariabletorqueload
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Introduction
Motor loads
Description
Examples
Variable torque
loads
Machine tools
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Classification of Motors
Electric Motors
Synchronous
Induction
Single-Phase
Three-Phase
Self Excited
Separately
Excited
Series
Compound
Shunt
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DC Motors Components
Field pole
North pole and south pole
Receive electricity to form
magnetic field
Armature
Cylinder between the poles
Electromagnet when current goes through
Linked to drive shaft to drive the load
Commutator
Overturns current direction in armature
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Restricted use
Few low/medium speed applications
Clean, non-hazardous areas
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DC Machines
Construction
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Ns = 120 f / P
F = supply frequency
P = number of poles
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Aslipring isan
electromechanicaldevice
thatallowsthetransmission
ofpowerandelectrical
signalsfromastationarytoa
rotatingstructure.Aslipring
canbeusedinany
electromechanicalsystem
thatrequiresunrestrained,
intermittentorcontinuous
rotationwhiletransmitting
powerand/ordata.Itcan
improvemechanical
performance,simplify
systemoperationand
eliminatedamageprone
wiresdanglingfrommovable
joints.
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HP
Load
Pi
Pi x HP x 0.7457
= Motor operating efficiency in %
= Nameplate rated horse power
= Output power as a % of rated power
= Three phase power in kW
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Motor Load
Slip method
Compare slip at operation with slip at full load
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Pi
V x I x PF x 3
1000
Pi
V
I
PF
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Pr hp x
0.7457
Pr
hp
r
Pi
Load
x 100%
Pr
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Action
1. Significantly
oversized and
under loaded
2. Moderately
oversized and
under loaded
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Efficiency Improvement
2. Stator I2R
3 Rotor I2R
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Consequences of under-loading
Increased motor losses
Reduced motor efficiency
Reduced power factor
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Example 2
Example
3
0.30
2.30
5.40
0.4
17.7
40.0
30
40
Temperature increase
(oC)
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Synchronous Machines
Construction
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Classificationof
ACRotatingMachines
Synchronous Machines:
Synchronous Generators: A primary source of electrical
energy
Synchronous Motors: Used as motors as well as power
factor compensators (synchronous condensers)
Asynchronous (Induction) Machines:
Induction Motors: Most widely used electrical motors in
both domestic and industrial applications.
Induction Generators: Due to lack of a separate field
excitation, these machines are rarely used as
generators.
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SynchronousMachine
Unlike induction machines, the rotating air gap field and the
rotor rotate at the same speed, called the synchronous speed.
Synchronous machines are used primarily as generators of
electrical power, called synchronous generators or alternators.
They are usually large machines generating electrical power
at hydro, nuclear, or thermal power stations.
Application as a motor: pumps in generating stations, electric
clocks, timers, and so forth where constant speed is desired.
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Synchronous Machines
Generator
Exciter
View of a two-pole round rotor generator and exciter
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SynchronousMachine
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SynchronousMachine
Salient Rotor Machine
The stator has a laminated ironcore with slots and three phase
windings placed in the slots.
The rotor has salient poles
excited by dc current.
DC current is supplied to the
rotor through slip-rings and
brushes.
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SynchronousGenerator
Principle of Operation
1) From an external source, the
field winding is supplied with
a DC current -> excitation.
2) Rotor (field) winding is
mechanically turned (rotated)
at synchronous speed.
3)Therotatingmagneticfield
producedbythefieldcurrent
inducesvoltagesintheouter
stator(armature)winding.The
frequencyofthesevoltagesisin
synchronismwiththerotorspeed.
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ParallelOperationofSynchronous
Generator
Generators are rarely used in isolated situations.
More commonly, generators are used in parallel,
often massively in parallel, such as in the power grid.
The following steps must be adhered to:
When adding a generator to an existing power grid:
1) RMS line voltages of the two generators must be
the same.
2) Phase sequence must be the same.
3) Phase angles of the corresponding phases must
be the same.
4) Frequency must be the same.
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Synchronous
Speed
ns =
120f
p
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S=
ns - nr
ns
S = slip
ns = synchronous speed [r/min]
nr = rotor speed [r/min]
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Efficiency () =
Poutput
Pinput
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MotorTorque
Tm =
=
9.55 Pm
n
9.55 (1 s) Pr
ns (1 s)
= 9.55 Pr / ns
Tm = 9.55 Pr / ns
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I2R lossesintherotor
Pjr = s Pr
Pjr = rotor I2R losses [W]
s = slip
Pr = power transmitted to the rotor [W]
MechanicalPower
Pm = Pr - Pjr
= Pr - s P r
= (1 s) Pr
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Example1
Calculatethesynchronousspeedofa3phaseinduction
motorhaving20poleswhenitisconnectedtoa50Hz
source.
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Knowingquantities:
Sourcefrequency=50Hz,numberofpoles=20
120 f
Synchronousspeedns =
p
=
120 x 50
20
ns = 300 r/min
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Example2
A0.5hp,6poleinductionmotorisexcitedbya3phase,60Hz
source.Ifthefullloadis1140r/min,calculatetheslip.
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Knowingquantities:
Sourcefrequency=60Hz,numberofpoles=6
Fullload/rotorspeed=1140r/min
120 f
Synchronousspeedns =
p
=
120 x 60
6
ns = 1200 r/min
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MeasurementofmotoroutputisbasedontheprinciplethatslipRPMislinearfromten
percentloadto110percentload
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Thecurrentisreversed
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ACInductionMotors
MotorEfficiencyandAssessment
MotorControllers
VariableFrequencyDrives
Harmonics
ApplicationConsiderations
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ControlofElectricMotors
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MagneticUnits
o Contactors
o MotorStarters
SolidState
Programmable
VFD
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Magnetic Controllers
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Magnetic Controllers
Universallyused.
Madeupofcomponentssuchas:
o
o
o
o
o
o
RelaysorContactors:
MagneticCoils
ElectromagnetsandMovingArmatures
ContactsandArcingHorn
Springloadedcomponents(Pushbuttons)
Fuses
Timers
Interlocks
Switches
MainOperation:
o
OpensandClosesanElectricalCircuitbymeansofcontacts
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MOTOR STARTER
Overload Protection
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Overload Protection
Overheating causes:
Stalled Rotor
Low Voltage
Unbalanced Voltages
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THERMAL RELAY
Consists of:
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Two sections:
o Power Circuit
o Control or Logic Circuit
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Diagram Symbols
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Asemiconductordevicethatisamemberofa
familyofcontroldevicesknownasThyristors.
Theworkhorseoftheindustrialcontrolindustry.
Itsevolutionovertheyearshasyieldedadevice
thatislessexpensive,morereliable,andsmallerin
sizethaneverbefore.
Typicalapplicationsinclude:
DCMotorControl
GeneratorFieldRegulation
VariableFrequencyDrive
LightingSystemControl
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Athreeleaddevicewithananodeandacathode(aswithastandard
diode)plusathirdcontrolleadorgate.Asthenameimplies,itisa
rectifierwhichcanbecontrolled ormorecorrectly onethatcanbe
triggeredtotheON statebyapplyingasmallpositivevoltagetothe
gatelead.
OncegatedON,thetriggersignalmayberemovedandtheSCRwill
remainconductingaslongascurrentflowsthroughthedevice.
TheloadtobecontrolledbytheSCRisnormallyplacedintheanode
circuit.Seedrawingbelow.
