NOT gate | Nikhil

Introduction
A gate is defined as a digital circuit which
follows some logical relationship between the
input and output voltages. It is a digital circuit
which either allows a signal to pass through as
stop, it is called a gate.
The Logic Gates are building blocks at
digital electronics. They are used in digital
electronics to change on voltage level (input
voltage) into another (output voltage) according
to some logical statement relating them.
A logic gate may have one or more inputs, but
it has only one output. The relationship
between the possible values of input and
output voltage is expressed in the form of a
table called truth table or table of combinations.

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Truth table of a Logic Gates is a table that

shows all the input and output possibilities for
the logic gate.
George Boole in 1980 invented a different kind
of algebra based on binary nature at the logic,
this algebra of logic called BOOLEAN
ALGEBRA. A logical statement can have only
two values, such as HIGH/LOW, ON/OFF,
CLOSED/OPEN, YES/NO, TRUE/FALSE,
CONDUCTING/NON-CONDUCTING etc. The
two values of logic statements one denoted by
the binary number 1 and 0. The binary number
1 is used to denote the HIGH value. The
logical statements that logic gates follow are
called Boolean expressions.

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BASIC GATES
There are three basic logic gates which
follows Boolean expression.

1. OR GATE
The OR gate is a two inputs and one output
logic gate. It combing the input A and B with
the

output

following

the Boolean

expression.
Y =A+ B
The Boolean algebra, the addition symbol (+)
is called OR (i.e. OR operation OR operator).
The various possible combinations of the input
and output of the OR gate can be easily
understand with the help of the electrical
circuit. In this electric circuit, a parallel
combination of two switches A and B is
connected to a battery and a lump L.
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The following interference can be easily drawn

from the working of electrical circuit is :
a)If switch A & B are open lamp do not glow
(A=0, B=0)
b) If Switch A open B closed then (A=0, B=1)
Lamp glow.
c)If switch A closed B open then (A=1, B=0)
Lamp glow.
d) If switch A & B are closed then (A=1, B=1)
Lamp glow.

2. AND GATE
The AND gate is also a two inputs and one
output logic gate. It combines the input A and
B with the output Y following the Boolean
expression.
Y =A. B

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The Boolean algebra, the multiplication symbol

(. dot or x Gross) is taken to mean AND.
Y = A . B have Y is equal to A AND B.
The various possible combination of the input
and outputs of the AND gate can be easily
found with the help of the electrical circuit.
Here a series combination of the switch A and
B is connected to a battery and a lump L.
The following conclusions can be easily drawn
from the working of electrical circuit:
a)If both switches A&B are open (A=0, B=0)
then lamp will not glow. (y=0)
b) If Switch A closed & B open (A=1, B=0)
then Lamp will not glow. (y=0)
c)If switch A open & B closed (A=0, B=1) then
Lamp will not glow. (y=0)

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d) If switch A & B both closed (A=1, B=1) then

Lamp will glow. (y=1)

3. NOT GATE
The NOT gate is a one inputs and one output
logic gate. It combines the input A with the
output following the Boolean expression.
Y=A
i.e. Y not equal A. The way, the NOT gate
gives the output it is also called inverter. It is
represented by the symbol.
The Boolean algebra, the negative sign (-) is
called NOT. The equation Y= A called Boolean
expression.

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The possible input and output combination of

a NOT gate can be easily discussed with the
help of electrical circuit. Here, the switch is
connected in parallel to the lump of the battery.
The following conclusion can be easily drawn
from the working of the electrical circuit.
a) If switch A is open (i.e. A=0), the lamp will
glow (i.e. Y=1)
b) If Switch A is closed (i.e. A=1), the lamp will
not glow (Y=0).
It follows that in the given electrical circuit, the
lump glows (or output is obtained), when the
switch A is not closed. For this reason, the
electrical circuit is called not gate. The two
possible input-output combinations can be
written in the form of the table. It is called truth
table of NOT gate.

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NOT gate | Nikhil

Aim
To construct a simple NOT gate
Circuit.

Materials Required
1.
2.
3.
4.

Wires;
NPN Transistor;
Resistors;
Circuit Board;
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5.
6.
7.

Solder & Its wire;

LED;
Battery (9v);

Theory
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
1) Conductors: material capable of
carrying electric current, i.e. material which
has mobile charge carriers (e.g.
electrons, ions,..) e.g. metals, liquids with
ions (water, molten ionic Compounds),
plasma
2) Insulators: materials with no or very few
free charge carriers; e.g. quartz, most
covalent and ionic solids, plastics
3) Semiconductors: materials with
conductivity between that of conductors

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and insulators; e.g. germanium Ge, silicon

Si, GaAs, etc.

ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS

o In solid materials, electron energy levels
form bands of allowed energies, separated
by forbidden bands.
o Valence band is the outermost (highest)
band filled with electrons.
o Conduction band is the next highest band
to valence band (empty or partly filled)
o Gap is the energy difference between
valence and conduction bands, or is the
width of the forbidden band.
o Note: " electrons in a completely filled band
cannot move, since all states are occupied
(Pauli principle); only way to move would
be to jump into next higher band which
needs energy; " electrons in partly filled
band can move, since they are in free
state.
o Classification of solids into three types,
according to their band structure:
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o Insulators: gap or forbidden region

between valence band and conduction
band is very wide, about 3 to 6 eV;
o Semiconductors: Gap is small - about 0.1
to 1 eV; "
o Conductors: There is no energy gap.

Semiconductors
Semiconductors are the materials whose
electrical conductivity lies in between
metals and insulator. The energy band
structure of the semiconductors is similar to the
insulators but in their case, the size of the
forbidden energy gap is much smaller than that
of the insulator. In this class of crystals, the
forbidden gap is of the order of about 1ev, and
the two energy bands are distinctly separate
with no overlapping. At absolute 0oC no
electron has any energy even to jump the
forbidden gap and reach the conduction band.
Therefore the substance is an insulator. But
when we heat the crystal and thus provide
some energy to the atoms and their electrons, it
becomes an easy matter for some electrons to
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jump the small energy gap and go to

conduction band. Thus at higher temperatures,
the crystal becomes a conductors. This is the
specific property of the crystal which is known
as a semiconductor.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors. In a pure semiconductor, each atom
behaves as if there are 8 electrons in its valence
shell and therefore the entire material behaves as an
insulator at low temperatures.
A semiconductor atom needs energy of the order of
1.1ev to shake off the valence electron. This energy
becomes available to it even at room temperature.
Due to thermal agitation of crystal structure,
electrons from a few covalent bonds come out. The
bond from which electron is freed, a vacancy is
created there. The vacancy in the covalent bond is
called a hole.
This hole can be filled by some other electron in a
covalent bond. As an electron from covalent bond
moves to fill the hole, the hole is created in the
covalent bond from which the electron has moved.
Since the direction of movement of the hole is
opposite to that of the negative electron, a hole
behaves as a positive charge carrier. Thus, at room
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temperature, a pure semiconductor will have

electrons and holes wandering in random directions.
These electrons and holes are called intrinsic
carriers.
As the crystal is neutral, the number of free electrons
will be equal to the number of holes.

Extrinsic semiconductors
As the conductivity of intrinsic semi-conductors is
poor, so intrinsic semi-conductors are of little
practical importance. The conductivity of pure semiconductor can, however be enormously increased by
addition of some pentavalent or a trivalent impurity in
a very small amount (about 1 to 106). The process
of adding an impurity to a pure semiconductor so as
to improve its conductivity is called doping. Such
semi-conductors are called extrinsic semiconductors. Extrinsic semiconductors are of two
types:

I.

n-type semiconductor
When an impurity atom belonging to group V of the
periodic table like Arsenic is added to the pure semiconductor, then four of the five impurity electrons
form covalent bonds by sharing one electron with
each of the four nearest silicon atoms, and fifth
electron from each impurity atom is almost free to
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conduct electricity. As the pentavalent impurity

increases the number of free electrons, it is called
donor impurity. The electrons so set free in the
silicon crystal are called extrinsic carriers and the ntype Si-crystal is called n-type extrinsic
semiconductor. Therefore n-type Si-crystal will have
a large number of free electrons and have a small
number of holes.
As the energy gap between donor energy level and
the conduction band is very small, the electrons can
easily raise themselves to conduction band even at
room temperature. Hence, the conductivity of n-type
extrinsic semiconductor is markedly increased.

