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DEFINITION

Many centuries and across many territories the Romans were able to win an
astonishing number of military victories and their success was due to several
important factors. Italy was a peninsula not easily attacked, there was a huge pool
of fighting men to draw upon, a disciplined and innovative army, a centralized
command and line of supply, expert engineers, effective diplomacy through a
network of allies, and an inclusive approach to conquered peoples which allowed for
the strengthening and broadening of the Roman power and logistical bases. Further,
her allies not only supplied, equipped and paid for additional men but they also
supplied vital materials such as grain and ships. On top of all this Rome was more or
less in a continuous state of war or readiness for it and believed absolutely in the
necessity of defending and imposing on others what she firmly believed was her
cultural superiority.
READY FOR WAR
In Roman culture martial values were highly regarded and war was a source of
prestige for the ruling class where career progression came from successful military
endeavour. Indeed, conflict in Roman culture went right back to the origins of Rome
and the mythical battle between Romulus and Remus. This thirst for war combined
with what Polybius stated as 'inexhaustible resources in supplies and men' meant
that Rome would become a terrible and formidable foe for the peoples of the
Mediterranean and beyond. However, there were also times when Romans more
than met their match - such as against Carthage, Parthia and the Germanic tribes or when Romans fought Romans such as the civil wars between Julius Caesar and
Pompey or Vitellius against Otho, and then the carnage of ancient warfare reached
even greater proportions.
In the Republic declaration of war was in theory in the hands of the people but in
practice the decision to raise arms was decided by the Senate. From Augustus
onwards the decision became the Emperor's alone. Once military action was decided
upon certain rituals had to be performed such as sacrifices and divination to find
favourable omens and the supplicatio rite where prayers and offerings were offered
at each of the major gods' temples.
STRUCTURE & COMMAND OF THE ROMAN ARMY
The Roman army left its mark wherever it went, creating roads, depots and bases.
Involving men from the age of 16 to 60, it was a conduit for the Romanisation of
conquered lands and one of the main carriers of foreign cultural influence back on
Rome itself.
Either or both of the two consuls conducted war on the battlefield although
command could also rest in the hands of a praetor or pro-magistrate with imperium
who, otherwise, commanded individual legions. If both consuls were present they
rotated command each day. In the Imperial period the emperor himself could lead
the army. Tribunes and Legates could also command a legion or subsidiary

detachments and each maniple of 200 men was commanded by a prior and
posterior centurion (the former being senior), resulting in around 60 centurions per
legion.
In the early Republican period troop formation followed the example of the Greek
phalanx but from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century BCE the tactics for infantry
deployment changed. The largest unit in the Roman army was the legion of 4,200
men divided into 30 divisions or maniples which were now each deployed in three
lines (hastati, principes, and triarii who were the veterans) arranged as in a
checkerboard (quincunx). Another 800 to 1200 light-armed soldiers (velites), often
from Rome's allies, took position in front of the legion with 300 cavalry positioned in
support. These two groups were used as a protective screen for the heavy infantry
legions and they also harried the enemy from the flanks when the enemy met the
legions head on. In the 1st century BCE both disappeared from the army but the
cavalry did make a comeback in the Imperial period. Specialist mercenary troops
with skills the Romans lacked might also be employed such as Cretan archers and
slingers from Rhodes.
The maniples were mobile, disciplined in their close formation and they could rotate
their engagement with the enemy to allow fresh troops into the battle.
Manoeuvrability was also aided by the adoption of lighter weaponry - the short
sword or gladius Hispaniensis, the pilum javelin instead of the traditional heavy
spear, and the central-handled, concave shield or scutum. In addition, it came to be
recognised that terrain could be an important factor in aiding or hindering troop
movements. Troops were also trained to use these weapons well and to carry out
complicated battle manoeuvres, although the duration and intensity of training was
very much down to individual commanders.
From 100 BCE (or perhaps even earlier) the maniple was abandoned and instead a
legion was divided into 10 cohorts of 4-500 men which would remain the basic
Roman tactical unit. In this period, legions also took on permanent names and
identities and were equipped by the state. In 167 BCE there were 8 legions but by 50
BCE this number had risen to around 15 legions. Augustus in c. 31 BCE created for
the first time a permanent and fully professional army with a central command and
logistics structure resulting in a permanent force of 300,000 men paving the way for
the huge armies of later centuries when there were 25-30 legions across the empire.
In 6 CE the emperor also created a treasury specifically for the military (aerarium
militare) which was funded by taxes and allowed for a system of retirement benefits.
Another of Augustus' policies was to ensure loyalty by carefully restricting positions
of command to the Imperial clique.
MOTIVATING THE TROOPS
All troops swore an oath of allegiance, the sacramentum, to the emperor himself.
This was a major factor in ensuring loyalty but it also encouraged the discipline disciplina militaris - for which the Roman armed forces had become famous since the