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AnothermemberoftheThyristorFamilyistheGTO,orGate
TurnOffDevice.
Whilethiscomponenthasbeenaroundformanyyears,ithas
justrecentlyevolvedtothepointwhereitiscapableof
carryingthehighcurrentsrequiredformotorcontrolcircuitry.
UnliketheSCR,theGTOcanbeturnedONandOFFwitha
signalappliedtothegate.
Theturnonsignalisasmallpositivevoltage;theturnoff
signalisanegativecurrentpulse.
Itisnowfindingapplicationsintheoutputstageofmedium
voltage,highhorsepower,VariableFrequencyDrives.
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TheTRIACSymbol
ItsjustaBidirectionalSCR.
ItrepresentsSCRsconnectedbacktoback.
ACMotorControlutilizesTRIACinsteadofSCRsfor
control.
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Itisusedforovervoltageprotection.
ItconsistsofanSCRplacedinparallelwiththeoutputofaDCpowersupply,for
thepurposeofplacingadirectshortcircuitontheoutputofthatsupplyto
preventexcessivevoltagefromreachingtheload.
DamagetotheSCRandpowersupplyispreventedbythejudiciousplacementofa
fuseorsubstantialseriesresistanceaheadoftheSCRtolimitshortcircuitcurrent.
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ThiscircuitwillallowyoutocontrolthespeedofanACmotor,forexamplean
electricdrill.
Thebridgerectifierproducesdcvoltagefromthe120vacline.Aportiononthis
currentpassesthroughthe10Kohmpot.
Thecircuitcomprisedofthe10kpot,thetwo100ohmresistorsandthe50uf
capacitorsdeliversgatedriveoftheSCR.
ThediodeD1protectsthecircuitfromreversevoltagespikes.Theratingsofthe
bridgerectifierandtheSCRshouldbe25ampsandPIV600volts.ThediodeD1
shouldberatedfor2ampswithPIVof600volts.
Thecircuitcanhandlealoadupto10amps.TheSCRshouldbeverywellheatsink.
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PLCIntroductoryLaboratory
Designtheladderlogictocontrolthesystemshown
1.WhenPushbutton1isONANDpushbutton2isOFF,thebluelightturnsON.
2.AslongasPushbutton2isON,theredlightturnson.(independentlywhether
pushbutton1isONofOFF).
3.IfbothPushbuttonsareOFF,neitherlightturnson.
PB #1
BLUE
PLC
PB #2
RED
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ACInductionMotors
MotorEfficiencyandAssessment
MotorControllers
VariableFrequencyDrives
Harmonics
ApplicationConsiderations
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GTO
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DarlingtonBipolarTransistors
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Powerdeviceswitchingtimesand
circuitcardsrequired
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Constanttorqueapplication
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Variabletorqueapplication
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HVAC
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CourseContents
Systemdescriptionandoperation
WhatisaVariableFrequencyDrive
ACMotor
Controller
Operatorinterface
Driveoperation
Benefits
Energysavings
Controlperformance
VFDtypesandratings
Generictopologies
Controlplatforms
Loadtorqueandpowercharacteristics
Availablepowerratings
Drivesbymachines&detailedtopologies
Applicationconsiderations
AClineharmonics
Longleadeffects
Motorbearingcurrents
Dynamicbraking
Regenerativedrives
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CommonlyUsedSolidStateSwitching
DevicesforPowerConverters.
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Variablefrequencydrive
Avariablefrequencydrive(VFD)
adjustablefrequencydrive
variablespeeddrive
ACdrive
microdrive
inverterdrive
isatypeofadjustablespeeddriveusedin
electromechanicaldrivesystemstocontrol
ACmotorspeed
torquebyvaryingmotorinputfrequencyandvoltage.
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VFDsareusedinapplicationsrangingfromsmall
appliancestothelargestofminemilldrivesand
compressors.
However,aboutathirdoftheworld'selectrical
energyisconsumedbyelectricmotorsinfixed
speedcentrifugalpump,fanandcompressor
applicationsandVFDs'globalmarketpenetration
forallapplicationsisstillrelativelysmall.
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Thishighlightsespeciallysignificantenergy
efficiencyimprovementopportunitiesfor
retrofittedandnewVFDinstallations.
Overthelastfourdecades,powerelectronics
technologyhasreducedVFDcostandsizeand
improvedperformancethroughadvancesin
semiconductorswitchingdevices,drive
topologies,simulationandcontroltechniques,
andcontrolhardwareandsoftware.
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VFDsareavailableinanumberofdifferent
lowandmediumvoltageACACandDCAC
topologies.
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ACMotor
TheACelectricmotorusedinaVFDsystemis
usuallya threephase inductionmotor.
Sometypesof singlephasemotorscanbeused,
butthreephasemotorsareusuallypreferred.
Varioustypesof synchronousmotors offer
advantagesinsomesituations,butthreephase
inductionmotorsaresuitableformostpurposes
andaregenerallythemosteconomicalchoice.
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ACMotor
Motorsthataredesignedforfixedspeed
operationareoftenused.
Elevatedvoltagestressesimposedon
inductionmotorsthataresuppliedbyVFDs
requirethatsuchmotorsbedesignedfor
definitepurposeinverterfeddutyin
accordancetosuchrequirementsasPart31
of NEMA StandardMG1.
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TypicalSixPulseASDConfiguration
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VariableVoltageInverterDrive
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CurrentSourceInverterDrive
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PulseWidthModulatedDrive
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Controller(theVFD)
Thevariablefrequencydrivecontrolleris
a solidstate powerelectronicsconversion
systemconsistingofthreedistinctsub
systems:
a rectifier bridgeconverter,
a directcurrent (DC)link,
andaninverter.
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Controller(theVFD)
Voltagesource inverter(VSI)drivesarebyfar
themostcommontypeofdrives.
Mostdrivesare ACAC drivesinthatthey
convertAClineinputtoACinverteroutput.
However,insomeapplicationssuchas
commonDCbusor solar applications,drives
areconfiguredasDCACdrives.
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Controller(theVFD)
ThemostbasicrectifierconverterfortheVSIdriveis
configuredasathreephase,sixpulse, fullwave diode
bridge.
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6pulserectifierfrontend
Diodesorthyristorsareusuallygroupedin3
phasebridgerectifiers
Each3phasebridgeisa6pulseconverter
A6pulseconverterhasadistinctharmonic
currentsignature
A6pulseconverterhasatleast30%harmonic
currentdistortion
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6pulsewaveformseenbyutility
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Controller(theVFD)
VSIdrivesprovidehigher powerfactor and
lower harmonicdistortion than phase
controlled currentsource inverter(CSI)and
loadcommutatedinverter(LCI)drives.
Thedrivecontrollercanalsobeconfiguredas
a phaseconverter havingsinglephase
converterinputandthreephaseinverter
output.
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Controller(theVFD)
Controlleradvanceshaveexploiteddramatic
increasesinthevoltageandcurrentratings
andswitchingfrequencyofsolidstatepower
devicesoverthepastsixdecades.
Introducedin1983, the insulatedgatebipolar
transistor (IGBT)hasinthepasttwodecades
cometodominateVFDsasaninverter
switchingdevice.
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Controller(theVFD)
Invariabletorque applicationssuitedforVolts
perHertz(V/Hz)drivecontrol,
ACmotorcharacteristicsrequirethatthe
voltagemagnitudeoftheinverter'soutputto
themotorbeadjustedtomatchtherequired
loadtorqueina linear V/Hzrelationship.
