Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 2015, 34, 576-587

http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.2014-0138
2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.

ARTICLE

The Effects of a Goal Setting Intervention

on Aerobic Fitness
in Middle School Students
Samantha M. McDonald
University of South Carolina

Stewart G. Trost
Queensland University of Technology
Purpose: This study evaluated the effects of a goal setting intervention on aerobic
fitness (AF) in 6th to 8th grade students. Method: Students at the intervention
school received a lesson on SMART goal setting. Students in the comparison
school served as a measurement-only group. AF was assessed via the PACER
multistage shuttle run test pre and post intervention. Between-group differences
for change in AF were assessed using a RM ANCOVA. Results: A significant
group by time interaction was observed for PACER performance, F(1,263) =
39.9, p < .0001. Intervention students increased PACER performance from 40.6
to 45.9 laps, while comparison students exhibited a decline from 30.2 to 23.4 laps.
Intervention students were 10 times as likely as those in the comparison school to
maintain Healthy Fitness Zone status or progress from Needs Improvement Zone
to Healthy Fitness Zone. Discussion: Educating middle school students about
SMART goal setting may be an effective strategy for improving aerobic fitness.
Keywords: physical education, adolescents, exercise, cardiorespiratory fitness,
self-management strategies

A substantial body of evidence suggests that low levels of aerobic fitness

among youth are associated with several cardio-metabolic risk factors, including
excess adiposity, reduced insulin sensitivity, and dyslipidemia (Anderssen et al.,
2007; Ekelund et al., 2007; Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010). Findings from a recent
study examining the trends in aerobic fitness among youth in the decade between
the 19992000 cycle of National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES) and the 2012 NHANES National Youth Fitness Survey suggest that
the percentage of youth achieving adequate levels of aerobic fitness has declined
McDonald is with the Department of Exercise Science, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC.
Trost is with the Institute of Health and Medical Innovation, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences,
Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia. Address author correspondence to Samantha
McDonald at mcdona84@email.sc.edu.
576

Goal Setting and Fitness in Youth 577

significantly from 52.4% to 42.2% (Gahche et al., 2014). Given the negative health
outcomes associated with low aerobic fitness and the currently low prevalence of
regular physical activity among youth (Troiano et al., 2008), the development and
implementation of fitness promoting interventions has become a major public health
priority (Institute of Medicine, 2012).
Physical education programs that teach students self-management skills
such as goal setting and self-monitoring may be an effective strategy to promote
regular physical activity and increase aerobic fitness (Lonsdale et al., 2013; Shilts,
Horowitz, & Townsend, 2004). Indeed, the National Association for Sport and
Physical Education (NASPE) recently developed a comprehensive instructional
framework for Fitness Education which specifically encourages the teaching of goal
setting and monitoring for improving health-related fitness (National Association
for Sport and Physical Education, 2012). However, despite this recognition and
physical educations long-standing interest in promoting health-related physical
fitness, the impact of goal setting education on increasing aerobic fitness has not
been previously studied in youth.
Goal setting theory was first developed by Locke (1968) as a motivational
approach to enhance productivity in the workplace. Goal setting theory is based on
the idea that human behavior is volitional and largely directed by goals (Locke &
Latham, 2002). Much of the empirical evidence supporting goal setting theory has
been produced in the industrial/organizational psychology field, and has primarily
focused on task performance (Locke, Shaw, Saari, & Latham, 1981). This evidence
indicates that five essential elements of goal setting are required to elicit the greatest
performance: specificity, task complexity, feedback, commitment and situational
constraints. Providing individuals with a specific goal (e.g., 20% increase in task
productivity) leads to a higher task performance compared with an ambiguous
goal (e.g., do your best). This suggests providing a standard for achievement
may allow an individual to adequately prepare, select and use necessary skills and
resources to accomplish their goal. Challenging goals (i.e., higher degree of task
complexity), which require a greater amount of effort, elicited a higher performance
compared with goals demanding less effort (i.e., easy). Providing an individual
feedback on their progression toward a goal is necessary for goal setting to be
effective. Without feedback, an individual is unable to adjust their strategies or
efforts required to achieve the goal. Goal commitment is most important when the
goal is difficult, as this increases an individuals persistence and effort toward the
completion of the goal. Lastly, individuals typically draw upon their own knowledge
and skills to develop strategies necessary to achieve a goal; however, if new skills
or knowledge are required for a given task, the proper resources must be available
(i.e., situational constraints). One widely implemented goal setting process that
ensures that all five of the aforementioned principles of goal setting are present is
the SMART goal setting method.
The SMART goal setting approach was first introduced in business and management settings in the 1980s and since then, has increased in popularity, particularly
in the rehabilitative sciences (Day & Tosey, 2011; Doran, 1981; Seigert & Taylor,
2004). The SMART acronym stands for specific, measureable, action-oriented, realistic and time. For an individual with a goal to improve fitness, specific means that the
individual must focus on one component of health-related fitness for improvement
(e.g., aerobic fitness vs. muscular endurance) or explicitly target performance on a
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578McDonald and Trost

