Reference (in APA format)

Smith, J., Hand, L., & Dowrick, P. W.

(2014). Video Feedforward for Rapid
Learning of a Picture-Based
Communication System. Journal Of
Autism And Developmental
Disorders, 44(4), 926-936

Purpose (rationale for conducting Methods (who participated in the

Results (findings with respect to Discussion (Did the results confirm
the study, previous work
study, where the study took place, acquisition, generalization and
the hypothesis? How?,
conducted in this area, purpose of skill being measured, identifying maintenance, Did the intervention explanation of results, limitations
study)
intervention, how data were
work?)
of study, teaching implications)
collected)
The purpose of this study was to see
the effectiveness of using video selfmodeling (VSM) to teach children
with Autism spectrum disorders
(ASDs) and a man with Down
syndrome how to use a picture
exchange communication system
(PECS). Previous research had
qualified video modeling as an
evidence-based intervention and this
study was conducted to see the
success rate of VSM versus studies
on other types of video modeling in
teaching communication strategies.
Functional communication is
essential for a higher quality of life,
making the rationale behind this
study incredibly valid. The three
participants were non-verbal with no
set system of communication before
the study, as the teaching of other
communication systems had
previously not been successful. This
study was conducted to see if VSM
would present the methodology
behind the PECS in a way that was
more successful than previous
attempts of teaching communication
systems.

The participants of this study were

After the implementation of VSM, all The results of the study confirm that
two boys diagnosed with ASDs (ages three participants displayed a major VSM is an effective and rapid
9-11) and one adult diagnosed with increase in correct target behaviors strategy in teaching children with
Down syndrome (aged 36). All
compared to the baseline. Participant ASDs effective modes of
participants were non-verbal with
one increased from 0% correct in his communication, such as PECS.
receptive language abilities ranging baseline to 50% correct with
Though the participants belonged to
from very little to being able to follow prompting after watching the VSM
different age, developmental
three and four step instructions. The video once. He achieved complete
disability, and ability groups, they all
study took place in the homes of the mastery of the target behavior after reached criterion in the mastery of
participants (the family homes of the watching the video three times, as
their target skills after being exposed
two boys with ASDs and the
well as was able to generalize the
to VSM of that certain target skill. All
residential facility of the man with
target behavior to people he had not participants had been previously
Down syndrome). Data was collected met before. The second participant exposed to the traditional teaching of
through creating three to five
had a baseline of 0% correct and did PECS prior to this study with no
baselines of the target behaviors for not show much improvement in the success. Despite previous failed
each participant, then observing each acquired skill of using PECS based exposure, each participant was able
participant with the applied
off of viewing VSM weekly. The
to independently master their target
intervention and basing the results on intervention was increased to daily, skills in the use of PECS after
the baselines. There were three
and the participant increased from
exposure to VSM. This provides valid
different target behaviors for each
0% correct, to 50% correct, to 80% evidence for the use of VSM to
participant. Participant one's target
correct when generalizing the target increase communication skills among
behavior was to select a card, then behaviors to unfamiliar communicativestudents with ASDs. This being said,
select the item that matched the
partner. The third participant
it is crucial to recognize the fact that
card. Participant two's target
increased accuracy in using the
this study covered a very narrow
behaviors were measured in two
PECS from VSM from a baseline of population of students with ASDs.
stages: giving the communicative
50% correct to 80% correct, and
Though the interventions worked with
partner the correct card in exchange finally to 100% correct. Mastery of
the two participants with ASDs, VSM
for the item in their hand, then
the targeted behaviors took
might not be as highly successful
selecting a card and moving out of his participants between one and four
among different students with ASDs
chair to hand the communicative
weeks, with two to nine viewings of from various demographics. This
partner the card. Participant three's the self-modeled video each. One of taken into consideration, evidence
target behaviors were to locate his
the participants had to go overseas still points to the fact that the use of
folder containing the PECS, place a unexpectedly in the middle of the
VSM among students with ASDs is
card on the "I want" word strip, and study and was not able to review the an intervention that will most likely
then give the completed word strip to self-modeled videos, which resulted inrapidly produce highly proficient
the communicative partner. The
a decrease in percent correct after
communicative results. VSM could
intervention used was watching VSM his return. This could be used as
be used regularly in any classroom,
videos tailored to each participant's evidence that the maintenance of this not just those with students with
target behaviors on laptops before
intervention should occur at least
ASDs, to model and establish
being assessed on the accuracy of weekly to ensure continued master of expected communicative behaviors
their communicative target behaviors. using the PECS. In short, the VSM
and skills. Based on the results from
This intervention was repeated until intervention was highly effective in
this study, VSM should be reviewed
each participant displayed 80-100% teaching the participants to
regularly to maintain master of
accuracy in their target behaviors.
communicate using PECS.
communication skills if it is to be
used in the classroom.