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Controller(theVFD)
Forexample,for460volt,60 Hzmotorsthis
linearV/Hzrelationshipis460/60=7.67V/Hz.
Whilesuitableinwiderangingapplications,
V/Hzcontrolissuboptimalinhigh
performanceapplicationsinvolving
lowspeedordemanding,
dynamicspeedregulation,
positioningandreversingloadrequirements.
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Controller(theVFD)
SomeV/Hzcontroldrivescanalsooperate
in quadratic V/Hzmodeorcanevenbe
programmedtosuitspecialmultipointV/Hz
paths.
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Controller(theVFD)
Thetwootherdrivecontrolplatforms,
vectorcontrol and
directtorquecontrol (DTC),
adjustthemotor
voltagemagnitude,anglefromreferenceand
frequency
suchastopreciselycontrolthemotor'smagnetic
fluxandmechanicaltorque.
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Controller(theVFD)
Although spacevector pulsewidthmodulation (SVPWM)is
becomingincreasinglypopular,
sinusoidalPWM(SPWM)isthemoststraightforward
methodusedtovarydrives'motorvoltage(orcurrent)and
frequency.
WithSPWMcontrol,quasisinusoidal,variablepulsewidth
outputisconstructedfromintersectionsofasawtoothed
carrierfrequencysignalwithamodulatingsinusoidalsignal
whichisvariableinoperatingfrequencyaswellasin
voltage(orcurrent).
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Controller(theVFD)
Operationofthemotorsaboveratednameplate
speed(basespeed)ispossible,butislimitedto
conditionsthatdonotrequiremorepowerthan
thenameplateratingofthemotor.
Thisissometimescalled"fieldweakening"and,
forACmotors,meansoperatingatlessthanrated
V/Hzandaboveratednameplatespeed.
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Controller(theVFD)
Permanentmagnet synchronousmotorshave
quitelimitedfieldweakeningspeedrangedue
totheconstantmagnet fluxlinkage.
Woundrotorsynchronousmotorsand
inductionmotorshavemuchwiderspeed
range.
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Controller(theVFD)
Forexample,
a100 hp,460V,60 Hz,1775 RPM (4pole)
inductionmotor
suppliedwith460V,75 Hz(6.134V/Hz),
460V/75Hz=6.134V/Hz
wouldbelimitedto60/75=80%torqueat125%
speed(2218.75RPM)=100%power.
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Controller(theVFD)
Athigherspeedstheinductionmotortorque
hastobelimitedfurtherduetothelowering
ofthebreakawaytorque ofthemotor.
Thusratedpowercanbetypicallyproduced
onlyupto130...150%oftheratednameplate
speed.
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Controller(theVFD)
Woundrotorsynchronousmotorscanberun
atevenhigherspeeds.
Inrollingmilldrivesoften200...300%ofthe
basespeedisused.
Themechanicalstrengthoftherotorlimitsthe
maximumspeedofthemotor.
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Controller(theVFD)
An embedded microprocessor governstheoverall
operationoftheVFDcontroller.
Basic programming ofthemicroprocessoris
providedasuserinaccessible firmware.
Userprogrammingof display,variableand
functionblockparametersisprovidedtocontrol,
protectandmonitortheVFD,motoranddriven
equipment.
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Controller(theVFD)
Thebasicdrivecontrollercanbeconfiguredto
selectivelyincludesuchoptionalpower
componentsandaccessoriesasfollows:
Connectedupstreamofconverter
circuitbreakeror
Fuses
isolation contactor
EMC filter
line reactor
passivefilter
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Controller(theVFD)
ConnectedtoDClink
brakingchopper
braking resistor
Connecteddownstreamofinverter
outputreactor
sinewavefilter
dV/dtfilter.
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Operatorinterface
Theoperatorinterfaceprovidesameansfor
anoperatortostartandstopthemotorand
adjusttheoperatingspeed.
Additionaloperatorcontrolfunctionsmight
includereversing,andswitchingbetween
manualspeedadjustmentandautomatic
controlfromanexternal process
control signal.
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Operatorinterface
Theoperatorinterfaceoftenincludes
an alphanumeric displayand/orindicationlightsand
meterstoprovideinformationabouttheoperationof
thedrive.
Anoperatorinterfacekeypadanddisplayunitisoften
providedonthefrontoftheVFDcontrollerasshownin
thephotographabove.
Thekeypaddisplaycanoftenbecableconnectedand
mountedashortdistancefromtheVFDcontroller.
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Operatorinterface
Mostarealsoprovidedwith input and
output (I/O)terminalsforconnecting
pushbuttons,switchesandotheroperator
interfacedevicesorcontrolsignals.
A serialcommunications port isalsooften
availabletoallowtheVFDtobeconfigured,
adjusted,monitoredandcontrolledusinga
computer
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Drive
operation
Driveapplicationscanbecategorizedassinglequadrant,twoquadrantorfourquadrant;thechart'sfour
quadrantsaredefinedasfollows:
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Driveoperation
Mostapplicationsinvolvesinglequadrant
loadsoperatinginquadrantI,suchasin
variabletorque(e.g.centrifugalpumpsor
fans)andcertainconstanttorque(e.g.
extruders)loads.
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Driveoperation
Certainapplicationsinvolvetwo
quadrantloadsoperatingin
quadrantIandIIwherethespeed
ispositivebutthetorque
changes polarity asincaseofafan
deceleratingfasterthannatural
mechanicallosses.
Somesourcesdefinetwoquadrant
drivesasloadsoperatingin
quadrantsIandIIIwherethe
speedandtorqueissame(positive
ornegative)polarityinboth
directions.
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Driveoperation
Certainhighperformance
applicationsinvolvefour
quadrantloads(QuadrantsItoIV)
wherethespeedandtorquecan
beinanydirectionsuchasin
hoists,elevatorsandhilly
conveyors.
Regenerationcanonlyoccurin
thedrive'sDClinkbuswhen
invertervoltageissmallerin
magnitudethanthemotorback
EMF andinvertervoltageand
backEMFarethesamepolarity.
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Driveoperation
Instartingamotor,aVFDinitiallyappliesalow
frequencyandvoltage,thusavoidinghighinrush
currentassociatedwith directonlinestarting.
AfterthestartoftheVFD,theappliedfrequency
andvoltageareincreasedatacontrolledrateor
rampeduptoacceleratetheload.
Thisstartingmethodtypicallyallowsamotorto
develop150%ofitsratedtorquewhiletheVFDis
drawinglessthan50%ofitsratedcurrentfrom
themainsinthelowspeedrange.
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Driveoperation
AVFDcanbeadjustedtoproduceasteady
150%startingtorquefromstandstillrightup
tofullspeed.
However,motorcoolingdeterioratesandcan
resultinoverheatingasspeeddecreasessuch
thatprolongedlowspeedmotoroperation
withsignificanttorqueisnotusuallypossible
withoutseparatelymotorizedfanventilation.
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Driveoperation
WithaVFD,thestoppingsequenceisjustthe
oppositeasthestartingsequence.
Thefrequencyandvoltageappliedtothe
motorarerampeddownatacontrolledrate.
Whenthefrequencyapproacheszero,the
motorisshutoff.
