Name :
Ahmer Adnan Baloch
Colour Perception
We see colour with the sensors in the retina of the eye called rods and
cones. The rods are sensitive to low light and the cones, which require a greater
intensity of light, are sensitive to colour. The message is passed to the optic nerve
and then on to the brain.
There are about 12million rods and about 6 to 7 million cones, in the human eye.
Rods are more sensitive than the cones but they are not sensitive to
colour, they perceive images as black, white and different shades of grey. More
than one thousand times as sensitive, the rods respond better to blue but very
little to red light.
Each cone contains one of three pigments sensitive to either RED GREEN
or BLUE.
People who suffer colour blindness have less numbers of particular cones
than normal, so they get colours confused.
If we lose our eye sight, the body adapts and receives colour rays through
the skin. It takes time for the body to adapt, but it has been shown that people
who are blind, can differentiate between different colours.
The eye picks up colour and light by the Rods and Cones. It is the Cones
that detect Colour. Each cone contains one of three pigments sensitive to either
RED GREEN or BLUE.
Dye
A dye can generally be described as a colored substance that has an
affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied. The dye is generally applied in
an aqueous solution, and may require a mordant to improve the fastness of the
dye on the fiber.
Auxochrome
This is a group of atoms attached to a chromophorewhich modifies the ability of
that chromophore to absorb light. Example-OH , - NH2, Aldehydes.
It increases the color of any organic compound. For example, benzene does not
display color as it does not have any chromophore but nitrobenzene is pale yellow
color because of the presence of nitro group. Para-hydroxynitrobenzene exhibits
a deep yellow color. Here an auxochrome (-OH) is conjugated with the
chromophore -NO2. Similar behavior is happens in azo benzene (red color) but
para-hydroxy azobenzene is dark red color.
In the former, the energy levels that the electrons jump between are extended pi
orbitals created by a series of alternating single and double bonds, often in
aromatic systems. Common examples include retinal (used in the eye to detect
light), various food colorings, fabric dyes (azo compounds), lycopene, -carotene,
and anthocyanins.
The metal complex chromophores arise from the splitting of d-orbitals by binding
of a transition metal to ligands. Examples of such chromophores can be seen in
chlorophyll (used by plants for photosynthesis), hemoglobin, hemocyanin, and
colorful minerals such as malachite and amethyst.
Color abstractions
The foundations of pre-20th-century color theory were built around pure or ideal
colors, characterized by sensory experiences rather than attributes of the physical
world. This has led to a number of inaccuracies in traditional color theory
principles that are not always remedied in modern formulations.[citation needed]
The most important problem has been a confusion between the behavior of light
mixtures, called additive color, and the behavior of paint or ink or dye or pigment
mixtures, called subtractive color. This problem arises because the absorption of
light by material substances follows different rules from the perception of light by
the eye.
A second problem has been the failure to describe the very important effects of
strong luminance (lightness) contrasts in the appearance of surface colors (such
as paints or inks) as opposed to light colors; colorssuch as grays, browns or
ochres cannot appear in light mixtures. Thus, a strong lightness contrast between
a mid valued yellow paint and a surrounding bright white makes the yellow appear
to be green or brown, while a strong brightness contrast between a rainbow and
the surrounding sky makes the yellow in a rainbow appear to be a fainter yellow or
white.
A third problem has been the tendency to describe color effects holistically or
categorically, for example as a contrast between yellowand blueconceived as
generic colors, when most color effects are due to contrasts on three relative
attributes that define all colors:
Thus, the visual impact of yellowvs. bluehues in visual design depends on the
relative lightness and intensity of the hues.
These confusions are partly historical, and arose in scientific uncertainty about
color perception that was not resolved until the late 19th century, when the artistic
notions were already entrenched. However they also arise from the attempt to
describe the highly contextual and flexible behavior of color perception in terms
of abstract color sensations that can be generated equivalently by any visual
media.
Many historical color theorists have assumed that three pure primary colors can
mix all possible colors, and that any failure of specific paints or inks to match this
ideal performance is due to the impurity or imperfection of the colorants. In
reality, only imaginary primary colors used in colorimetry can mixor quantify all
visible (perceptually possible) colors; but to do this the colors are defined as lying
outside the range of visible colorsthey cannot be seen. Any three real primary
colors of light, paint or ink can mix only a limited range of colors, called a gamut,
which is always smaller (contains fewer colors) than the full range of colors
humans can perceive.