Buggey, T., & Ogle, L. (2013). The

Use of Self-Modeling to Promote
Social Interactions among Young
Children. Focus On Autism And
Other Developmental Disabilities, 28
(4), 202-211.

One of the largest common

The participants in this study were
The results of this study did not find
discrepancies between students with four typically developing children
much correlation between the
normal development and students
between two and three years of age frequency of appropriate interactions
with ASDs is social and
and two children that had been
between children with ASDs and
communicative functioning. Research diagnosed with ASDs. The study took typically developing children and
has proven that interventions in social place in a playground and classroom exposure to these appropriate
and communicative functioning for
that was modeled after an earlyinteractions via VSM. Each child was
children with ASDs should be
intervention classroom and was a part fairly consistent in the number of
implemented as early as possible,
of a larger institution in the
interactions they initiated and
ideally preschool or prior. Various
southeastern area of the United
participated in from their baseline,
forms of video modeling have been States. The institute served children which implies that children under the
common interventions for teaching
from birth to five years old, and most age of four do not respond well to the
young children with ASDs these
classrooms were fairly evenly divided intervention of VSM to learn social
social and communicative skills.
between children with and without
and communicative skills. This study
Partly based on Bandura's theory of disabilities. Data were collected
concludes that while self-recognition
the correlation between self-efficacy through event recording by two
and the ability to recognize that play
and success, research points to
researches that intently observed the is not always real occurs at around
video self-modeling (VSM) as an
children on the playground and in the two years of age, other skills might
effective way to motivate younger
classroom. The skill measured was need to be developed before children
children with ASDs in learning and
the frequency of appropriate
can learn social and communication
displaying appropriate social and
communication, interaction, and/or
cues from VSM. The researchers
communicative skills by allowing
play between the children with ASDs acknowledge that while VSM might
them to watch themselves succeed in and the children that were typically
not be the most effective strategy to
these behaviors on video. This study developing. The intervention included teach social and communicative
was created to support this
showing the children a two and a half skills to children with ASDs under the
hypothesis. The purpose of the study to three minute video of VSM
age of four, this study focused on the
was to use VSM to model appropriate displaying the children
teaching of behavioral aspects and
free-play between children of typical communicating, interacting, and/or
the findings cannot be generalized
development and children with ASDs playing together appropriately. The across topics of teaching. The use of
to increase positive and appropriate videos included various types of
typically developing students in this
social and communicative
interaction initiation (gestural or
study helped the conductors to infer
interactions in the children with
verbal), followed by the successful
that some developmental criteria
ASDs. Other purposes of this study interaction between the two students. might need to be acquired before
were to see whether or not problems
VSM can be successfully used as an
in social and communicative
intervention to teach social and
development in children with ASDs
communication skills.
are seen early on as a result of age
or pre-diagnosed disability and if the
use of VSM to teach appropriate
social and communicative
interactions was relevant among
children under four years of age.

The results did not support the

hypothesis, as there was really no
correlation between the use of VSM
to model appropriate social and
communication skills and the
frequency of interactions between the
two groups of children. Though early
social and communication
intervention is supported in children
with ASDs, this study provided some
evidence that developmental factors
in all children might be necessary in
order for VSM to be effective in
teaching various behavioral skills. The
limitations of this study include a low
sample size and a narrow range of
dependent variables, which makes
the study difficult to generalize
among different behaviors. The results
of this study implicate that though
VSM may be an effective intervention
for older children with ASDs in
acquiring social and communication
skills, certain traits must be
developed before any child can
successfully learn behavioral skills
through VSM. This is important for
teachers to remember when
considering VSM as an intervention
to teach children with ASDs various
social and communication skills, as
they may not yet have the needed
developmental traits in order to
respond well to VSM, either because
of age or slow development.