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Driveoperation
Asmallamountofbrakingtorqueisavailabletohelp
deceleratetheloadalittlefasterthanitwouldstopif
themotorweresimplyswitchedoffandallowedto
coast.
Additionalbrakingtorquecanbeobtainedbyaddinga
brakingcircuit(resistorcontrolledbyatransistor)to
dissipatethebrakingenergy.
Withafourquadrantrectifier(activefrontend),the
VFDisabletobraketheloadbyapplyingareverse
torqueandinjectingtheenergybacktotheACline.
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Energysavings
Manyfixedspeedmotorloadapplicationsthat
aresupplieddirectfromAClinepowercansave
energywhentheyareoperatedatvariablespeed,
bymeansofVFD.
Suchenergycostsavingsareespecially
pronouncedinvariabletorquecentrifugalfan
andpumpapplications,wheretheloads'torque
andpowervarywiththesquareand cube,
respectively,ofthespeed.
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Energysavings
Thischangegivesalargepowerreduction
comparedtofixedspeedoperationfora
relativelysmallreductioninspeed.
Forexample,at63%speedamotorload
consumesonly25%ofitsfullspeedpower.
Thisisinaccordancewith affinitylaws thatdefine
therelationshipbetweenvariouscentrifugalload
variables.
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SimplifiedFixedSpeedPumpSystem
UsingControlValves
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TypicalASDControlledPumpSystem
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AffinityLawsforCentrifugal
Equipment
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Inpractice,thisdegreeofpowerreduction
doesnotoccurbecausethesystemstatichead
andlossesrequirethemotortooperateata
speedgreaterthan60percenttoprovide60
percentflow.
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Energysavings
IntheUnitedStates,anestimated6065%of
electricalenergyisusedtosupplymotors,
75%ofwhicharevariabletorquefan,pump
andcompressorloads.
Eighteenpercentoftheenergyusedinthe40
millionmotorsintheU.S.couldbesavedby
efficientenergyimprovementtechnologies
suchasVFDs.
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Energysavings
Onlyabout3%ofthetotalinstalledbaseofAC
motorsareprovidedwithACdrives.
However,itisestimatedthatdrivetechnology
isadoptedinasmanyas3040%ofallnewly
installedmotors.
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Energysavings
Anenergyconsumptionbreakdownofthe
globalpopulationofACmotorinstallationsis
asshowninthefollowingtable:
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Controlperformance
ACdrivesareusedtobringaboutprocessand
qualityimprovementsinindustrialand
commercialapplications
Acceleration
Flow
Monitoring
Pressure
Speed
Temperature
Tensionand
Torque.
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Controlperformance
Fixedspeedoperatedloadssubjectthemotorto
ahighstartingtorqueandtocurrentsurgesthat
areuptoeighttimesthefullloadcurrent.
ACdrivesinsteadgraduallyrampthemotorupto
operatingspeedtolessenmechanicaland
electricalstress,reducingmaintenanceandrepair
costs,andextendingthelifeofthemotorandthe
drivenequipment.
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Controlperformance
Variablespeeddrivescanalsorunamotorin
specializedpatternstofurtherminimize
mechanicalandelectricalstress.
Forexample,anScurvepatterncanbeappliedto
aconveyorapplicationforsmootherdeceleration
andaccelerationcontrol,whichreducesthe
backlashthatcanoccurwhenaconveyoris
acceleratingordecelerating.
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Controlperformance
Performancefactorstendingtofavoruseof
DC,overAC,drivesincludesuchrequirements
as
continuousoperationatlowspeed
fourquadrantoperationwithregeneration
frequentaccelerationanddecelerationroutines
andneedformotortobeprotectedforhazardous
area.
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Controlperformance
ThefollowingtablecomparesACandDCdrives
accordingtocertainkeyparameters:
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VFDtypesandratings
Voltagesourceinverter(VSI)drive
topologies:InaVSIdrive,theDCoutputof
the diodebridgeconverterstoresenergyin
thecapacitorbustosupplystiffvoltageinput
totheinverter.Thevastmajorityofdrivesare
VSItypewithPWMvoltageoutput.
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VFDtypesandratings
Currentsourceinverter(CSI)drive
topologies:InaCSIdrive,theDCoutputof
the SCRbridgeconverterstoresenergyin
seriesreactor connectiontosupplystiff
currentinputtotheinverter.CSIdrivescanbe
operatedwitheitherPWMorsixstep
waveformoutput.
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VFDtypesandratings
Sixstepinverterdrivetopologies: Nowlargely
obsolete,sixstepdrivescanbeeitherVSIorCSI
typeandarealsoreferredtoas
variablevoltageinverterdrives
pulseamplitude modulation (PAM)drives
Squarewave drivesor D.C.chopper inverterdrives.
Inasixstepdrive,theDCoutputoftheSCRbridge
converterissmoothedviacapacitorbusandseries
reactorconnectiontosupplyvia Darlington
Pair or IGBT inverterquasisinusoidal,sixstepvoltageor
currentinputtoaninductionmotor
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VFDtypesandratings
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VFDtypesandratings
Cycloconverterormatrixconverter(MC)topologies (see
image): Cycloconverter andMCsare ACACconverters thathaveno
intermediateDClinkforenergystorage.
Acycloconverteroperatesasathreephasecurrentsourceviathree
antiparallelconnectedSCRbridgesinsixpulseconfiguration,
eachcycloconverterphaseactingselectivelytoconvertfixedline
frequencyACvoltagetoanalternatingvoltageatavariableload
frequency.
MCdrivesareIGBTbased.
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Cycloconverter
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VFDtypesandratings
Doublyfedsliprecoverysystemtopologies:
A doublyfed slip recoverysystemfeeds
rectifiedslippowertoasmoothingreactorto
supplypowertotheACsupplynetworkviaan
inverter,thespeedofthemotorbeing
controlledbyadjustingtheDCcurrent.
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Doublyfedsliprecoverysystem
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Controlplatforms
Mostdrivesuseoneormoreofthefollowing
controlplatforms:
PWMV/Hz scalar control
PWM fieldorientedcontrol (FOC)orvector
control
Directtorquecontrol(DTC).
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TypicalVolts/HertzControlBlock
Diagram
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Loadtorqueandpowercharacteristics
Variablefrequencydrivesarealsocategorizedbythe
followingloadtorqueandpowercharacteristics:
Variabletorque,suchasincentrifugalfan,pumpand
blowerapplications
Constanttorque,suchasinconveyoranddisplacement
pumpapplications
Constantpower,suchasinmachinetoolandtraction
applications.
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Availablepowerratings
VFDsareavailablewithvoltageandcurrentratings
coveringawiderangeofsinglephaseandmultiphase
ACmotors.
Lowvoltage(LV)drivesaredesignedtooperateat
outputvoltagesequaltoorlessthan690 V.
WhilemotorapplicationLVdrivesareavailablein
ratingsofuptotheorderof5or6MW, economic
considerationstypicallyfavormediumvoltage(MV)
driveswithmuchlowerpowerratings.
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Availablepowerratings
DifferentMVdrivetopologiesareconfiguredin
accordancewiththevoltage/currentcombination
ratingsusedindifferentdrivecontrollers'switching
devices suchthatanygivenvoltageratingisgreater
thanorequaltoonetothefollowingstandardnominal
motorvoltageratings:
generallyeither
2.3/4.16 kV(60 Hz)or
3.3/6.6 kV(50 Hz),
withonethyristormanufacturerratedforupto12 kV
switching.
