Stirling Engine

Texas Space Grant Consortium Advanced Design Project - Spring 1997 Solar Power From Space
Stirling Engine
Texas Christian University

By: Tanya Hardy
David Meek
Nathan Moser
Majin Sierra
Winyu Vongstapanalert
Greg White
Aaron Williams
28 April 1997
Written by undergraduate students at:

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Texas Space Grant Consortium
http://www.tsgc.utexas.edu/
0.0 Abstract
The seven-member team at Texas Christian University has been working on the Stirling engine
contribution to the Texas Space Grant Consortiums Advanced Design Project. We hope to
demonstrate how a Stirling engine in conjunction with a parabolic mirror can be an efficient way of
obtaining solar power from space. We are approaching this project as a one-hour, one-semester junior
research class. This semesters activities consist of studying the feasibility of using Stirling engines for
space power generation.
We have begun to study how a Stirling engine and reflective dish will work together in order to
utilize the sun's heat to produce energy. In order to better understand how this type of system will
perform, we have purchased a model engine with a solar concentrator. Along with the purchased
motor, we have fabricated our own engine. We also purchased an alternator and used it in conjunction
with our purchased model engine in order to convert the mechanical power into electrical power. We
then ran tests on our system to see how much energy we could get out of the system.
Our objective this semester was to see if a Stirling engine/dish system can be used instead of
photovoltaic cells. The Stirling engine/dish system is both more efficient and less expensive. We gave a
good starting point for those who will continue this project and many of the aspects that need to be
considered are discussed in this paper.

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Table of Contents
0.0 Abstract...............................................................................................................................pg. 1
1.0 Mission Overview..............................................................................................................pg. 3
2.0 The Stirling Engine.......................................................................................................pgs. 3-5
2.1 The Stirling Cycle
2.2 Model Stirling Engine
2.3 Fabricated Stirling Engine
2.4 Working Stirling Engines
3.0 Gathering the Suns Rays: Parabolic Mirrors.................................................................pgs.5-6
3.1 Temperature Effects
3.2 Collar Design
3.3 Alternative Solutions
4.0 Rocket Choice....................................................................................................................pg. 6
4.1 Titan IV
5.0 Space Effects.................................................................................................................pgs. 6-9
5.1 Elements of Space Flight
5.2 Vacuum Environment
5.3 States of Matter and Orbital Debris
5.4 Radiation and Space Welding
5.5 Other Space Effect Considerations
6.0 Energy Conversion........................................................................................................pgs. 8-9
6.1 Shaft Rotational Torques
6.2 Converting Into an Oscillating Form
6.3 Specifications and Considerations
7.0 Benefits Over Solar Cells...................................................................................................pg. 9
8.0 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................pg. 9
9.0 Appendix...................................................................................................................pgs. 10-16
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9.1 Appendix A
9.2 Appendix B - Engine Drawings (see jpeg image files)
9.3 Appendix C (biographies)

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1.0 Mission Overview

During the 1970's there was an increased awareness of the limited energy resources available on
earth. Oil, natural gas, coal, and nuclear energy are currently the fuels of choice; however, society is
becoming increasingly aware of the damage to the environment caused by fossil fuels, yet no one wants
a nuclear reactor in the backyard. A possible solution to this dilemma is an almost infinite energy source
waiting to exercise its full potential: THE SUN!
An alternative means of solar power collection, besides photovoltaic cells, is the use of a Stirling
motor-solar concentrator system. The solar concentrator consists of a parabolic mirror focusing the
suns energy on a receiver which then powers the Stirling motor. The motor produces mechanical
power. This power is converted to electrical power which in turn is transmitted through microwaves to
earth. It will be a clean and effective way to get energy without depleting the earth of any of its natural
resources and without the pollution.
2.0 Stirling Engines