Dyes In Solution
At some stage in all dyeing processes the color chemicals for sorption by
the goods must be in the finest state of subdivision possible, which is
monomolecular, i.e., single molecules or molecular ions which can be negatively
or positively charged (anions or cations
respectively). The molecular ions are almost always dissolved in water, but for an
exception, refer to the upcoming sections on disperse dyes and their application
by continuous dyeing methods:
Aggregation
In the case of dyes for cellulose, the finest state of subdivision has the color
bearing chemicals in the form of anions, written Dye', each with its accompanying
number (n) of sodium cations, n Na*, foroverall electrical neutrality; i.e., equal
numbers of positive and negative charges. Here n represents the number of
negative charges perdye anion and is usually between two and four. When dye
solutions are dilute and the concentrations of salts (electrolytes) are low these
anions are the principle form of the dye. However; as the con-centrations of
dissolved dye and electrolyte are increased, the an-ions become attracted to one
another by weak forces, known as vander Waals forces, forming aggregates or
larger clusters. ln extreme cases these may grow large enough to become
insoluble and then the aggregate is actually precipitated out of the water. Dye
manufacturers rely on this phenomenon to salt out water soluble soliddye from its
concentrated solutions by the addition of salt.Although it is the single dye-anion
which does the dyeing, this anion is often accompanied in solution by a reservoir
of soluble dye-ion to dye-ion aggregates. These are in a state of dynamic equilib-
rium with the single dye-anion and will break down again if dye bath conditions
become right. This situation can be written:
The arrows indicate a process capable of going both ways, and sub-script m on
the left hand side of the equation is the number of dyeions in the aggregate, the
value of which is unknown in most cases.Aggregation is reduced as the
temperature increases, while thesolubility of most dyes increases.
Chemical Potential
The concept of chemical potential is introduced to help explainthe transfer of
direct dyes or other anionic chemicals from thedyebath to the fiber, particularly in
the presence of an excess of oppositely charged ions such as the sodium cation,
Na*, which is introduced by the addition of simple sodium salts. Chemical
potential is analogous to electrical potential or temperature. In all three cases,
when there are two masses at different po-tentials (or temperatures) and they are
brought into contact, someof the potential will be transferred from the mass at the
higher potential to that at the lower potential. If the potential of dye dissolvedin a
dyebath in contact with the fiber is higher than that of the dyein the fiber; then
dyeing or sorption will take place. If the reverse istrue, stripping or desorption of
dye will take place. When dye in the dyebath and dye in the fiber are at the same
chemical potential,there will be no net transfer of dye, even though the system will
bein dynamic equilibrium, with dye ions constantly entering and leaving the fiber
at the same rate.
For a given dye solution in water let the concentration of dye-anions and sodium
cations be written [Dye]s and [Na*]s, where thesquare brackets denote
concentration and subscript s indicates ionsin solution. Physical chemists
express these concentrations in terms of gram molecules or gram ions per liter-
but that does not changethe argument, only specifies the units in a more scientific
wayIn hot dilute dyebaths, where aggregation is of least concem, the chemical
potential of the solution is related to the product:
As tl1is product increases, so does the chemical potential of the solution. Notice
that the concentration of the sodium ion is raised tothe power n making it
relatively more important the higher the value of n. Increasing the sodium ion
concentration by adding sodium salts to this dye solution will also increase the
product and therefore the chemical potential of the solution.In an anionic dyeing
situation, as with all cellulose dyeing, rais-ing the chemical potential of the
dyebath by adding salt will havethe effect of driving the dye from the higher
potential and into thefiber where the chemical potential will also increase until it
reaches.
Solubility Product
In saturated dye solutions-i.e., in pure dye solutions in which nomore dye will
dissolve the product is called the solubility product:
Adding more sodium ions by add-ing salt to such solutions would cause the
product to increase andto exceed the solubility product. To overcome this
tendency somesolid dye will be precipitated out (salted out) of solution thereby
reducing the concentration of dye-ion in solution and readjusting the product. If
the salt concentration is high enough, only a small amount of dye anion can be
present in the solution without it being salted out.It should now be apparent that
the addition of simple sodiumsalts to solutions of the sodium salts of color
bearing anions willlower the attraction of the anion for the waten and the anion
will tryto leave the water for any available, alternative location-for ex-ample the
fiber.
charged ions such as the dye anion, just as the north pole of a mag-net will resist
the approach of the north pole of another magnet.Negative potential at fiber
surfaces will be attractive to oppositely charged ions or cations, which is why so
many fiber surfaces can be stained by basic (cationic) dyes.The negative potential
of the fiber is masked (or swamped) bythe presence in the dyebath of high
concentrations of such electro-lytes as salt, with its many sodium and chloride
ions; and the elec-trolyte simultaneously raises the chemical potential of the dye
insolution. As a result, the effectiveness of the potential barrier to re-sist dye
moving to the fiber surface is doubly diminished by thepresence of simple,
soluble salts. The situation is further improvedby stirring the dyebath to provide a
good flow of solution across thefiber surfaces. This can be seen as eroding the
boundary layer inwhich the negative potential is effective.
It has been suggested that for substantivity direct dye anion sshould be long and
linear; but some substantive dyes are neither.Most direct and vat dye anions are
essentially planar and ratherlarge. Hydrogen bonding has been suggested as the
source of the attraction, but there is evidence that cellulose is so strongly hydro-
gen bonded to water that preferential hydrogen bonding to the amino, hydroxy or
other groups present within direct dyes seems quite improbable.