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Availablepowerratings
Insomeapplicationsastepup transformer isplacedbetweenaLV
driveandaMVmotorload.
MVdrivesaretypicallyratedformotorapplicationsgreaterthan
betweenabout375 kW(500 hp)and750 kW(1000 hp).
MVdriveshavehistoricallyrequiredconsiderablymoreapplication
designeffortthanrequiredforLVdriveapplications.
ThepowerratingofMVdrivescanreach100 MW,arangeof
differentdrivetopologiesbeinginvolvedfordifferentrating,
performance,powerqualityandreliabilityrequirements.
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TypicalDriveVoltageandHPRatings
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Drivesbymachines&detailed
topologies
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FluxVectorControlSchemeBlock
Diagram
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
Powermoduleconsistsof:
a. Thyristorsasswitchingdevice
b. Heatsinkstodissipateheatgeneratedindevice
c. Snubberresistorandcapacitortoprotectdevice
againstovervoltages
d. Sharingresistorsforequalisingthevoltage
acrossseriesconnectedthyristors.
e. Pulsetransformertosupplygatepulsesto
thyristorandtoprovideisolationbetween
controlandpowercircuit.
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
Construction:
1.2kVmodule
Twothyristorsareusedinseries.
Snubberprovidesprotectiontothyristoragainst
overvoltages.
ReactorlimitsrateofriseofOnstatecurrent
HPTFmodulegivesfiringpulsestothyristorsand
alsoindicateshealthinessofthyristors.
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
Three-terminal thyristor:
p1
n1
p2
n2
cathode
-
anode
+
J1
J2
J3
Ig
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
Three-terminal thyristor:
0-1: Forward blocking / OFF state
J1,J3: forward, J2: reversed biased
2-3: Forward conduction / ON state
J1, J2, J3: Forward biased
0-4: Reversed biased
J1,J3: reverse, J2: forward biased
4-5: Breakdown
ON
switching (dV/dI=0)
OFF
n1
p2
n2
cathode
-
anode
+
J1
J2
J3
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
Thyristorstack:1.2kV
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
Construction:
2.3kVmodule
Threethyristorsareusedinseries.
Snubberprovidesprotectiontothyristoragainst
overvoltages.
HPTKmodulegivesfiringpulsesandindicates
healthinessofthyristors.
NTDAmoduleindicateshealthinessofthyristors
XPTNmodulegivesattenuatedvoltagefor
control
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULE2.3kV
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
THYRISTORSTACK2.3kV
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
Snubber:2.3kV
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
HPTKmodule
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
XPTNModule
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
SynchronousFieldExcitermodule
Features:
Sixthyristorsinaccontrollerconfiguration.
Snubberprovidesprotectiontothyristoragainst
overvoltages.
NHVLmodulegivesfiringpulsestothyristors
andalsoindicatesthyristorhealthiness
Voltageattenuatorandcurrentfeedback
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
FieldExciterModule
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POWERMODULESFORVFD
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ACInductionMotors
MotorEfficiencyandAssessment
MotorControllers
VariableFrequencyDrives
Harmonics
ApplicationConsiderations
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Applicationconsiderations
Itisverycommonpracticeforpowercompanies
ortheircustomerstoimposeharmonicdistortion
limitsbasedOn IEC or IEEE standards.
Forexample,IEEEStandard519limitsatthe
customer'sconnectionpointcallforthe
maximumindividualfrequencyvoltageharmonic
tobenomorethan3%ofthefundamentaland
callforthevoltage totalharmonic
distortion (THD)tobenomorethan5%fora
generalACpowersupplysystem.
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Harmonic
Steadystatedistortionofthewaveform
Periodicandcontinuousinnature.
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HarmonicSourcesnonlinearloads
Singlephaseloads:fluorescentlights,personalcomputers
Threephaseloads:arcfurnaces,ac/dcconverters
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BasicHarmonicPrinciples
Harmonicsarepersistentdistortionsinawave
shape.
Theyrepresentintegersmultiplesofthe
fundamentalfrequencies.
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HarmonicSpectrumAnalysis
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Allperiodicsignalsoffrequencyf"canberepresentedintheform
ofacompositesum:
1. ofasinusoidaltermatfrequencyf":theFUNDAMENTAL(H1).
2. ofsinusoidaltermsofwhichfrequenciesareintegermultiplesof
fundamentalH1:theHARMONICS(Hn).
3. ofapossiblecontinuouscomponent(DCcomponent)
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Harmonics:OrderandSpectrum
Order:
Theorderoftheharmonicisthe
valueoftheintegerwhich
determinesitsfrequency.
Example:harmonicoforder5,
frequency=250Hz
(whenfundamentalf is50Hz)
Spectrum:
Thespectrumofasignalisthe
graphrepresentingamplitudesof
theharmonicsasafunctionof
theirfrequency.
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Tosummarize:theharmonicsarenothinglessthanthecomponentsof
adistortedwaveformandtheiruseallowsustoanalyzeanyperiodic
nonsinusoidalwaveformthroughdifferentsinusoidalwaveform
components.
Figurebelowshowsagraphicalrepresentationofthisconcept.
Non-sinusoidal waveform
Third harmonic
Fifth harmonic
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U1
U2
U3
fundamental
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
third harmonic
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37
total
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EXAMPLE OF HARMONICS
harmonics analyzis
25
20
15
Ampers
10
Basic harmonic
3th harmonic
7th harmonic
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
5th harmonic
9th harmonic
11th harmonic
total curent
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fundamental + harmonics
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5 1
-10
-15
-20
-25
22 43 64 85 106 127 148 169 190 211 232 253 274 295 316 337 358
fundamental
all harmonics
total current
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SourcesofHarmonics
Therearemanysourcesofpowersystemharmonics.Someexamplesofharmonicproducing
devicesare:
Transformers:
Thirdharmoniccurrentsarepresentinthemagnetizingcurrent(asmallportionofthe
transformerfullloadcurrent).Ifthetransformersaturates(duetoovervoltage),the
harmonicdistortionlevelofthecurrentincreasessubstantially.
FluorescentLamps:
Thesedevicesproduceapredominantlythirdorderharmoniccurrentontheorderof20%
to30%ofthefundamentalcurrent.Electronicballastshaveslightlydifferentcharacteristics
butexhibitsimilarlevelsofharmonics.
PulseWidthModulatedConverters:
Thesedevicesuseanexternalcontrollerforswitchingtheinputtransistorsallowingthe
currentwaveformtobeshapedmoredesirably.However,theseconvertersarelimitedin
powerandtypicallyusedinapplicationslessthanafewhundredkilowatts.
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SwitchedModePowerSupplies:
Typicallyfoundinsinglephaseelectronicdevicessuchascomputersandotherbusiness
andconsumerelectronics,thesedevicesuseaswitchingregulatortopreciselycontrolthe
DCvoltage.
Theinputofthesepowersuppliesnormallyconsistsofafullwavebridgerectifieranda
DCfiltercapacitorwhichproducesanalternatingpulsecurrentwaveformrichinthird
harmonic.
Thoughtheyarenotusedinlargepowerapplications,thecumulativeeffectsofmany
devicesmaycreateconcerns,particularlyfor400/230VoltYsystems.
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Waveshapeofcurrentabsorbedbysomenonlinearloads.