The Stirling engine is one of the most efficient devices for converting heat into mechanical work;
however, it requires relatively high temperatures. With a solar collector, the high temperatures
necessary for efficient power production can be achieved, thus making the Stirling engine an ideal
candidate for harnessing the power from the sun. The high temperatures we are dealing with will not
affect any of the electrical or other materials because they will be behind the mirror and thus protected.
As the temperature that drives the Stirling motor increases, the efficiency of the system increases.
The temperature at the receiver is dependent upon the size and curvature of the concentrator. The
melting point temperature of the receiver is a limiting factor. Stirling engines generally operate at the
thermal limits of the material used for their construction. Typical temperatures range from 650 to 800
o
C (1200 to 1470 oF), resulting in an engine efficiency of around 30% to 40%.
Hydrogen and helium are commonly used as the working gas for the engine because of their high
heat-transfer capabilities. Hydrogen, thermodynamically, is a better choice. This gas generally results in
more efficient engines than those with helium. However, helium has fewer material compatibility
problems and is safer to work with, being a Noble gas.
Engines typically operate at high pressures for maximized power, ranging from 5 to 20 MPa (725 to
2900 psi). Operations at these high pressures make sealing between components difficult.
To make space environment systems economical, a system lifetime of at least 20 years with
minimum maintenance is generally required. However, a major overhaul of engines, including
replacement of seals and bearings, may be necessary within the 40,000 to 60,000-hour (4.56 to 6.84yrs.) lifetime, which adds to the operating cost. A major challenge, therefore, in the design of Stirling
engines is to reduce the potential for wear in critical components or create novel ways for them to
perform their tasks.
2.1 The Stirling Cycle

For our purposes, the Stirling cycle can be described as a heat engine cycle in which heat is
accepted at a high temperature and rejected at a lower temperature, an action which will produce net
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work or power.
The two main types of Stirling engines are the kinematic and free-piston Stirling engines. Both types
operate on the same thermodynamic cycle. For convenience, the free-piston set-up will be used to
illustrate the cycle. The free-piston Stirling engine consists of a single cylinder, a displacer, a piston, and
a heater. The displacer fits inside the cylinder loosely so that air can flow past it as it moves back and
forth. The piston is sealed against the cylinder walls much like a piston in a cars engine. The piston is
able to move up and down the shaft the displacer is connected to. (See Appendix A, Figure 1) The
working gas contained in the engine is alternately heated and cooled, over and over again. When the
gas is heated, its pressure rises, and it pushes against and moves the piston, thereby doing work.
After the piston has been pushed as far as it will go, the gas is then cooled and its pressure drops,
sucking the power piston back to its starting position at which point the heating cycle begins again.
This cycle repeats very rapidly, sometimes as fast as fifty times a second. This is done by having one
part of the engine at a constant, high temperature (the heater end, heated by the sun) and another part at
a constant low temperature, and moving the gas back and forth between them.
The thermodynamic cycle is a four step process. The cycle starts with isothermal compression. The
displacer is at the hot portion of the cylinder and the working gas is at the cool portion. As the gas
cools a partial vacuum occurs, drawing the piston into the cylinder. The displacer is then moved back
to meet the piston, displacing the cooled gas, forcing it past the displacer into the hot end where it
begins to heat up. Here a constant volume heating process occurs. As the gas heats up, its pressure
increases driving the piston back toward the opposite end of the cylinder in an isothermal expansion. In
the final step, the displacer is then returned to the hot end, transferring the gas to the cool portion of the
cylinder in a constant pressure cooling process. The cycle then repeats.
2.2 Model Stirling Engine

A model Stirling engine, the Sun Runner, was purchased from Solar Engines, a division of P.M.
Research Inc. (See Appendix A, Figure 2) Attached to the motor is a parabolic mirror used to focus the
suns rays on the receiver. The heat is converted to rotary motion by the expansion and compression of
the working fluid. The specifications of the model are as follows:
Engine:
Speed:
2000 RPM and up
Height: 8.5 inch
Diameter:
3 inch
Receiver:
.75 in
Flywheel:
3.5 in
Material:
Metallic Precision castings
Mirror:
Diameter:
18 inches
Material:
All aluminum polished reflector
2.3 Fabricated Stirling Engine

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The machine shop at Texas Christian University and subcontracted help from Nathan Widner have
fabricated a working Stirling engine. This engine is based on previously tested and working motors.
However, some modifications were made, such as material and the addition of a pressure release in the
piston (See Appendix B).
2.4 Working Stirling Engines

On earth the Stirling motor is not a new device. The basic design was conceived and implemented
in the early nineteenth century, years before the invention of the internal combustion engine. The idea
for using this motor to create electricity is not new; in 1984, a Stirling engine with a concentrating system
was fabricated and implemented. The system consisted of two main components:
Engine: United Stirling 4-95 MKII by McDonnell Douglas
Concentrator: Vanguard I by Advanco
This system holds the world record of converting 29.4% of the collected solar energy into electricity
producing 27.1 kW. The mass of the engine weighed 330 kg, and the concentrator was 10 meter in
aperture diameter giving it a reflective surface of 91.4 m2 (See Appendix A, Figure 7). The mass to
power ratio for this system was 12.2 kg/kW.
3.0 Gathering the Sun's Rays : Parabolic Mirrors