Krumeich, K. L. (2013). The impact

of video self-modeling on middle
school students with autism
spectrum disorders (Order No.
3554244). Available from ProQuest
Dissertations & Theses Global.
(1316620114). Retrieved from http:
//lib-ezproxy.tamu.edu:2048/login?
url=http://search.proquest.
com/docview/1316620114?
accountid=7082

The purpose of this study was to find The participants of this study were
The students with ASDs that took
The results of this study confirmed
effective ways to better equip
three middle school teachers from the part in the study were overall very
that VSM is an effective intervention
students with Autism Spectrum
central Florida area and their
receptive to VSM. The intervention
for students with ASDs in increasing
Disorders (ASDs) with
students with ASDs. The teachers
had significant impacts academically, appropriate communication. Having
communication and social skills as
were required to have taught students socially, and communicatively. For
the student practice the correct target
they transition from a self contained with ASDs for at least one year, as
the sake of this search, I will only
behavior when filming and then later
classroom to a general education
well as had to have experience with discuss the communicative impacts reviewing the correct target behavior
classroom. Several school districts in VSM, either through direct
that the VSM intervention had on
by watching the video incorporated
central Florida with a large number of implementation or observation. Data students with ASDs. Though all
the previously researched strategies
students with ASDs took note of
was collected from the participants
students were not able to acquire the of guided practice and using visual
behavioral problems that arose when through observations, interviews, and skill by the end of the first
stimulants. The study proved the
trying to transition students with
reviewing records. This study took
observation, each student was able to effectiveness of this by measuring the
ASDs from self contained to general place in middle schools in the central raise their hand correctly and at
increase of appropriate/correct hand
education classrooms. Research had Florida area. Each classroom was
appropriate times either
raising. By the end of the third
been conducted that supported the self contained and included at least independently or with minimal support observation, all students with ASDs
use of both visual stimulants and
one student with ASD. The teachers by the end of the third observation. were raising their hands correctly, at
guided practice as tools to increase in this study were focusing on target This extended guided practice and
appropriate times, and had
academic engagement and
behaviors that would benefit the
use of visual stimulants allowed for all generalized the skill to all areas of
appropriate behaviors in students with students behavior and
students with ASDs to acquire the
communication (not just academic).
ASDs. These two findings were the communication skills in general
targeted skill. The students were able The main limitation of the study is the
basis of deciding to experiment with education classrooms, such as
to generalize this behavior beyond
narrow participant group. Due to the
video self-modeling (VSM) as an
appropriate hand raising to initiate
indicating that they had a response or fact that all participants in this study
intervention for teaching student with academic responses and express
question related to academic content were from one specific geographical
ASDs communication and social
wants and needs. The interventions to all types of communication (asking area, it is difficult to determine if the
skills, as it is a combination of guided used were filming the student
to go to the bathroom, expressing a results could be generalized across
practice and visual stimulation. The performing the correct target
need for materials, etc.). In order to the entire United States. However,
study looked at how appropriate
behaviors (the actual videoing of the maintain this behavior, the teachers the results of the study still make a
hand-raising to initiate academic
video self-modeling) and then having would need to regularly integrate
strong case for using VSM in
communication was affected by using the students review the behaviors
VSM into their classroom. The
classrooms with students with ASDs.
VSM among students with ASDs in a through watching the video selfstudents would need regular
Using VSM in any classroom would
contained classroom.
modeling. The filming of the correct reminders of the expected behaviors, help increase student communication
target behavior incorporated the
which could effectively be done
through guided practice during filming
research-based intervention of guided through the continued use of VSM. and teaching effective communication
practice, while viewing the video selfthrough the visual stimulation of
modeling incorporated the evidencewatching the self-modeled video.
based practice of visual stimulation.
Through VSM, students would be
able to practice and visualize
correctly performed communication
skills.

Williamson, R. L., Casey, L. B.,

Robertson, J. S., & Buggey, T.
(2013). Video Self-Modeling in
Children with Autism: A Pilot Study
Validating Prerequisite Skills and
Extending the Utilization of VSM
across Skill Sets. Assistive
Technology, 25(2), 63-71