Lightdimmerorheatingregulator
H3H5H7H9H11H13H15H17H19
54181811118866
Switchmodepowersupplyrectifier
H3H5H7H9H11H13H15H17H19
754515763332
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Threephaserectifierwithfrontendcapacitor
H3H5H7H9H11H13H15H17H19
08075040350105
ThreephaserectifierwithDCfilteringreactor
H3H5H7H9H11H13H15H17H19
0257094053
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Harmoniccurrentsinthreephasesystems
Neutral conductor
Harmonicsgetmorecomplicatedinthreephaseapplications.
Herenotonlydowehavetodealwithphaseconductors,butalsotheneutralconductor,
triplen(oddmultiplesof3i.e.3rd,9th,15th etc,)harmonics,andsequenceharmonics.
Thetriplenharmonicsarethemajorcauseofheatbecausetheyaddtogetherinthe
neutralconductor.
Themagnitudeoftheharmoniccurrentproducedbythetriplenscanapproachtwicethe
phasecurrent.
Thiscausestheneutralconductortooverheatbecauseneutralconductorswere
historicallydesignedwiththesameampacityasthephaseconductors.
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Forexample,a3rd harmonicof75%,thecurrentflowingintheneutral
is2.25timesthefundamental.ThecurrentineachphaseisonlySQR
(1+0.752 )=1.25timesthefundamental.
neutral current
150
100
50
0
-50
9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37
-100
-150
Ia
Ib
Ic
Ia 3rd
Ib 3rd
Ic 3rd
neutral current
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Induction motor
Asituationthatproducesabnormalamountsofheatinmotorsisthecombinationof
positiveandnegativesequencedharmonics.
Thepositivesequencedharmonicsarethefundamental,7th,13th,19th,etc.Theytend
toapplyanadditionalforwardforceinthedirectionofthemotorrotation.
Thenegativesequencedharmonicsarethe5th,11th,17th,etc. Theypresentaforcethat
opposesthemotorrotationandtriestomakethemotorrotateintheopposite
direction.
Theforceoftheseharmonicsactinguponeachothercreatesheatwhichleadsto
prematurefailure.
Harmonicvoltagedistortioncausesincreasededdycurrentlossesinthemotors,inthe
samewayasseenfortransformers.
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HarmonicCurrentsaddintheNeutral
The120 phase
shiftbetween
linearload
currentswill
resultintheir
balanced
portions
instantaneously
cancelinginthe
neutral.
Withlinearloads,theneutralcanbethesamesizeasthephase
conductorsbecausetheneutralcurrentcannotbelargerthan
thelargestphasecurrent,evenwhentheloadiscompletely
unbalanced.
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Whentheloadisnon
linearhowever,the
currentpulseonone
phasewillnothavea
pulseoneitherofthe
otherphasesforwhichto
cancel.Thepulsesare
additivewhichoften
leadstoheaviercurrent
ontheneutralconductor
thanonanyphase
conductor.Thefrequency
ofthisneutralcurrentis
primarily150Hz(3rd
harmonic).
Withnonlinearloads,theneutralcurrent
generallyexceedsthelargestphase
current,evenwhentheloadsarein
perfectRMScurrentbalance.
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HarmfulEffectsonReceivers
Cables:
Overheatingofcables
Additionallossesduetoskineffect
Increaseindielectriclossesofinsulation
Inductionmotors:
Increaseincore(stator)andJoulelosses
Pulsatingtorquescausingefficiencyreduction,
abnormalvibration,rotoroverheating
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GeneralSolutions
Limitinjectedharmoniccurrents:
Installlimitationinductioncoilsforspeeddrives
Installspecificrectifierscalledactivefrontend
Installantiharmonicsinductioncoils
Installfilterstotrapharmonics:
Passivefilters
Activefilters
Hybridfilters
Oversizeequipment
Passiveharmonicfilters
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Passiveortrapfiltersemploypassiveelements(capacitors
andinductors)totraporabsorbharmonics.
Passivefiltersaregenerallyconfiguredtoremoveonlyoneor
twospecificharmonics.
Passivefiltersaregenerallyregardedasunsuitablefor
filtering3rd harmonics.
Forthisreason,theyarebestsuitedforapplicationsinwhich
3rd harmonicsarenotanissue,powerfactorcorrectionis
required,andspecificharmonicssuchas5th or7th are
creatingtheproblem.
Passivefiltersareidealforsystemsthathaveahigh
percentageof6pulsedrivesandotherlinearloads.
However,thefiltersmayneedtoberetunedforchangesin
thepowersystem.
Filterscanbedesignedforseveralnonlinearloadsorforan
individualload,
Non
linear
load
Harmonic
trap filter
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Principleofcompensationofharmoniccomponentsbyshunttype
activeharmonicconditioner
Thedeviceshouldbeabletoinject
atanytimeacurrentwhereeach
harmoniccurrenthasthesame
amplitudeasthatofthecurrentin
theloadandisinoppositionof
phases,thenKirchoffslawatpoint
Aguaranteesthatthecurrent
suppliedbythesourceispurely
sinusoidal
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IsolationTransformers:
Anisolationtransformerprovidesseveraladvantages.
Firstandforemost,itprovidesimpedancetothedrive,which
reducescurrentdistortion.
Itobviouslyresolvesvoltagemismatchbetweenthesupplyand
theload.
Ifthesecondaryisgrounded,itisolatesgroundfaultsandreduces
commonmodenoise.
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HarmonicsResonance
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SourcesofHarmonics
Saturabledevicestransformersandnonlinear
reactors
Arcingdevicesarcfurnaces,welders,and
florescentlighting
Powerelectronicequipmentadjustablespeed
motordrives,dcmotordrivesandelectronic
powersupplies
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DCMotorDriveCurrent
ODD 35.4%
THD 35.9%
EVEN 5.9%
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Currentvs.VoltageHarmonics
Harmoniccurrentsflowingthroughthesystem
impedanceresultsinharmonicvoltagesatthe
load.
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IEEE519
Harmonicsgeneratedbynonlineardevice
characteristics
Mostdeviceslooklikesourcesofharmonic
currents
Voltagedistortioncausedbysystemresponse
characteristics
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IEEE519LimitsHarmonicLevels
Thecustomerisresponsibleforlimiting
harmoniccurrentsinjectedontothepower
system.
Theutilityisresponsibleformaintaining
qualityofvoltagewaveform.
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HarmonicVoltageLimits
UtilityResponsibility
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HarmonicCurrentLimits
Customerresponsibility
Valuesshownareinpercentofaveragemaximumloadcurrent.SCR=shortcircuit
ratio(utilityshortcircuitcurrentatpointofcommoncouplingdividedbycustomers
averagemaximumdemandloadcurrent.
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MitigationTechniques
Phasemultiplication
LineReactor
PhaseshiftingTransformers
KFactorTransformers
DeRatingTransformers
Filters
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Dowehaveaharmonicproblem?
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Changedthedrivetoa12pulse.
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12pulsewith5%ACreactor.
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AddPFCorrection
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Capnotuning
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AddPFCorrection
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Captunedto3rd harmonic
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HarmonicAnalysis
Buildamodelofthesystemofinterest
Determineharmonicsourcecharacteristics
Runsimulation
Examineresults
DesignSolutions
CheckSolutions
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Ingeneralitisbesttoapplythefilterator
belowthelowestharmonicofconcern
Thefilterschematicisshownbelow.
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HarmonicSummary
Harmonicsarepersistentdistortionsina
waveshape.