particular fitness testing protocol (i.e., 20 m shuttle run). To provide feedback on

the progression toward the fitness goal, the goal itself must be measureable (e.g.,
laps completed, estimated VO2max). To ensure commitment to the goal, an individual
must outline the actions that will be necessary to accomplish the goal (e.g., walk
30 min 5 times a week). Setting a realistic goal that takes into consideration the
individuals current level of aerobic fitness ensures that the goal is attainable but
presents a sufficient challenge to provoke significant effort and persistence. Finally,
providing a timeframe for the completion of the goal is necessary for the selection
of appropriate strategies and resources needed to accomplish the goal.
Although SMART goal setting is widely implemented in educational contexts,
to our knowledge, no previous studies have examined the effectiveness of SMART
goal setting on aerobic fitness test performance in school-aged youth. If shown to
be effective, SMART goal setting could be readily integrated into existing physical
education curricula as an evidence-based strategy to improve health-related physical fitness in students. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the
effects of a goal setting and self-monitoring instructional module, delivered as part
of the physical education curriculum, on aerobic fitness in middle school students.
We hypothesized that students receiving instruction on fitness goal setting using
the SMART paradigm, along with self-monitoring via the internet, would exhibit
significant improvements in aerobic fitness than students completing their usual
school physical education curriculum.

Methods
Study Design and Overview
This study employed a nonequivalent-control-group design. A convenience sample
of two middle schools was selected. Students at one school received an intervention
comprising of a lesson on SMART goal setting during regular physical education with self-monitoring via a website. Students at a second school served as a
measurement-only comparison group. This study was conducted over a 10-week
period beginning in February 2012 and ending in May 2012, with assessments of
aerobic fitness completed immediately before and after the intervention. Exercise
training studies involving children and adolescents have shown that aerobic fitness
can be increased significantly in programs as short as eight weeks duration, thus
the 10-week study period was deemed sufficient to observe changes in aerobic
fitness (Mahon, 2009).

Participants and Settings

Participants for this study were 6th, 7th, and 8th grade students recruited from two
schools located in the southeastern United States. Demographic characteristics for
the intervention school were as follows: 87% White, 9% Black, 2% Hispanic, and
2% other, with 43% eligible for participation in the free and reduced lunch program.
Demographic characteristics for the measurement-only comparison school were as
follows: 75% White, 24% Black, 7% Hispanic, and 5% other, with 65% eligible
for participation in the free and reduced lunch program. Before participation in
the study, parental written consent and child assent were obtained. This study was
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Goal Setting and Fitness in Youth 579