II.

p-type semiconductor
If a trivalent impurity like indium is added in pure
semi-conductor, the impurity atom can provide only
three valence electrons for covalent bond formation.
Thus a gap is left in one of the covalent bonds. The
gap acts as a hole that tends to accept electrons. As
the trivalent impurity atoms accept electrons from the
silicon crystal, it is called acceptor impurity. The
holes so created are extrinsic carriers and the p-type
Si-crystal so obtained is called p-type extrinsic
semiconductor. Again, as the pure Si-crystal also
possesses a few electrons and holes, therefore, the

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p-type Si-crystal will have a large number of holes

and a small number of electrons.
It terms of valence and conduction band one can
think that all such holes create an accepter energy
level just above the top of the valance band. The
electrons from valence band can raise themselves to
the accepter energy level by absorbing thermal
energy at room temperature and in turn create holes
in the valence band.

DIODES AND TRANSISTORS

o P-N junction is the semiconductor in which
impurity changes abruptly from p-type to n-type
;
o Diffusion is movement due to difference in
concentration, from higher to lower
concentration;
o in absence of electric field across the junction,
holes diffuse towards and across boundary
into n-type and captures electrons;
o Electrons diffused across boundary, fall into
holes; Results in the formation of a depletion
region (Region without free charge carriers)
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around the boundary; charged ions are left

behind: negative ions left on p-side i.e. net
negative charge on p-side of the junction;
positive ions left on n-side i.e. net positive
charge on n-side of the junction.

DIODE
o Diode is a biased p-n junction, i.e. p-n junction
with voltage applied across it.
o Forward biased: p-side more positive than nside;
o Reverse biased: n-side more positive than pside;

TRANSISTORS
o Transistor is the combination of two diodes that
share middle portion, called base of transistor;
other two sections: emitter'' and collector;
o Usually, base is very thin and lightly doped.
o There are two kinds of bipolar transistors: PNP
and NPN transistors

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o PNP means emitter is p-type, base is n-type,

and collector is p-type material;
o In normal operation of PNP transistor, we apply
positive voltage to emitter, negative voltage to
collector.

Operation of pnp transistor

o If emitter-base junction is forward biased, holes
flow from battery into emitter, which moves it
into base;
o Some holes annihilate with electrons in n-type
base, but base is thin and lightly doped so the
most holes make it through base into collector,
o Holes move through collector into negative
terminal of battery; i.e. collector current flows
whose size depends on how many holes have
been captured by electrons in the base;
o This depends on the number of n-type carriers
in the base which can be controlled by the size
of the current that is allowed to flow from the
base to the emitter; the base current is usually
very small and even small changes in the base
current can cause a big difference in the
collector current.
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Transistor operation

o Transistor acts as amplifier of base current,

since small changes in base current cause big
changes in collector current.
o Transistor as switch: if voltage applied to
base is such that emitter-base junction is
reverse-biased, no current flows through
transistor -transistor is off
Therefore, a transistor can be used as a
voltage controlled switch; computers use
transistors in this way.
Field-effect Transistor (FET)
o In a PNP FET, current flowing through a thin
channel of n-type material is controlled by the
voltage applied to two pieces of p-type material
on either side of the channel.
o FETs are the kind of transistor most commonly
used in computers.

Capacitor
The capacitor has a property to store energy as
potential energy in the electric field of capacitor.
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It can be connected in a circuit so that storage

energy can be made to flow in a desired circuit to
perform a useful function.
Capacitor play a very important role in many A.C.
and D.C. circuits. In many of the electrical
appliances as radio, televisions, motors
etc., Capacitors are intentionally inserted to
introduce the desired capacitance.

Principle of a Capacitor:
A capacitor is based on the fact that an arranging the
two metallic conductors, so that when conductor is
connected to the earth, the other conductor has the
ability to store a large amount of charge on it.

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Observations
The truth table for it i.e. for NOT Gate is as
follows
Input (A)

Output (Y)

a) If switch A is open (i.e. A=0), the LED will

glow (i.e. Y=1)

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b) If Switch A is closed (i.e. A=1), the LED will

not glow (Y=0).

Conclusion
A NOT Gate is usually called an inverter
because it gives complement value of the
input. When the output signal is high the
input signal is low, when the input signal is
low the output signal is high. It is confirmed
by seeing the truth table as the input is one
then the output is zero and vice-versa.

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Thus, a NOT gate gives an inverted

version of the input value.

Applications of Not Gate

As the NOT Gate inverts the input value, There
uses are as follows;
1. Now the CMOS inverters are commonly
used to build square wave oscillators which
are used for generating clock signals. The
advantage of using these is they consume
low power and their interfacing is very easy
compared to other logic gates.

Output

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Square wave oscillator by using a ring configuration.

2. Light sensor;
3. Regulator;

4. Pressure Plate.

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