early Republic and which was directly responsible for many a victory on the
battlefield. Discipline was further ensured through a system of rewards and
punishments. Soldiers could receive distinctions, money, booty, and promotion for
displaying courage and initiative. However, a lack of rewards and excessively long
service without leave could cause grievances which sometimes developed into
mutiny. Punishment came in many forms and could be implemented due to
mutinous dissent but also a lack of courage in battle. In particular, the punishment
of decimation was usually reserved for cowardice, for example, abandoning the body
of a fallen commander. This involved lots being drawn and every tenth man being
clubbed to death by the other nine. Other punishments included loss of booty, pay
or rank, flogging, dishonourable discharge, being sold into slavery or even
execution. The principle was that by breaking one's oath of allegiance, one lost all of
one's rights.
STRATEGIES
Julius Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War describes the great commander's
attention to logistics, decisiveness and appearance of confidence and their positive
effect on the morale of the troops. He also records the importance of innovation,
patriotism, discipline and fortune. In addition, a commander could greatly
strengthen his chances of success before the battle by gathering military
intelligence of the enemy from captives, dissenters and deserters. Commanders
could hold (as Caesar himself did) a consilium or war council with their officers to
present and discuss strategies for attack and utilise the experience of veteran
campaigners. It would be a combination of all of these factors that would ensure
Roman military dominance for centuries. There were important defeats along the
way but it is interesting to observe that commanders often escaped repercussions
for their military incompetence and it was usually the soldiers who bore the blame
for defeat.
Roman commanders generally preferred an aggressive and full-frontal attack (albeit
preceded by suitable reconnaissance by a scouting vanguard of exploratores troops)
whilst terror and revenge tactics were also used to subdue local populations, a
strategy mixed with clementia - accepting hostages and promises of peace from the
enemy. From the 1st century BCE there was an increase in the use of battlefield
fortifications and entrenchments and sieges. From the 3rd century CE defence of the
empire's borders became a priority and led to the fortification of cities and a more
mobile deployment of smaller units of troops (vexillationes) of between 500 and
1,000 men. This was largely due to enemy forces being wary of full-on attacks with
the formidable Romans and so preferring guerrilla tactics. Julius Caesar was also a
great proponent of sieges and they did present certain advantages. An opposing
force could be severely reduced in one blow, the local population could be suitably
terrorised into accepting Rome as their new master and a readymade stronghold
could be acquired if successful.
SIEGES

In a typical siege forces were sent ahead to surround the settlement to be attacked
and prevent anyone escaping. The main force would build a fortified camp out of
missile range from the city and preferably on high ground, which provided a good
vantage point to observe inside the settlement and pick out key targets such as
water supply. Once the attack began, the defender's walls could be overcome by
building a ramp up against them using trees, earth and rocks. Whilst this was being
done the attackers would be protected by temporary covers and a covering fire from
batteries of torsion catapults, bolt-firers, stone-throwers and archers. The defenders
could try to extend the height of the wall section under attack and even add towers.
The attackers could also attack the walls with heavy rams (suspended on a
framework) and also use siege towers. The defenders threw everything they could
down on the attackers such as burning oil, burning pieces of wood and rocks and
they could also try to undermine the siege ramps and towers by tunnelling, a
technique the attackers might also employ to undermine the defensive walls.
Generally, once conquered, only the women and children could hope to survive as
an example had to be set of the futility of prolonged resistance.
LOGISTICS
The Imperial army on the march was first and foremost well-ordered. Besides
legionaries, the troop could include cavalry, archers, auxiliaries, artillery, rams,
standard bearers, trumpeters, servants, baggage mules, blacksmiths, engineers,
surveyors, and road builders. When the army reached its destination it made a
fortified camp and the logistical skills of the Romans meant that they could be
supplied independent of the local territory, especially in terms of food. Once supplies
had reached a camp they were stored in purpose-built warehouse (horrea) which,
constructed on stilts and well ventilated, better preserved perishable goods. Food
stores were protected against their number one enemy - the black rat - by using
cats, which were, for the same reason, also used on ships.
One particular innovation of the Imperial period was the introduction of doctors
(medici) and medical assistants (capsarii), who were attached to most military units.
There were even army hospitals (valetudinarium) within the fortified camps.
NAVAL WARFARE
Roman naval tactics differed little from the methods employed by the Greeks.
Vessels were propelled by rowers and sail to transport troops and in naval battles
the vessels became battering rams using their bronze-wrapped rams fixed on the
ship's prow. Rome had employed naval vessels from the early Republic but it was in
260 BCE that they built their first significant navy, a fleet of 100 quinqueremes and
20 triremes, in response to the threat from Carthage. Quinqueremes, with five banks
of rowers, were fitted with a bridge used to hold enemy vessels so that they could
be boarded, a device known as the corvus (raven). The Romans eventually defeated
the Carthaginian fleet, largely because they were able to replace lost ships and men
quicker. Rome once more amassed a fleet when Pompey attacked Pamphylia and
Cilicia in 67 BCE (a campaign identified with the suppression of piracy by Plutarch)