Powerelectronicsaretheprimesourceof
harmonics.
Powerfactorcapacitorsaggravateharmonic
issues.
Modelingandsimulationscanevaluation
varioussolutionalternatives.
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ACInductionMotors
MotorEfficiencyandAssessment
MotorControllers
VariableFrequencyDrives
Harmonics
ApplicationConsiderations
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Applicationconsiderations
AClineharmonics
While harmonics inthePWMoutputcaneasilybefilteredbycarrier
frequencyrelatedfilterinductancetosupplynearsinusoidal
currentstothemotorload,
theVFD'sdiodebridgerectifierconvertsAClinevoltagetoDC
voltageoutputbysuperimposing nonlinear halfphasecurrent
pulsesthuscreatingharmoniccurrentdistortion,andhencevoltage
distortion,oftheAClineinput.
WhentheVFDloadsarerelativelysmallincomparisontothelarge,
stiffpowersystemavailablefromthe electricpowercompany,the
effectsofVFDharmonicdistortionofthe ACgrid canoftenbe
withinacceptablelimits.
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Applicationconsiderations
AClineharmonics
Furthermore,inlowvoltagenetworks,harmonicscaused
bysinglephaseequipmentsuchascomputersandTVsare
partiallycancelledbythreephasediodebridgeharmonics
becausetheir5thand7thharmonicsareincounterphase.
However,whentheproportionofVFDandothernonlinear
loadcomparedtototalloadorofnonlinearloadcompared
tothestiffnessattheACpowersupply,orboth,isrelatively
largeenough,theloadcanhaveanegativeimpactonthe
ACpowerwaveformavailabletootherpowercompany
customersinthesamegrid.
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Applicationconsiderations
Twootherharmonicsmitigationtechniques
exploituseofpassiveoractivefiltersconnected
toacommonbuswithatleastoneVFDbranch
loadonthebus.
Passivefiltersinvolvethedesignofoneor
more lowpass LCfiltertraps,eachtrapbeing
tunedasrequiredtoaharmonicfrequency(5th,
7th,11th,13th,...kq+/1,wherek=integer,
q=pulsenumberofconverter).
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Applicationconsiderations
Whenthepowercompany'svoltagebecomes
distortedduetoharmonics,lossesinotherloads
suchasnormalfixedspeedACmotorsare
increased.Thismayleadtooverheatingand
shorteroperatinglife.
Also substation transformersandcompensation
capacitorsareaffectednegatively.Inparticular,
capacitorscancauseresonanceconditionsthat
canunacceptablymagnifyharmoniclevels.
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Applicationconsiderations
Inordertolimitthevoltagedistortion,ownersofVFDload
mayberequiredtoinstallfilteringequipmenttoreduce
harmonicdistortionbelowacceptablelimits.
Alternatively,theutilitymayadoptasolutionbyinstalling
filteringequipmentofitsownatsubstationsaffectedby
thelargeamountofVFDequipmentbeingused.
Inhighpowerinstallationsharmonicdistortioncanbe
reducedbysupplyingmultipulserectifierbridgeVFDsfrom
transformerswithmultiplephaseshiftedwindings.
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Applicationconsiderations
Itisalsopossibletoreplacethestandarddiodebridge
rectifierwithabidirectionalIGBTswitchingdevice
bridgemirroringthestandardinverterwhichusesIGBT
switchingdeviceoutputtothemotor.
Suchrectifiersarereferredtobyvariousdesignations
includingactiveinfeedconverter(AIC), activerectifier,
IGBTsupplyunit(ISU),activefrontend(AFE)orfour
quadrantoperation.
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Applicationconsiderations
Itisalsopossibletoreplacethestandarddiode
bridgerectifierwithabidirectionalIGBT
switchingdevicebridgemirroringthestandard
inverterwhichusesIGBTswitchingdeviceoutput
tothemotor.
Suchrectifiersarereferredtobyvarious
designationsincludingactiveinfeedconverter
(AIC), activerectifier,IGBTsupplyunit(ISU),
activefrontend(AFE)orfourquadrant
operation.
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Applicationconsiderations
WithPWMcontrolandsuitableinputreactor,
AFE'sAClinecurrentwaveformcanbenearly
sinusoidal.AFEinherentlyregeneratesenergy
infourquadrantmodefromtheDCsideto
theACgrid.
Thusnobrakingresistorisneededandthe
efficiencyofthedriveisimprovedifthedrive
isfrequentlyrequiredtobrakethemotor.
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Applicationconsiderations
Longleadeffects
Thecarrierfrequencypulsedoutputvoltageofa
PWMVFDcausesrapidrisetimesinthesepulses,
thetransmissionlineeffectsofwhichmustbe
considered.
Sincethetransmissionline impedance ofthe
cableandmotoraredifferent,pulsestendto
reflectbackfromthemotorterminalsintothe
cable.
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Applicationconsiderations
Longleadeffects
Theresultingvoltagescanproduce
overvoltages equaltotwicetheDCbusvoltageor
upto3.1timestheratedlinevoltageforlong
cableruns,puttinghighstressonthecableand
motorwindingsandeventualinsulationfailure.
Notethatstandardsforthreephasemotorsrated
230Vorlessadequatelyprotectagainstsuch
longleadovervoltages.
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Applicationconsiderations
Longleadeffects
On460or575Vsystemsandinverterswith
3rdgeneration0.1microsecondrisetime
IGBTs,themaximumrecommendedcable
distancebetweenVFDandmotorisabout50
mor150feet.
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Applicationconsiderations
Longleadeffects
Solutionstoovervoltagescausedbylonglead
lengthsinclude
minimizingcabledistance,
loweringcarrierfrequency,
installingdV/dtfilters,
usinginverterdutyratedmotors(thatarerated600V
towithstandpulsetrainswithrisetimelessthanor
equalto0.1microsecond,of1,600Vpeak
magnitude),and
installingLCRlowpasssinewavefilters.
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Applicationconsiderations
Longleadeffects
Regardingloweringofcarrierfrequency,note
thataudiblenoiseisnoticeablyincreasedfor
carrierfrequencieslessthanabout6 kHzand
ismostnoticeableatabout3 kHz.
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Applicationconsiderations
Longleadeffects
NotealsothatselectionofoptimumPWMcarrier
frequencyforACdrivesinvolvesbalancing
noise,
heat,
motorinsulationstress,
commonmodevoltageinducedmotorbearingcurrent
damage,
smoothmotoroperation,andotherfactors.
Furtherharmonicsattenuationcanbeobtainedbyusingan
LCRlowpasssinewavefilterordV/dtfilter.
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BearingCurrents
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Applicationconsiderations
Motorbearingcurrents
PWMdrivesareinherentlyassociatedwithhigh
frequencycommonmodevoltagesandcurrentswhich
maycausetroublewithmotorbearings.
Whenthesehighfrequencyvoltagesfindapathto
earththroughabearing,transferofmetalor electrical
dischargemachining (EDM)sparkingoccursbetween
thebearing'sballandthebearing'srace.
OvertimeEDMbasedsparkingcauseserosioninthe
bearingracethatcanbeseenasaflutingpattern.
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BearingCurrents
BecausethevoltageoutputoftheVFDisa
resultofhighspeedswitching,thewaveform
morecloselyresemblesasquarewaveinstead
ofasinewave.