The focus of this study was to

The chosen participants for this study Before the implementation of the
determine if VSM could be used to
were three middle school aged
VSM method, nearly no self-initiated
increase the instances of self-initiated children with autism, who were
greetings were initiated by any of the
greetings by students with autism.
located in a large school near a large three participants. Only Katarina was
Very often, the students that were
city in the Southern part of the United recorded as using a greeting when
chosen for some of the previous
States. Two of the students were in entering the classroom. However, at
studies had a certain set of
6th grade and the other was in 8th
the end of the implementation, only
prerequisite skills that the authors
grade at the time that the study was Samuel continued to consistently
believed would give a better
conducted. These three students that self-initiate greetings with others.
determination of the results in using were chosen all were receiving
Katarina and Brandon did not initiate
VSM. These prerequisite skills were special education services and were any greetings after the removal of the
to be able to actively watch a video, placed in self-contained classrooms. intervention. It was noted that no
be able to use verbal communication, All of the students chosen were of the attempts at communication were
to be able to imitate others by
same race and came from similar
made during the observation periods
watching, and the ability to recognize economic backgrounds and had very and Brandon did not attempt to use
themselves. These skills were very little to no verbal communication. The his big mac button that he uses as
important in the participants because video models shown to the students an AAC device to communicate to
if a student is unable to communicate were of a student entering a
greet the others. It appears that while
verbally, for example, it is not going classroom and self-initiating a
this intervention showed some
to be possible for them to self-initiate greeting. The video then showed the success, it did not have a high
a greeting without some type of AAC same student entering a lunch room success rate overall within this group
device. However, the students
and greeting those that he sits down of students.
selected for this study had very little with. Each participant of the study
verbal communication. This allowed was then prompted to vocalize or use
for the authors to be able to track
their AAC to greet the others by
more noticeable changes. Several
saying "good morning", "hi/hello", or
studies have been conducted on the some variation of those. Data was
subject of VSM previously and mainly collected through a number of
focused on modify inappropriate
observations ranging from a 15-21
behaviors, moderate some of the
day span. The first student "Samuel"
effects of mental illness, increase
was observed nine times, the second
responsive behaviors for students with"Katarina" was observed 15 times,
autism, and increase social
and the third "Brandon" was observed
communication. All of these were
18 times. All of their observations
able to be taught to students with
were then documented to track
autism through the use of VSM.
progressions.

This study proved to have some

overall very interesting results.
Samuel made the most progress,
while Katharina and Brandon were
recorded to have made none. While
these results may show that VSM
was not an effective intervention for
communication with these students,
it does not prove that VSM can not
be effective for other students who
have autism. The findings from this
study did help give some insight into
appropriate prerequisite skills for
using the video self-modeling
strategy. Students who are on the
autism spectrum have a wide variety
of symptoms that fall on a wide
range. Each child functions differently
and this study helped to shed some
light on the idea that this type of
intervention is not the best for
everyone.

Wilson, K. w. (2013). Incorporating

Video Modeling Into a School-Based
Intervention for Students With Autism
Spectrum Disorders. Language,
Speech & Hearing Services In
Schools, 44(1), 105-117.

The purpose of this study or tutorial is This tutorial looks at other reviews
The results show that video modeling The results of this tutorial do support
to give step by step instructions for and meta-analyses that have been
and VSM are both beneficial for
the hypothesis. According to previous
using video modeling and video self done over the past 10 years. The
school based SLPs to use. SLPs
reviews and studies video modeling is
modeling (VSM) by school-basedreviews and meta-analyses were on have a lot of requirements they have a cost effective intervention that
speech-language pathologists (SLPs) empirically supported considerations to meet when implementing an
increases child independent, can be
who serve students with Autism
for school-based SLPs who may use intervention and video modeling
easily individualized, implemented
Spectrum Disorder (ASD). This
video modeling or VSM when working seems to meet all of these
consistently, and can be used across
tutorial was done because many
with students who have ASD. This
challenges. Video modeling is
different people and settings. This
SLPs said that they felt
study focuses on five phases when evidenced based, it requires very little hypothesis directly lines up with the
underprepared when working with
implementing video modeling and
training for professionals to
results of this tutorial. In regards to
students who were diagnosed as
video self modeling. The fives phases implement, it can be used on a
this specific article, it does not really
having ASD. Many SLPs and other are preparation, recording of the videoregular basis in many different
use any statistic to support that video
professionals also claimed they did model, implementation of the video settings, with different materials, and modeling is effective for school based
not have time to do research.
modeling intervention, monitoring of with many different people, students SLPs to use. The tutorial refers to
Because of these claims this tutorial the student's responses to the
with ASD find video modeling fun and other articles, but does explicitly
was created to benefit SLPs and
intervention, and planning of the next interesting and this can limit the
show the statistics of how video
other professionals when working withsteps. Preparations allows the SLPs number of behavior problems, and
modeling is beneficial for school
students who have ASD using
to see if video modeling is appropriate video modeling in very cost effective based SLPs to use. However, the
evidenced based practices.
for the student with ASD. It also
to implement. This tutorial highlights tutorial does provide some
allows time to see what skill needs to that video modeling is a great tool to explanation of what to do if a student
be worked on in the video model and be used in different setting with
is not responding to the video
the setting that the video modeling
different people. Students with ASD modeling.
should occur. The second phase is can take the skills they have learned
recording of the video modeling. In
in video modeling and apply them in
this phase, equipment needs to be
their other classes with other
chosen, how the video will be played teachers and students. This tutorial
needs to be decided, and the quality also shows that school-based SLPs
of the video needs to be reviewed.
who use video modeling can have a
The third stage is the implementation greater chance of making a lasting
of the video modeling intervention.
change on an individual with ASD in
This phase decisions need to be
regards to social skills,
made of when and how many times communication skills, adaptive skills,
the video needs to be used and who self regulatory skills, and plays skills.
will be implementing the video. In the
monitoring of student's response to
the video modeling intervention
phase, it needs to be decided how
data will be collected and involving
evaluating generalization and
maintenance of the learned skills.
The final stage, planning of next
steps, is deciding whether or not the
student responded well to the
intervention and where they need to
go from here.