and again in 36 BCE when Marcus Agrippa amassed almost 400 vessels to attack
Sicily and the fleet of Sextus Pompeius Magnus. Some of Agrippa's ships had the
new grappling hook launched by a catapult which, with a winch, was used to draw in
an enemy ship for boarding.
In 31 BCE there occurred the major naval battle near Actium between the fleets of
Octavian and Mark Antony and Cleopatra. Following victory, the new emperor
Augustus established two fleets - the classis Ravennatium based at Ravenna and the
classis Misenatium based at Misenum, which operated until the 4th century CE.
There were also fleets based at Alexandria, Antioch, Rhodes, Sicily, Libya and Britain
as well as one operating on the Rhine and another two on the Danube. These fleets
allowed Rome to quickly respond to any military needs throughout the empire and to
supply the army in its various campaigns.
Fleets were commanded by a prefect (praefectus) appointed by the emperor. The
captain of a vessel held centurion rank or the title of trierarchus. Fleets were based
at fortified ports such as Portus Julius in Campania which included artificial harbours
and lagoons connected by tunnels. Crews of Roman military vessels were, in reality,
more soldiers than sailors as they were expected to act as light-armed land troops
when necessary. They were typically recruited locally and drawn from the poorer
classes but could also include prisoners of war and slaves.
VICTOR'S SPOILS
Victory in battle brought new territory, acquired wealth and resources, persuaded
enemies to sue for peace and sent a clear message that Rome would defend her
frontiers, that she had an insatiable thirst for expansion and provided irrefutable
evidence of just how formidable a fighting machine the Romans could present on the
battlefield.
In the Republic enemy arms could be burned and offerings made to the gods,
especially Mars, Minerva and Vulcan. Victorious commanders returned to Rome as
heroes in a grand triumphal procession and there were over 300 of them over the
centuries. The triumph was first approved and paid for by the Senate. The
commander entered the city riding a chariot in a sumptuous procession which
included captives, treasures such as gold and works of art, and even exotic animals
from the territory of the victory. He wore purple robes (toga picta and tunica
palmata) and a crown of laurel, held an ivory sceptre and laurel branch and had a
slave standing behind him who held a gold crown over his head and whispered,
'Look behind' (Respice) to remind him of the dangers of pride and arrogance. From
the Augustan period only emperors could enjoy a triumph but, in any case, the
practice became much less frequent.
Victorious commanders also used the spoils of war to beautify Rome, for example,
Pompey's theatre, Augustus' forum and Vespasian's Colosseum. Other architectural
celebrations of victory included obelisks and columns but perhaps the most striking

monument to Roman military vanity was the triumphal arch, the largest and most
decorative being that of Constantine I in Rome.
CONCLUSION
Rome's armed forces were the state's largest single expense but the captured
territory, resources, wealth and slaves and the later necessity for frontier defence
meant that war was an unavoidable Roman preoccupation. Great successes in battle
could be enjoyed but so too, defeats could rock Rome to its foundations as able
opponents began to use Rome's winning strategies to their own advantage. Further,
as Rome's military prowess became more and more well known it would become
increasingly difficult for the Roman military to directly engage the enemy. However,
over many centuries and across three continents, the Romans had demonstrated
that a well-trained, well-disciplined military, if fully exploited by gifted commanders,
could reap vast rewards and it would not be until a millennium after its fall that
warfare would return to the scale and professionalism that Rome had brought to the
field of combat.

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