approved by the Universitys Institutional Review Board and the school districts
respective research committees.
The physical education programs at the intervention and comparison school
followed the physical education standards for the state of Florida, which outlines
performance-based standards for movement competency, cognitive abilities, lifetime
fitness, and responsible behaviors and values (Florida Department of Education,
2008). Physical education was a requirement for all students in both schools and
was delivered five days per week. The average lesson duration at the intervention
and comparison schools was one class period or approximately 50 min. During the
10-week study period, students in the intervention school completed instructional
units on soccer, tennis, and track and field. Similarly, students in the comparison
school completed instructional units on soccer, softball, and kickball. For each of
these units, teachers focused on movement skill competency and game play tactics.
Fitness testing was part of the curriculum in both schools. The physical education
program at both schools was delivered by two certified PE specialists (1 male and
1 female) with a bachelors degree from an accredited university.

Intervention: Goal Setting and Self-Monitoring

The instructional module was designed to teach students how to set fitness goals
using the five components of the SMART goal setting approach. It was delivered by
the principal investigator (SM) as part of the students regularly scheduled physical
education class. During the lesson, students were taught the definition of a goal,
the importance of goal setting, and how to set SMART goals. As part of the lesson,
students completed a SMART goal setting activity related to their aerobic fitness
as measured by the PACER. Specifically, the students set a SMART goal aimed at
increasing the number of laps completed during the PACER test; a marker of an
improvement in aerobic fitness. An example of a SMART fitness goal is as follows:
I want to run 52 laps on the next PACER test in 10 weeks. To accomplish this, I
will run 5 extra warm-up laps around the gym every day during PE class. PACER
goals were subsequently uploaded by the teaching staff to a custom-built website
which served as a self-monitoring tool. Participating students in the intervention
school received a unique login and password to access their fitness testing results
and goal information. The website provided a graphical display or dashboard of
the students fitness testing results from previous PACER administrations in addition to their current PACER performance goal. The students were asked to visit
the website on at least one occasion during the study period.

Aerobic Fitness Assessment

Aerobic fitness was assessed using the PACER 20-m multistage shuttle run test
from the FITNESSGRAM testing battery. The PACER test was performed during
a regularly scheduled PE class and led by the schools PE specialists following
standardized procedures (Plowman & Meredith, 2013). Each student ran from
one marker to another marker set 20 m apart (1 lap), while keeping pace to a prerecorded beeping sequence or cadence, which increased every minute. Students
were instructed to keep up with the cadence for as long as possible. The test was
terminated when the student failed to reach the marker in the allocated time on
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580McDonald and Trost

two occasions, or could no longer maintain the required pace. For each student,
the number of laps completed was recorded by the PE Specialist.
Aerobic capacity or VO2max was estimated from PACER laps using the linear
1 model prediction equation developed by Mahar and colleagues (2011). On the
basis of this prediction, students were classified, as achieving the healthy fitness
zone (HFZ) indicating that their level of aerobic fitness was sufficient for good
health. Students below the HFZ standard were classified into a needs improvement
zone (NIZ). Fitness zone classifications were based on the gender-and age-specific
FITNESSGRAM Criterion Reference Standards (Cureton, Plowman, & Mahar,
2013). The PACER has established evidence of validity and reliability (Mahar et
al., 2011; Welk et al., 2011).

Statistical Analysis
Differences in baseline characteristics were evaluated for statistical significance
using independent t tests for continuous variables (age, PACER laps, estimated
VO2max) and chi-square tests for categorical variables (gender, grade level, weight
status, race/ethnicity). Between-group differences for pre to post change in
aerobic fitness (PACER laps and estimated VO2max) were evaluated for statistical
significance using repeated measures ANCOVA. Within each model, gender, race/
ethnicity, grade level and weight status were included as covariates. Multivariate
logistic regression was used to compare the relative likelihood of students in the
intervention and comparison schools: 1) improving their PACER performance over
10-week study period; and 2) maintaining HFZ status or progressing from the NIZ
to HFZ. Within each logistic model, race/ethnicity, grade level and weight status
were included as covariates. All models were implemented using SAS version 9.3.
Statistical significance was set at an alpha level of 0.05.