Everyday billions of dollars in solar energy passes by our planet and into the rest of the galaxy. As
mentioned previously, this energy could be harnessed to drive a Stirling motor; this "free" energy could
then be transferred back to earth through microwaves. The mirror system can be one large mirror or a
series of small individual mirrors focusing the suns energy on the engines receiver. (See figure 3 in
Appendix A for pictures of types of mirrors) In this system we expect a 25 to 30% efficiency with a
lifetime goal of 60,000 hours. The system will have a sun tracking system that rotates the solar
concentrator about two axes in order to keep it pointed directly to the sun.
3.1 Temperature Effects

The temperature at the focal point of the mirror needs to be high enough to drive the Stirling motor
efficiently, yet not so high as to destroy the engine by exceeding its mechanical limits. This temperature
is based on the materials used in fabricating the heater and the motor. A type of Incolin metallic
material, with high thermal conductivity, an extremely high melting point, and able to operate and
maintain mechanical properties above 700 oC should be used. The temperature is a result of the size of
the mirror, the shape, and the material from which it is fabricated. A glass mirror with a silvered back is
highly reflective, but not durable and extremely fragile. A highly polished metal mirror would probably
be very effective being relatively reflective and extremely durable. Also, the feasibility of inflatable
mirrors needs to be investigated further before a decision is made. A thin reflective material could also
be used. The size of the mirror is limited by the payload of current transportation systems capacity
3.2 Collar Design

Means by which the motor and mirror are placed in orbit are addressed in section 4.0. For
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compatibility, the parabolic mirror might be designed as a collar surrounding the heater located at the
mirror's focal point (See Appendix A, Figure B), similar to the Sun Runner configuration. This provides
for maximum surface area exposed to the suns rays, without the interference of shadows. Also, for the
same reasons, the entire system should be maintenance free. A possibility is to have the mirror shape
act as a governor, limiting the speed of the motor. It may be more effective to limit the rpm internally.
To limit the size of the mirror during transportation, a reflective film mounted on an umbrella type
structure could keep the mirror compact during flight. Upon reaching the desired orbit, the umbrella
will disengage exposing the reflective surface to the sun and power the motor (See Appendix A, Figure
6).
3.3 Alternative Solutions For Creating the Temperature Gradient

Solar panels: A solar panel could be used to power an electric heating device to heat the motor's
receiver. However, by using a solar array, the same previous problems arise, the low efficiency of a
solar array, the size, the bulkiness, the fragility, etc.
Optical lenses : This idea has not been addressed or studied at all. However, a lens can be used to
focus the sun's energy on the heater, very much like a magnifying glass. However, maintaining a proper
orientation would be a bigger concern.
4.0 Rocket Choice

In choosing the rocket, several things must be taken into consideration. The payload fairing
capacity of the rocket must be large enough for the engine and mirror to fit inside the cargo bay. The
success rate, availability, and cost must also be taken into consideration.
4.1 Titan IV Centaur

The Titan IV has been chosen as the launch vehicle. It was chosen, based on the fact that it is the
largest unmanned rocket and the mass of the design is yet to be chosen. The Titan IV has the following
characteristics:
Payload Length: 15.7 m
Payload Diameter: 4.57 m
Payload Mass: 18,144 kg (for LEO)
Cost: $1000/lbm.
5.0 Space Effects

There are several aspects that need to be touched upon when the satellite is placed in orbit. An
important factor is how the engine will be affected in a zero gravity, vacuum environment. Will it still
operate properly? How will the radiant heat from the sun effect it? Will it need some sort of shield or
rotational device to create a "barbecue roll" effect? It is also necessary to choose materials according to
their coefficient of thermal expansion. Due to the temperature differences, there will be high amounts of
internal stresses developed due to the thermal gradient. Therefore, low coefficients are ultimately
desired.
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5.1 Elements of Space Flight

Regardless of the nature of space flight, all spacecraft must contain basic elements.
1. An electrical power system (EPS) to power the payload and other power
subsystems
2. A thermal control system (TCS) to keep the temperature of the craft from
exceeding limits.
3. An Attitude Determination and Control system (ADC) is needed in order to point
the craft in the proper direction
4. A propulsion system to place it in the proper orbit and change its orientation if
necessary
5. A physical structure that will accommodate the system and payload
5.2 Vacuum Environment and Orbital Debris