What dyers need to be aware of is that when the dye has reached the surface of
the fiber it has not finished its journey The dyeing process is not over until dye
has diffused from the surface and to-wards the center of the fiber to give a more
uniform distribution within the fiber. This situation can be summarized by means
of a figure, which strictly speaking relates only to dyes of highSubstantivity
applied at a relatively low percentage on the weightof the goods (%owg). Fig. 1.3
shows the concentration of dye at dif-ferent locations within the fiber. An early
stage of dyeing is indi-cated in Fig 1.3., curve a, which shows a high
concentration of dyeat the fiber-dyebath boundary [Dye]!, where the squared
brackets indicate concentration and subscript f means in the fiber. There is a
small tailing out of dye toward the center of the fiber some distance away As the
dyeing process continues, curve b, the progression of dye into the fiber
continues, the larger concentration of dye at thesurface diminishes and in the
final stages of dyeing, Fig. 1.3, curvec, the distribution of dye throughout the fiber
is essentially uniform.The relative velocity of surface sorption of dye and its
subsequent diffusion into the fiber will determine the actual shapes of the ra-dial
concentration profiles for the dye.
The rate of this diffusion process within the fiber might be quite slow and will vary
widely from dye to dye. There is no agitation within the dyebath which can
possibly affect the rate of diffusioninside the fiber which for all practical purposes
behaves as if it werea flexible, solid rod. Dyeing, as far as exhaustion of the
dyebath a flexible, solid rod.
Dyeing, as far as exhaustion of the dyeb at his concerned, may be over long
before the dye is uniformlydistributed throughout the fiber; which is why there is
some confusion between the terms the end of the dyeing and true dyeing
equilibrium.
For those who wish to stop the dyeing as soon as the dyebath isat its maximum
exhaustion, notethere are some material draw backs to having the dye on the
outer surfaces of the fiber as opposed touniformly throughout the fiber. The first
one relates to the fastness properties of the resulting dyeing. If the dye is on or
near the fiber surface then the ease with which it is lost to any subsequent wet or
abrasive processes is much increased. More surprising perhaps; a fiber, with a
fixed amount of color distributed in it, looks darker incolor the more uniformly that
color is distributed. Consequently those content to stop the dyeing when the dye
is merely distributed just within the fiber surface, overlook the possibility of an
increased color yield, which will result as the dye diffuses (albeit slowly) into the
fiber to become more uniform. Another benefit of uniform distribution of dye is
that the lightfastness of the resulting dyeing is greaterThe property of having a
fiber with most of the dye distrib-uted at the outer surfaces is called ring dyeing.
Ring dyeing has thedisadvantages mentioned, but it is quite common, particularly
incontinuous dyeing. Do not confuse this with ring dyed yarns!Bearing in mind
the behavior of dye solutions, the fiber-waterboundary and the nature of the dye-
fiber bond detailed above, twodifferent but complementary pictures of the overall
dyeing processfor anions on cellulose will now be introduced. One represents di-
rect dyeing graphically The other describes an arithmetical modelfor dyeing in
general, which is applicable to cellulose dyeing. Their usefulness derives from
their relative simplicity
The Freundlich isotherms can also reflect the fact that the fibersurface, on
which the dye molecules are initially absorbed, is het-erogeneous. Some of
the locations, which get filled first, are more interactive with dye than those
which are filled later.
As more and more dye is added to a dye bath, more and more dye will
continue to go onto the fiber. There is, of course, a practical limit as to how
much dye may be put on any fiber; and this is dictated by the cost
effectiveness of the change in color obtained by increasing the dye bath
concentration. Above this limit further dye additions merely cause a gradual
loss of brightness andgradual change of hue accompanied by diminished
wetfastness properties.
Note:
Recently several authors 3 have fitted direct dyeing datato Langmuir isotherms
rather than tothe traditional Freundlich isotherm. Neither isotherm is ideal.
Thesimple Langmuir isotlierrn implies a saturation value for dye on thefiber,
which single direct dyes do not appear to have, even though(within a practical
range) isotherms for individual dyes in directdye mixtures do seem to fit well to
Langmuirequations.The em-pirical Frenmdlich isotherm can be shown to be
unsuitable for kinetic modeling of the dyeing process.
In the mid-1800's, Fick introduced two differential equations that quantified the
above statement for the case of transport through thin membranes. Fick's First
Law states that the flux, J, of a component of concentration, C, across a
membrane of unit area, in a predefined plane, is proportional to the concentration
differential across that plane (see note), and is expressed by:
Fick's Second Law states that the rate of change of concentration in a volume
element of a membrane, within the diffusional field, is proportional to the rate of
change of concentration gradient at that point in the field, as given by:
where t = time.