Gelbar N, Anderson C, McCarthy S,

Buggey T. (2012). Video SelfModeling as an Intervention Strategy
for Individuals with Autism Spectrum
Disorders. Psychology In The
School's [serial online]. January 1,
2012;49(1):15-22. Available from:
ERIC, Ipswich, MA. Accessed
December 3, 2015.

This article focuses on video self

This article reviews other articles that
modeling (VSM). This article gives an talk about VSM as an intervention.
overview of VSM for students with
This article was written in 2012 and
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).The looks back at other reviews of VSM
purpose of this articles is to show
from previous years. In this articles, it
whether or not VSM is an effective
shows the relative effectiveness of
intervention for students with ASD.
VSM in contrast with other video
This article shows different ways of modeling strategies. When reviewing
how VSM can be utilized for students the other articles it looks across the
have ASD. This article also provides afour major categories, language and
review of VSM in the four major areas communication, social skills
that is said VSM helps students with interventions, behavior modification,
ASD. These four major areas are
and task instruction. These four
communication, social skills,
categories were looked at assessing
behavior, and task instruction.
the current evidence base that
supports VSM as an evidence-based
practice that targets specific problem
behaviors and increasing skills in
students with ASD.

This article shows that VSM is good

strategy to use for individuals with
ASD and to use it in conjunction with
other interventions. It shows that
VSM can help reduce problem
behaviors in some students, but not
all. This could be because ASD is
such a broad spectrum and two
individuals are alike. Because it is
such a broad spectrum this would
explain why not all students will
respond to using VSM. The article
also says that VSM should be used
as a continuum of interventions.

The results in this article do support

the hypothesis partially. The
hypothesis stated that using VSM
should increase the student's self
efficacy when working on a target
behavior and people learn best from
models that closely resemble
themselves. The result of this review
showed that individuals with ASD do
benefit from using VSM, but some
individuals do not.This is because is
ASD is a very broad spectrum and
not all students will react the same
way to it. Further research needs to
be done because things are always
evolving with ASD. Because not all
students responded positively to
VSM further research needs to be
done comparing student who
responded positively and students
who did not respond positively to the
intervention. More research also
needs to be done on comparing VSM
to other video modeling technique. It
would also be good to compare using
VSM with individuals of ASD and
VSM with their typical peers.

Hart, J. E., & Whalon, K. J. (2012).

Using Video Self-Modeling via iPads
to Increase Academic Responding of
an Adolescent with Autism Spectrum
Disorder and Intellectual Disability.
Education And Training In Autism
And Developmental Disabilities, 47
(4), 438-446.