Results
Of the 424 students enrolled in the intervention school, 228 provided consent,
yielding an overall response rate of 53.8%. Of the 277 students enrolled in the
comparison school, 76 provided consent, yielding a response rate of 27.4%. Baseline characteristics for the intervention and comparison schools are presented in
Table 1. There were no significant between-school differences for mean age, gender
distribution, or weight status. Grade levels distributions were, however, different across schools. The proportions of 6th graders were similar between the two
samples at 32.4% and 31.6%, respectively. However, the intervention sample had a
higher proportion of 7th grade students (43.7%) relative to the comparison sample
(30.3%). In addition, the intervention sample had a lower proportion of African
American (10.9% vs. 22.4%) and Hispanic students (6.3% vs. 17.1%) relative to
the comparison sample. Students in the intervention school had a higher level of
aerobic fitness relative to the comparison school for both the PACER performance
test, 40.6 laps vs 30.2 laps, p < .001, and estimated VO2max, 45.4 ml/kg/min vs 43.3
ml/kg/min, p < .02, respectively.
The SMART goal setting intervention was delivered to six individual physical education classes. Of the 424 students enrolled at the intervention school, 325
(77%) students completed the instructional module and set a personal SMART
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Goal Setting and Fitness in Youth 581

Table 1 Baseline Characteristics by Study Condition

Intervention (n = 228) Comparison (n = 76)

p-value

13.0 0.9

13.1 1.0

0.41

45.6

52.6

0.29

White

81.1

75.0

0.13

Black

10.9

22.4

Other

8.0

2.6

6.3

17.1

0.009

6th

32.4

31.6

0.03

7th

43.7

30.3

8th

24.0

38.2

85th

37.1

31.3

95th

22.0

21.0

PACER (# laps)

40.6

30.2

<0.0001

Estimated VO2max *

45.4

43.3

0.02

Age (y)
Gender (%)
Boys
Race (%)

Ethnicity (%)
Hispanic
Grade (%)

Weight Status (%)

0.66

Aerobic Fitness

Note: Chi-Square tests were performed for categorical outcomes (race/ethnicity, grade, gender and
weight status). Independent t tests were performed for continuous outcomes (age, PACER, and estimated VO2mex). The 85th and 95th BMI percentiles were based on the 2000 CDC Growth Charts. *
Estimated VO2max is expressed as ml/kg/min.

goal for performance on the PACER test. Of the 228 students providing consent
and completing a baseline and follow-up PACER test, 107 (47%) met or exceeded
their fitness goal. Of the 121 students who did not meet their fitness goal, 74 (61%)
increased their PACER laps, indicating an improvement in aerobic fitness. Overall,
181 students (79%) in the intervention condition improved their aerobic fitness
over the 10-week study period.
During the 10-week study period, 18% of students viewed the website once,
29% viewed the website on two occasions, 41% of students viewed the website
on three occasions, while 12% of students viewed the website on four or more
occasions. Thus, over half of the students (53%) logged on and viewed the selfmonitoring website on at least three occasions.
A significant group by time interaction was observed for PACER laps F(1,263)
= 39.9, p < .0001, and estimated VO2max, F(1,263) = 41.7, p < .0001, indicating that
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582McDonald and Trost

Figure 1 Pre and posttest change in PACER scores by study condition. Note: Error
bars correspond to the 95% confidence intervals for pre and posttest measures. There was
a significant group x time interaction observed, F(1,263) = 39.9, p < .0001. Indicates a
significant within-group difference (p < .001)