Due to the vacuum of space, a limit is placed on the type of materials that may be used and the
thermal control system that can be implemented. Many materials will undergo a process known as out
gassing. Here, volatile materials escape the surface and are released to the surroundings. These gasses
may be deposited on other surfaces and cause damage (1). Also, there can be problems with debris
build up on solar panels. This is similar to debris build up on eye glasses. In Low Earth Orbit (LEO),
there are enough stray, neutral atoms to cause problems such as 'dings' in the surfaces of the spacecraft,
and drag. When working with mirrors, these dings and haze that builds up will lower the efficiencies of
power transfer. That can be detrimental to a program over a period of time. Orbital debris may seem
to be of little concern to the uninformed reader. However, it is of great concern due to the high rate of
speed and subsequent high kinetic energy ( Mass*Velocity2). As an example, during a shuttle flight a
few years back, there was severe damage done to the front windshield of the shuttle. The cause of this
problem was determined to be a paint flake that was only 2 mm thick. The reason that this paint flake
was able to crack the window was the speed at which it was traveling. A picture of this damage can be
seen as figure 4 in Appendix A. Figure 5 in Appendix A also demonstrates effects of orbital debris.
5.3 States of Matter

Another factor in determining the effects of the space of environment is the difference in the four
states of matter that are possible. The main difference is the available thermal energy. If you heat a
liquid, you produce a gas. If you heat a gas, a plasma is formed. Each on of these states increases in
thermal energy. Over 99% of the universe is plasma, but we happen to live in the 1% that is not. Most
orbital debris that surrounds the Earth is in a plasma form. A craft that comes in contact with plasma
may become highly electrically charged because of the high thermal energy that must be absorbed from
the collision. Due to differences in surface conductivity, conductors and dielectrics will charge to
different potentials. This voltage difference will reach a point where the charged particles will contain
enough internal energy that they will 'jump' to lower electric potential, causing electrical arcing. This
arcing can cause severe problems with instrumentation, communication systems, and most importantly,
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the durability of the vehicle chassis. What effect this might have on the performance of the engine is
unknown at this time.
5.4 Radiation and Space Welding

Radiation can have a serious effect on several aspects of the spacecraft. It may "decrease the
power output of solar arrays, create spurious signals in focal planes, or may create memory errors in
spacecraft avionics."[1] Space welding can also be a problem, especially when dealing with moving,
mechanical parts. Due to the lack of air in space, materials that are touching one another will tend to
bond tightly together, producing a welding effect.
5.5 Other Space Effect Considerations

Another concern is the need to dissipate heat created by the operation of the engine. Also, life
expectancy and efficiency are going to be affected by the space environment. Other concerns are
maintenance on a design that is in LEO. Other concerns are how all the pieces will fit together, how
much power output can be obtained, how many parts are needed, and the mass of the full design. The
space environment has a significant impact on a spacecraft's ability to execute its mission; depending on
the severity of the problems that the space environment can create, other options may have to be
considered.
6.0 Energy Conversion

As discussed before, a Stirling Engine is a mechanical device that converts the sun's thermal energy
into a form of mechanical energy. This internal process is detailed in Section 2. The piston assembly
produces energy in an AC mechanical form.
6.1 Shaft Rotational Torque

Energy can be gathered by several means. One such method involves shaft rotational torque. This
type of power is transferred using worm gears and other screw-type cogs interlocked to a shaft that
extends from the engine. This shaft is connected perpendicular to the piston's movement. An example
of this would be the crankshaft of an automobile engine. The shaft is connected to the transmission
which transmits the power to the wheels using a complex system of worm gears.
6.2 Converting Into an Oscillating Form

Another way to correct the energy to an AC signal is to directly convert the energy into an
oscillating form that is directly proportional to the location of the piston as it travels throughout its cycle
within the cylinder. This AC signal can then be converted to DC via a power electronic circuit.
6.3 Specifications and Considerations

The specifications require the production of constant electrical energy into DC form. A major factor
in component selection is cost. Durability must be taken into account as well. Since this system will be
in space orbit, it should require little or no maintenance and be able to withstand long term use.
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Otherwise, there is no reason to spend extra money on a system that is going to fail after only one year
of operation. These and other factors must be considered.
6.4 Chosen Form Of Energy Conversion