The purpose of this study was to

This study was conducted in 2012 by At the completion of the study, it was The results of the study did confirm
provide further evidence as to whetherthe examining a 16 year old male in determined that the use of VSM did that the implementation of video selfvideo self-modeling (VSM) can be a the 10th grade, who has ASD and a increase the number of correct
modeling can be successful when
helpful intervention to students who moderate intellectual disability. The responses for a student with ASD.
introduced to students with ASD and
are on the Autism Spectrum. Few
student often became uncomfortable The teacher was able to share that intellectual disabilities. While the
studies have been previously
when asked direct questions during the implementation of VSM was easy student's overall amount of correct
conducted on this topic. However,
class discussion and would engage to do and was not seen as a
responses at baseline increased
these studies are often only
in repetitive behaviors. The target
distraction to other students in the
slightly from only 4% to 6%, his
conducted with one student and there behavior that was being worked
classroom. The percentage of the
amount of questions that he failed to
were few students who were chosen toward with this study was the
student's prompted correct responses respond to completely decreased
to participate that were over the age increasing of the student's
increased from 4% to 42% over the from 32% to 28%. There was also a
of 12. VSM has been looked into as a unprompted correct responses in
course of 5 weeks. The data
notice of increased spontaneous
way to engage students with ASD in classroom discussion. The study
collected over the course of those five responses from the student in
discussions about academic content. took place in a southwest high school weeks also displayed that while the classroom discussions. Though the
This study examines the effects of
during science instruction time in a
amount of correct responses
study was only conducted through
VSM and how it can be beneficial as resource classroom. The student was increased, the student still needed to the testing of one student, it can be
an intervention method in social
given a video iPad, which delivered be prompted by the teacher through assumed that VSM would work for
communication, functional,
the science related VSM . Data was direct questioning to contribute to
generally all students on the ASD
behavioral, and vocational needs.
collected over the course of 5 weeks class discussion. The amount of
spectrum or for students with
in 20 different instructional sessions. repetitive behaviors that were a result intellectual disabilities.This study
Before a lesson, the student would
of the student being directly
contributes to the fact that
watch a VSM done by his teacher to questioned also decreased with the technology such as iPads, iPods,
give him an introduction to what
use of the iPad. A functional
and computers can be effective
would be discussed in the lesson.
relationship between the use of the sources of interventions for generally
Then, the student would be verbally VSM on the iPad and the number of all students. These types of
prompted by the teacher to answer correct responses was established. technology not only can be used for
questions over what he had seen in With the continuation of the VSM for academic interventions, but for
the video.
the student and possibly some one- behavioral and social skills as well.
on-one work with the resource
paraeducator before lessons, it was
decided that the student could have
even more success.

Shukla-Mehta, S., Miller, T., &

Callahan, K. J. (2010). Evaluating the
Effectiveness of Video Instruction on
Social and Communication Skills
Training for Children with Autism
Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the
Literature. Focus On Autism And
Other Developmental Disabilities, 25
(1), 23-36.

The purpose of this study is to

determine how video instruction
affects students ability to acquire
social and communication skills. The
focus is on students with Autism
Spectrum Disorders (ASD) to
determine if video instruction
statistics are consistent for any
student as well as solidify this
practice as evidence-based. This
study has increased interest due to
the fact that video instruction for
students with special needs is
becoming a common application in
the classroom.

The focus of this study was on based Video Modeling (VM) was first
Some results of the study showed a
video instruction between 1980 and conducted with additional intervention lot of inadequate findings since some
2008. Resources such as through
components, such as prompts. 3 of of the variables overlapped, causing
EBSCO database searches,
the 4 outcomes were interpreted in unclear results. However, the
previously identified studies, as well that the participants acquired and
hypothesis was proven since there
as direct communication with related maintained the target responses. Due seemed to be a direct correlation
authors were utilized. The study
to the fact that the children liked the between video modeling and
provided 5 guidelines for specifying videos and they were short, it may
acquisition of a skill. Instructional
inclusion and exclusion criteria. The have caused better attention. Since prompts, reinforcers, and error
first of which mentions the variables; no other variables were given during correction appears to be more
including prompts, excluding
the study, it can be concluded that
effective for higher rates of acquisition
prompts, a multielement intervention there was a direct correlation
and maintenance. It is important to
package, and a comparison with an between watching the video clips and evaluate the students skills to
alternate strategy. Secondly, all
the acquisition of target skills. VM
determine the content of the video.
participants had to be diagnosed with with additional intervention
Children who have higher attention
ASD. Third, the video intervention hadcomponents was tested next. This
skills benefit greater. Keeping the
to target social/communication
included instructional prompts;
video short and replaying it was
responses. Forth, researchers had to tangible, edible, verbal reinforces,
valued. The presenter was not an
use a research design that allowed redirection, or a review of video
effective variable. After reading the
for evaluation of the intervention
content. In the study, intervention
article, it can be determined that
outcome. Lastly, the articles were
involved direct instruction to teach
further studies could be taken with
restricted to peer-reviewed English target responses over a span of 5
additional variables that were
journals. 26 studies were taken with a weeks, with a new target skill each
secluded. From the video, one could
total of 104 participants ranging from week. Participants showed an
determine that teachers should
2.5-15 years of age. 11 studies were increase in prosocial behavior, and implement video modeling alongside
conducted in regular school settings, even higher gains were shown during instructional prompts to increase
4 in a home setting, 5 in a clinical
play activities. Either video or in-vivo retention of the skill.
setting, 1 in a residential program, 1 instruction may have been the cause
in the university-based preschoolof the acquisition. For that reason,
program, and the remaining 4 in any this study was not clear if VM was
two including school, clinical, home, more effective. VM as a component of
community, or university-based pre- a multielement intervention package
school.
was the next study. In 6 of the 8
studies, additional components were
added when VM alone did not result
in target behaviors. When skills
instruction and error correction
procedures were incorporated it was
described as VM and Reinforcement.
At this point any effects could be a
result of the additional components.
However, these components varied in
structure, possibly making skewed
data since they cannot be compared.
Lastly, a VM compared to another
intervention strategy study was
conducted. Video Modeling vesus invivo training was compared. For invivo conditions, the therapist modeled
the appropriate response followed by
an error. During VM, the participant
was shown a video of the peer model.
These two could not be compared
since children in the VM condition got
to experience at least one in-vivo
demonstration of the desired action.
Although the 2 could not be
compared, a result of the study