change over time was significantly different for the two groups (Figure 1). Among
students in the intervention school, PACER scores increased significantly from
40.6 laps, 95% CI [38.442.8] to 45.9 laps, 95% CI [43.648.0], F(1,263) = 45.3,
p < .0001, and estimated VO2max increased from 45.4 ml/kg/min to 46.9 ml/kg/min,
F(1,263) = 46.1, p < .0001. In contrast, students in the comparison school exhibited
a significant decline PACER scores and estimated VO2max. Pacer laps decreased
significantly from 30.2 laps, 95% CI [3.310.1] to 23.4 laps, 95% CI [19.027.9],
F(1,263) = 15.1, p < .0001, and estimated VO2max decreased from 43.3 ml/kg/min,
95% CI [41.744.9] to 41.4 ml/kg/min, 95% CI [39.842.9], F(1,263) = 16.3, p <
.0001. Between-group differences in net pre to post change in PACER scores and
estimated VO2max were 12 laps, 95% CI [8.214.7], p < .0001 and 3.4 ml/kg/min,
95% CI [2.34.4], p < .001, respectively.
Table 2 reports the percentage of students exhibiting an improvement in PACER
test performance and pre to post changes in fitness zone status. Within the intervention school, just under 80% of students exhibited an improvement in PACER test
performance from pre to post. In contrast, 72% of students in the comparison school
exhibited a decrease in PACER test performance. In the intervention school, 82.0%
of students maintained HFZ status while 7.5% progressed from the NIZ to the HFZ.
Less than 1% of students regressed from the HFZ to NIZ. In the comparison school,
44.2% of students maintained HFZ status, while less than 5% of students progressed
from NIZ to HFZ. At posttest, 51.2% of students in the comparison school failed
to meet the HFZ standard, with 23.3% of students regressing from the HFZ to the
NIZ over the 10-week study period. After controlling for grade level, race/ethnicity
and weight status, students in the intervention school were more than 10 times as
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Goal Setting and Fitness in Youth 583

Table 2 Improvement in PACER Scores (%) and Change in Fitness

Zone Status (%) by Study Condition
Intervention

Comparison

Adjusted OR
(95% CI) *

Yes

79.4

27.9

10.5 (4.822.9)

No

20.6

72.1

HFZ to HFZ

82.0

44.2

NIZ to HFZ

7.5

4.6

% in HFZ at 10 weeks

89.5

48.8

NIZ to NIZ

9.7

27.9

HFZ to NIZ

0.9

23.3

% in NIZ at 10 weeks

10.6

51.2

Outcome
Improvement in PACER (%)

Fitness Zone (%)

9.7 (4.421.5)

*Adjusted for grade level, race/ethnicity and weight status

likely as students in the comparison school to exhibit an improvement in PACER

test performance, OR = 10.5, 95% CI [4.823.0], p < .0001. With respect to HFZ
status, students in the intervention school were 10 times as likely as students in the
comparison school to either maintain their HFZ status or progress from the NIZ to
HFZ, OR = 9.7, 95% CI [4.421.5], p < .0001.

Discussion
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of a school-based SMART
goal setting and self-monitoring intervention on aerobic fitness in middle school
students. In support of our research hypothesis, students completing the instructional
module and self-monitoring intervention exhibited a significant increase in aerobic
fitness over the 10-week period, while fitness levels among students participating
in their usual school physical education declined. Of public health significance,
the percentage of students in the intervention school progressing from the needs
improvement zone to the healthy fitness zone was twice that observed in the comparison school (8% vs 4%). After controlling for race/ethnicity, grade level and
weight status, students in the interventions school were approximately 10 times as
likely as their comparison school counterparts to maintain HFZ status or progress
from the NIZ to HFZ over the course of the 10-week study.
Our findings are consistent with the results of previously conducted studies
evaluating the effectiveness of goal setting and self-monitoring interventions to
improve physical activity and nutrition behavior in school-aged youth. Horne and
colleagues (2009) evaluated the effects of a school-based intervention aimed at
increasing physical activity by setting daily pedometer step goals. Students in the
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584McDonald and Trost