The rotational power of the engine will be converted to electrical power by using a gear system that
will drive an alternator. This alternator will then generate a steady current from the rotation of its shaft.
The specifics in the selections will depend on the efficiencies of each component and the corresponding
overall internal losses. These must be minimized in order to produce the highest efficiency
7.0 Benefits Over Solar Cells

There are many benefits that this type of system has over photovoltaic cells. A comparison is given
below.
Cost of Power
Photovoltaic Cells
Stirling/Dish System
25 to 50 cents/kW
7 cents/kW
Power per Area Ratio
205.5 W/m
835 W/m2
Sunlight Conversion Efficiency
15%
30%
8.0 Conclusion
Compared to photovoltaic cells, the Stirling motor is superior in its solar conversion efficiency,
power per area ratio, and cost per kilowatt. However, the photovoltaic cell has been tested and proven
reliable.
If this project is to become a reality, the Stirling motor must be analyzed more in depth, to insure the
best possible design. The main drawback of this design is the gas retention problem in a vacuum
environment. However, this problem seems to be minor compared to the overall benefits associated
with the system.
The terrestrial Stirling motor is an outstanding thermodynamic accomplishment. However, it is still
unknown how it will behave in a space environment. Could there be problems associated with the
spinning parts and rotational inertia? Could this problem be solved with small thrusters that will already
be in place for alignment and getting the system into the proper orbit? How can the life expectancy be
improved? What precautions must be taken to protect the system from the known, adverse effect of
the space environment? Will the efficiency remain the same when the system is in a space environment?
What will be the mass of a dish/Stirling engine system that will be capable of the required power
output? These are all questions that will need to be addressed next semester.
As for this semester, what has been accomplished is an important first step toward designing a Stirling
engine based space power system. With this background, the next group should be able to build upon
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what we have accomplished and use it to complete the analysis next semester.

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Figure 1
Alpha configuration of the Stirling cycle. The picture was taken from Internet site:
http://powerweb.lerc.nasa.gov/Stirling/DOC/strlcycl.html
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Appendix A (cont.)
Figure 2
The Sun Runner
Appendix A (cont.)
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Figure 3
different types of mirrors
Appendix A (cont.)
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Figure 4
Surface damage due to MMOD impacts on the Long Duration Exposure Facility
(LDEF) during its 5 years and 9 months in LEO.The photograph is courtesy of NASA.
Appendix A (cont.)
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Figure 5
Damage to shuttle tile resulting from normal incidence impact by a 7/32 inch
diameter aluminum sphere, shown in the lower right, at 7.68 km/s. This photograph is courtesy of
Rockwell International.
Appendix A

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Appendix C
Tanya Hardy is a native of Fort Worth where she attended Southwest High School from 1990-1994. She
entered Texas Christian University as an engineering major. While attending TCU she was a member of the
Horned Frog Marching Band for two years and Symphonic Band for one. Upon graduation in May of 1998,
she plans to find employment with NASA or a NASA related contractor and later return to complete a masters
and Ph.D. in engineering. Her hobbies include bell choir and roller blading.
David Meek is a junior electrical engineering major from Fort Worth, Texas. After four years of education at
Southwest High School, he went directly to Texas Christian University. After he graduates in May of 1998,
he plans to get a haircut and get a real job! Currently his hobbies are fishing and playing any sport he can.
Nathan Moser is a native of Norman, Oklahoma where he graduated from high school in 1994. He is
currently attending TCU pursuing a degree in Mechanical Engineering. When he graduates from TCU, he
plans to become a forest ranger for the National Forest Service. He enjoys rock climbing, fishing, and biking.
Majin Sierra was born in Metairie Louisiana. He attended Jesuit High School in New Orleans where he
graduated Magna Cum Laude in 1993. He is currently attending TCU where he hopes to receive a B.S. in
Engineering and a BA in French. While at TCU he participates in AFW (service fraternity), BUX (Christian
fraternity), intramurals, and is also a Resident Assistant. His hobbies include sports (especially soccer) and
music. After graduation he hopes to either get a job and get married or go to graduate school in Engineering
Management at the University of New Orleans.
Winyu Vongstapanalert is an international student from Thailand. He attended Arlington Heights High School
in Fort Worth, Texas from 1990-1993. He entered Texas Christian University as an Engineering major and
Math minor. Since attending TCU, he has been a member of Beta Upsilon Chi (Christian Fraternity) for two
years, Alpha Phi Omega (Service Fraternity) for three years, Parabola (Math Organization), and a member of
Society of Engineering Students. Upon graduation in May of 1998, he plans to find employment where he
can apply his knowledge or further his education in the field of Engineering. His hobbies include tennis and
soccer. He is a member of the Fort Worth Soccer Association.
Greg White is from Abilene, Texas where he graduated from Cooper High School in 1994. He is studying to
be a mechanical engineer and hopes to get involve in constructional engineering. His hobbies include soccer
and studying in trees.
Aaron Williams is a pre-graduate student of engineering with a mechanical emphasis at TCU. He was a top
5% graduate at Crowley High School in 1994. At TCU, he has participated in varsity football, marching band,
jazz band, and concert band. His hobbies include all sports and playing drums in a band. Upon graduation,
his plans are to become a successful practicing engineer in mechanical design or modification, and receive an
additional degree.