Bellini, S., & Akullian, J. (2007). A

Meta-Analysis of Video Modeling and
Video Self-Modeling Interventions for
Children and Adolescents With
Autism Spectrum Disorders.
Exceptional Children, 73(3), 264-287.

The purpose of this study was to

provide a synthesis of outcomes on
previous existing studies on video
modeling The studies were on
children and adolescents with Autism
Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The metaanalysis examined the effects of
intervention, maintenance, and
generalization of video modeling and
Video-self modeling (VSM)
interventions. These were examined
across three dependent variables:
social-communication skills,
functional skills, and behavioral
functioning. One last purpose for this
study was to see if video modeling
interventions met the criteria for
evidenced based practices.

The study was done by examining

The meta-analysis showed that nine The results did support the
several previous articles between the of the studies have intervention
hypothesis that video modeling and
years of 1980 to 2005. The articles fidelity. The meta-analysis also
VSM are effective intervention based
were found using two different
determined that video modeling and strategies. Before the meta-analysis
databases, Educational Resources video-self modeling help improve
was conducted video modeling and
Information Center (ERIC) and
conversation skills. The metaVSM were said to be effective
PsychINFO. In order to see if the
analysis shows that both VSM and
strategies. By comparing the articles
articles were relevant and qualified video modeling are effective
in the meta-analysis it showed that
they checked to see if the article met interventions strategies for several
video modeling and VSM are both
the inclusion criteria. After searching things. These include addressing
effective strategies for individuals with
the databases 29 articles met the
social-communication skills,
ASD. However, there are some
criteria for the study. Each of the 29 behavioral functioning, and functioninglimitations to this. Most of the articles
articles was reviewed by two authors skills in both children and
used interventions that used video
to determine inclusion eligibility/ In
adolescents. The results also showed modeling and VSM in conjunction
order to be eligible it had to meet
that skills obtained through video
with other forms of therapeutic
some criteria. The criteria included
modeling and video-self modeling are strategies. In order to show that video
that the student must have been
able to be maintained over time and modeling and video self modeling are
identified with having Autism
children and adolescents can use
effective more studies need to be
Spectrum Disorder. The study had to these skills in various settings and
done on the interventions by
use outcome measures that focused with a variety of people. The metathemselves. Although 23 articles
on behavioral functioning, socialanalysis showed that the
were used, there was still a small
communication skills, or functional
interventions were completed
sample size of only 73. Because of
skills; if the study was on academic successfully in a variety of settings. this small sample size it limited the
outcomes it was excluded. The study The results also showed that video differences between video modeling
must have evaluated the effectivenessmodeling and VSM are short
and VSM. Even with these
of video modeling or VSM
interventions that are effective for
limitations, video modeling and VSM
interventions by themselves, or
children with ASD. The results also still provide teacher and clinicians
together with other forms of
showed that further research needs to with options to design social,
interventions. The studies had to use be done to examine the social validity communication, and behavioral
a single-subject research design that of video modeling and VSM
interventions for children with ASD.
shows experimental control. The
interventions.
studies had to show data using
graphs to display the information that
showed individual data points. They
only included studies that were
published in peer reviewed journals.
Finally, only studies that were
published in English could be used
for this study. After looking at all of
these studies, only 23 of the studies
were included in this meta-analysis.
There were a total of 73 participants
in the studies that ranged from the
ages of 3 to 20. The studies were
done by 20 different researchers from
thirteen different states and four
different countries. The interventions
in the studies were conducted in the
school, home, clinical, and
community settings.