intervention condition set daily step goals significantly increased their daily step
counts compared with the control condition. Likewise, Lubans and colleagues
(2009) used goal setting as the primary behavior change strategy to increase
physical activity in an extracurricular school sport program intervention in adolescents. Students participating in the intervention significant increased their daily
step counts assessed via pedometers compared with a decrease exhibited in the
comparison group. In addition, White and Skinner (1988) examined the effects of
goal setting as part of a nutrition education program for adolescents. Of the three
components of the intervention (goal setting, attitude toward dietary change and
nutrition knowledge), goal setting had the strongest effect on the modification of
selected micronutrient intake (i.e., vitamin A, calcium, sodium, etc.). Similarly,
Howison, Niedermyer, and Shortridge (1988) evaluated goal setting as a component of a nutrition education program focusing on healthy food choices and nutritional knowledge. Students significantly improved their nutrition knowledge and
increased their daily servings in fruits and vegetables. Lastly, Cullen et al. (2004)
evaluated the relationship between goal setting and dietary behavior change within
an intervention focused on increasing fruit and vegetable consumption among
fourth-grade students. Goal setting was associated with a one-serving increase in
fruit and vegetable intake. Collectively, these findings suggest that goal setting is a
potentially effective strategy to promote positive health-related behaviors in youth
and highlight the value of teaching students basic self-management strategies such
goal setting and self-monitoring.
Another major finding of the current study was that approximately 80% students completing the goal setting intervention improved their performance on the
PACER test, despite having relatively high levels of aerobic fitness at baseline. This
suggests that students already in the HFZ could improve their aerobic fitness after
completing the instructional module. This is an important finding with key implications for keeping students of all fitness levels motivated in physical education.
The improvement observed among interventions students was in stark contrast to
the declining levels of aerobic fitness observed in the comparison school, where
fewer than 30% exhibited an improvement in PACER performance, and 23% of
students regressed from the healthy fitness zone to the needs improvement zone
for aerobic fitness. Such findings underscore the need for evidence based programs
that not only promote improvements in aerobic fitness, but also serve to attenuate
the decline in aerobic fitness that frequently occurs during adolescence (Armstrong, 2013), particularly among female students (Armstrong & Fawkner, 2007).
It is noteworthy that the observed between-group difference for the net change in
aerobic fitness (3.4 ml/kg/min) equates to an 817% reduction in cardiovascular
and all-cause mortality (Franklin & McCullough, 2009). Therefore, the relatively
modest changes in aerobic fitness observed in the current study have strong public
health significance.
The present study had several limitations that should be taken into consideration. First, the study employed a quasi-experimental design and did not randomize
the schools to the intervention or comparison conditions. Second, the intervention
and comparison schools were not similar with respect to race/ethnicity and grade
level. However, we controlled for these differences by including race/ethnicity
and grade level along with gender and weight status as covariates in the repeated
measures ANCOVA. Third, the response rate and sample size for each school difJTPE Vol. 34, No. 4, 2015

Goal Setting and Fitness in Youth 585

fered considerably, which may have resulted in biased estimates for the comparison
school. We explored this potential bias by comparing baseline PACER scores for
students participating in the study to the average PACER performance for the
comparison school. PACER test scores for participants (30.2 laps) were comparable to the school average (32.7 laps), suggesting that the declining trend
in PACER performance observed among comparison school students was not
a direct result of selection bias. Fourth, due to a lack of statistical power and data
at the class level, we were unable to control for any peer or teacher effects and
any potential differences in the physical education programs. Fifth and finally, the
study was delimited to a convenience sample of two schools in the southeastern
United States, and as such, the results may not be generalizable to schools in other
geographic locations.
In summary, a brief goal setting and self-monitoring intervention was effective
at increasing aerobic fitness in middle school students. This finding suggests that
educating students about SMART goal setting is a feasible and potentially effective
strategy for increasing fitness and warrants further investigation. Future research
evaluating goal setting and self-monitoring in the physical activity domain should
include a larger number of schools, employ a group randomized study design, and
use more rigorous assessments of aerobic fitness.

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