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References
(1) Tribble, Alan C., The Space Environment, Implications for Spacecraft Design, Princeton University
Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1995
(2) O'Neill, Gerard K., The World's Energy Future Belong in Orbit,
www.astro.nwu.edu/lentz/space/ssi/energy.html
(3) Dish/Stirling Systems, www.eren.doe.gov/sunlab/dishes.html
(4) Large Free Piston Stirling Engines, powerweb.lerc.nasa.gov/stirling/DOC/lrgfp.html
(5) Stirling Technology, powerweb.lerc.nasa.gov/stirling/home.html
(6) Nansen, Ralph, Sun Power, Ocean Press, Seattle, Washington, 1995
(7) Solar and Renewable Electricity,
gopher.iee.org/usab/Documents/forum/library/positions/renew.html
(8) Component Technology, powerweb.lerc.nasa.gov/stirling/doc/comptech.html
(9) A Compendium of Solar Dish/Stirling Technology,
solstice.crest.org:80/renewables/dish-stirling/chapter1/intro.html
(10) Concentrators, solstice.crest.org:80/renewables/dish-stirling/chapter1/concentrators.html
(11) Receivers, solstice.crest.org:80/renewables/dish-stirling/chapter1/receivers.html
(12) Engines, solstice.crest.org:80/renewables/dish-stirling/chapter1/engines.html
(13) Bean, John R.; Diver, Richard B., Technical Status of the Dish/Stirling Joint Venture Program,
Cummins Power Generation
(14) Bean, John R.; Diver, Richard B., Performance of the CPG 7.5 kW Dish-Stirling System,
Cummins Power Generation
(15) Let's Build Model Stirling Engines, www.bekkoame.or.jp/-khirata/english/make.html
(16) How Stirling Engines Work, www.fn.net/-brentvan/how_do.html
(17) Lockeed Engineers Solve Key Problems In Stirling Engine,
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www.Imsc.lockeed.com/newsbureau/pressrelease/1992/9206.html

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Texas Space Grant Consortium Advanced Design Project - Spring 1997 Solar Power From Space

Texas Christian University

Written by undergraduate students at:

Written by undergraduate students at:

Written by undergraduate students at:

1.0 Mission Overview

2.0 Stirling Engines

2.1 The Stirling Cycle

2.2 Model Stirling Engine

2.3 Fabricated Stirling Engine

2.4 Working Stirling Engines

3.0 Gathering the Sun's Rays : Parabolic Mirrors

3.1 Temperature Effects

3.2 Collar Design

3.3 Alternative Solutions For Creating the Temperature Gradient

4.0 Rocket Choice

4.1 Titan IV Centaur

5.0 Space Effects

5.1 Elements of Space Flight

5.2 Vacuum Environment and Orbital Debris

5.3 States of Matter

5.4 Radiation and Space Welding

5.5 Other Space Effect Considerations

6.0 Energy Conversion

6.1 Shaft Rotational Torque

6.2 Converting Into an Oscillating Form

6.3 Specifications and Considerations

6.4 Chosen Form Of Energy Conversion

7.0 Benefits Over Solar Cells

Power per Area Ratio

Sunlight Conversion Efficiency

Written by undergraduate students at:

Written by undergraduate students at:

Written by undergraduate students at:

Written by undergraduate students at:

Written by undergraduate students at:

Written by undergraduate students at:

Written by undergraduate students at:

Written by undergraduate students at:

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