Bellini, S., Akullian, J., & Hopf, A.

(2007). Increasing Social
Engagement in Young Children With
Autism Spectrum Disorders Using
Video Self-Modeling. School
Psychology Review, 36(1), 80-90.

The purpose of this article is focusing

on the examination of the benefits of
a video self-modeling (VSM)
intervention in increasing the social
engagement of preschool aged
children with autism spectrum
disorders (ASD). Research of this
subject is becoming more prevalent
to address social, communication,
and behavioral functioning of children
with weak social skills, specifically
ASD. This study is different than the
rest in that it measures social
interactions with same-aged peers
rather than in a clinical setting with
adults. This is an emerging study do
to rising number of students
diagnosed with ASD.

The participants consisted of 2

According to the data, Rogers mean The primary purpose of this study
was to examine the possibility of
preschool-aged students, both
percentage of social engagement
diagnosed with ASD. Roger was 4
during baseline was 3%. Throughout VSM interventions as a common
practice to increase social
year and 4 months, while Dylan was the intervention phase, his
5 years and 1 month old. They were engagement increased to 43%. The interactions of young children with
ASD. After viewing the data, it can be
described as socially withdrawn and next day, it dropped back to 3%,
limited to verbal and nonverbal
noting that Roger was consumed in determined that the hypothesis was
supported. VSM intervention
interactions with their peers. The
individual play. During the next
intervention took place in their
observational period, his percentage increased social engagement
preschool classroom alongside 5
returned to previous levels, at 53%. between peers in a natural setting as
well as maintained this skill even after
other peers. Unprompted social
Treatment PND was calculated at
interaction with peers was being
80% while the ES was rated at 8.38. the intervention was taken away.
tested. This can be seen in activity or This data shows positive correlation However, this study was short in that
it did not include other interventions
play sequence with a peer, not
with the VSM intervention and the
that could be used along side such
parallel play. Examples of desired
amount of unprompted social
behavior includes sharing toys,
engagement. Maintenance PND was as prompting and reinforcement for
objects, and play items. An example calculated at 100%, which explains the successful completion of the
of an interaction that did not count
how he was able to maintain his level target behavior. This study did not
was playing with play dough next to of social interactions even when the take into account teacher fidelity;
even though the teacher may have
their peers since there is no actual
intervention was removed. Dylans
meant the best, there may have been
interaction between the students.
mean percentage of social
subconscious attention to social
Negative interactions were not
engagement was 6% at baseline
counted such as taking an object
before decreasing to 0% during the interactions throughout the day. Also,
the maintenance study took place of
from a peer, pushing, and kicking
first day of the intervention phase.
were also not counted. Video footage Later, it increased to 24%, showing a 2-week time span, which is
relatively short. It would have provided
was taken 2 weeks before collecting increasing performance trends.
better data to see the intervention
baseline data. The participants were Treatment PND was 80% and ES
over a longer time span for the
given hidden support by being
was 4.24, also indicating that the
prompted to facilitate social
treatment was effective for Dylan as maintenance and baseline
interventions. There is room for future
interactions with their peers. Upon
well. His maintenance PND was
editing, the teacher took out
calculated at 100%, just like Roger. research to be conducted regarding
undesired behaviors from the footage The teacher noted how Dylan enjoyed the effectiveness of VSM. Given that
teachers have the technology
and only portrayed the desired skills. watching the videos, while Roger
provided to them, this strategy would
The effectiveness of the intervention initially did not enjoy watching the
was determined by visual
videos. With each passing week, his be a beneficial one to use especially
if paired with other intervention
observations of representative data, attention to the videos seemed to
calculated by the percentage of non- increase, showing his progression of strategies.
overlapping data points (PND) as well tolerance.
as the computation of effect sizes
(ES). Data were collected by two
graduate students three times per
week during a free choice activity.
Using 1 minute intervals, they
recorded social engagement for 30
minutes.