Asaconsequence,animbalanceispresent
betweenthethreephasesthatareentering
themotorleads,referredtoascommonmode
voltage,
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BearingCurrents
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BearingCurrents
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BearingCurrents
AssoonasthemotorisstartedwithaVFD,the
commonmodevoltageimbalancesearchesforapath
toground,andaparasiticcouplingoftherotorand
statorwindingsdevelops.
Oncetheoilfilminthedielectricbreaksdown,voltage
levelsincreaseonthemotorshaft,andthelowest
impedancepathforthecurrentimbalancebecomes
themotorbearingsthemselves.
Voltagebeginstoarcacrossthebearingathigh
frequencies,leadingtoelectricaldischargemachining
(EDM).
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Applicationconsiderations
Motorbearingcurrents
Inlargemotors,the straycapacitance ofthe
windingsprovidespathsforhighfrequency
currentsthatpassthroughthemotorshaftends,
leadingtoacirculatingtypeofbearingcurrent.
Poor grounding ofmotorstatorscanleadtoshaft
groundbearingcurrents.Smallmotorswith
poorlygroundeddrivenequipmentare
susceptibletohighfrequencybearingcurrents.
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Applicationconsiderations
Motorbearingcurrents
Preventionofhighfrequencybearingcurrent
damageusesthreeapproaches:
goodcablingandgroundingpractices,
interruptionofbearingcurrents,and
filteringordampingofcommonmodecurrents.
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Applicationconsiderations
Motorbearingcurrents
Goodcablingandgroundingpracticescanincludeuseofshielded,
symmetricalgeometrypowercabletosupplythemotor,
installationofshaftgroundingbrushes,andconductivebearing
grease.
Bearingcurrentscanbeinterruptedby:
installationofinsulatedbearings
andspeciallydesignedelectrostaticshieldedinductionmotors.
Filteringanddampinghighfrequencybearing,or,insteadofusing
standard2levelinverterdrives,usingeither3levelinverterdrives
ormatrixconverters.
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Applicationconsiderations
Motorbearingcurrents
Sinceinverterfedmotorcables'high
frequencycurrentspikescaninterferewith
othercablinginfacilities,suchinverterfed
motorcablesshouldnotonlybeofshielded,
symmetricalgeometrydesignbutshouldalso
beroutedatleast50 cmawayfromsignal
cables.
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Applicationconsiderations
Motorframesize Motorbearingcurrentshavea
directrelationshiptomotorsize.
Specifically,motorsabove450hphavebeenfoundto
bethegreatestcandidatesforbearingcurrents,dueto
thehigherlikelihoodofmagneticasymmetryinthe
constructionofthemotorwindings.
Whilelargemotorswillexperiencesomeamountof
bearingcurrents,motorspoweredfromVFDsintroduce
additionalmagneticasymmetryfromcommonmode
voltage.
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Applicationconsiderations
Roughhandling
Motorsareatanincreasedriskofshaftvoltageiftheywere
handledroughlyduringshipment.
Oftentimes,damagecanoccurinthefactory,intransit,or
whenthemotorisbeingliftedontoitspedestal.
Minormotordamageduringshipmentmaynotcause
noticeableproblemswithmotorperformance;however,it
increasesthelikelihoodofmagneticasymmetryleadingto
bearingcurrentdevelopment.
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MeasuringforBearingCurrents
Aftertheambientnoisemeasurementhas
beencompleted,thecarbonbrushisplaced
directlytothespinningmotorshaft.
Severalmeasurementsshouldberecorded,
witheffortstoensuretheentirewaveformcan
beviewedontheoscilloscope.
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MeasuringforBearingCurrents
Carefulobservationofthewaveformshould
revealifasharpspikeinvoltageispresent,which
wouldbeindicativeofashaftvoltagedischarge.
Voltageinexcessof0.5mV(peaktopeak)is
oftentimescauseforfurtherinvestigation.
However,inVFDs,thenominalvaluewillalmost
alwaysbeinexcessof0.5mV.Theexamples
discussedbelowindicatevariousexamplesof
shaftvoltagetests.
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MotorA
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MeasuringforBearingCurrents
Theoscilloscopescreenshotshownin presents
clearevidenceofshaftvoltage,withapeakto
peakvalueof74.3V.
ThisiswellabovetheIEEE112allowablevalueof
0.5mV,aswellasthemanufacturersallowable
voltageof1Vto2VforVFDs.
Apeakvoltageof74.3Vimposedupontheshaft
likelymeansthatthebearingwillnotsurvive
muchlongerunlessremedied.
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CompareSimilarMotors
Whentestingamotor,itisoftenusefultotest
theBmotortocomparevalues.
Thescreenshotshownin istheBmotorof
theacrossthelinemotorthatwasdropped
duringshipment.
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MotorB
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CompareSimilarMotors
Clearly,thereisnoevidenceofshaftvoltage
ordamagetothebearinginthiswaveform.
Oftentimes,comparingtwosimilarmotorscan
helppinpointiftheproblemliesinthemotor
itself,withtransientvoltagepowersupplies,
orinafaultygroundingsystem.
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Applicationconsiderations
Dynamicbraking
Torquegeneratedbythedrivecausesthe
inductionmotortorunat synchronous speedless
theslip.
Ifloadinertiaenergyisgreaterthantheenergy
deliveredtothemotorshaft,motorspeed
decreasesasnegativetorqueisdevelopedinthe
motorandthemotoractsasa generator,
convertingoutputshaftmechanicalpowerback
toelectricalenergy.
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Applicationconsiderations
Dynamicbraking
Thispowerisreturnedtothedrive'sDClink
element(capacitororreactor).
ADClinkconnectedelectronicpowerswitch
or brakingDCchopper (eitherbuiltinor
externaltothedrive)transfersthisenergyto
externalresistorstodissipatetheenergyas
heat.
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Applicationconsiderations
Dynamicbraking
Coolingfansmaybeusedtopreventresistor
overheating.
Dynamicbrakingwastesbrakingenergyby
transformingittoheat.Bycontrast,regenerativedrives
recoverbrakingenergybyinjectingthisenergyonthe
ACline.
Thecapitalcostofregenerativedrivesishowever
relativelyhigh.
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Applicationconsiderations
Dynamicbraking
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Applicationconsiderations
Regenerativedrives
RegenerativeACdriveshavethecapacitytorecover
thebrakingenergyofaloadmovingfasterthanthe
designatedmotorspeed(an overhauling load)and
returnittothepowersystem.
CurrentSource(Cycloconverter,Scherbius,matrix,CSI
andLCI)drivesinherentlyallowreturnofenergyfrom
theloadtotheline
whilevoltagesourceinvertersrequireanadditional
convertertoreturnenergytothesupply.
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Applicationconsiderations
Regenerativedrives
RegenerationisonlyusefulinVFDswherethe
valueoftherecoveredenergyislarge
comparedtotheextracostofaregenerative
system, andifthesystemrequiresfrequent
brakingandstarting.
RegenerativeVFDsarewidelyusedwhere
speedcontrolofoverhaulingloadsisrequired.
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Applicationconsiderations
Regenerativedrives
Someexamples:
Conveyorbeltdrivesformanufacturing,which
stopeveryfewminutes.Whilestopped,parts
areassembledcorrectly;oncethatisdone,
thebeltmoveson.
Acrane,wherethehoistmotorstopsand
reversesfrequently,andbrakingisrequiredto
slowtheloadduringlowering.
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Contact:
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