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3.4.3. Transitive and intransitive verbs.

Direct, indirect and prepositional objects
As a main verb, a transitive verb requires a direct object to complete the clause. In the two examples
below, the subject of the sentence performs an action that directly affects the person or thing
identified as the direct object (dO).
New Self, New World explores the implications of the little-known fact that we have two
brains. (thesunmagazine.org)
Any pressure on the wound can compromise the blood supply. (thesunmagazine.org)
In other words, when used transitively, verbs always occur in SVO patterns 1. Notice that all
transitive verbs are action verbs.
Much like in Romanian, in English the direct object can be found by asking the question <<
Subject + verbal + what/whom? >>. For example, to identify the direct object in the first example
above, we use the question <<New Self, New World explores what? >>. The direct object is
thus the noun phrase the implications of the little-known fact that we have two brains, and
explore is a transitive verb.
The direct action of the verb on the direct object is not always obvious. Downing and Locke
point to a small category of verbs that take untypical direct objects. They include verbs such as
have (They have two cars), cost (It cost ten pounds), lack (She lacks confidence), resemble (She
resembles her elder sister), fit (Do these shoes fit you?), suit (That colour doesnt suit me), weigh
(The suitcase weighs twenty kilos), contain (That box contains explosives) and measure (It
measures two metres by three.) All these answer questions with What? Who? How much/how
many?, as is usual with Ods2. These verbs dont passivise, but their Ods pass the wh-cleft test:
What she lacks is confidence. (Downing & Locke, 2006, p. 51)
Intransitive verbs do not take a direct object. Thus, when applied to the sentence Born in 1953,
he grew up in a suburb of Toronto, Canada, on the fringe of wilderness and farmers fields
(thesunmagazine.org), the question << Subject + verbal + what/whom? >> does not identify any
direct object. This makes us label grew up as an intransitive verb.
Nevertheless, depending on the context in which a particular verb is used, the same verb can be
recognized as either transitive or intransitive.
eat
1
2

Verb/clause patterns will be discussed further on.

Downing and Locke use the abbreviation Od for direct object.

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transitive
intransitive
transitive
intransitive

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You can also end up eating more than you would have done if you'd served up your
own portions. (http://www.nhs.uk)
If you're eating at a restaurant or cafe, you can make choices to ensure that your meal is healthy
and balanced. (http://www.nhs.uk)
start
More recently these organizations have started receiving corporate support.
(thesunmagazine.org)
Your book starts close to home with the story of Yosemite National Park.
(thesunmagazine.org)

The same Downing & Locke argue that we should talk about transitive or intransitive uses of
certain verbs, as a great many verbs can be used in English both transitively and intransitively
[...]. Land is transitive in The pilot landed the plane safely, but intransitive in The plane landed.
Carry is transitive in They carried backpacks, but it has an intransitive use in His voice carries
well (= projects) (2006, pp. , 37).
In Romanian, transitivity is defined as the capacity of a verb to govern a direct object. According
to this feature, verbs are divided into a) transitive verbs (= have or can have a direct object) and
b) intransitive verbs (= do not have and cannot have a direct object). One observation can be
especially useful for this discussion, because it goes in line with Downing and Lockes
suggestion above: the transitive verbs with no direct object present 3 (= with their transitivity
valency free) are called tranzitive absolute/ folosite absolut, as in Am mncat la ora opt.
(Neamu, 1989, p. 171).
To further highlight the similarities between the approaches to transitivity in the two languages,
it can be useful to translate the examples for eat in the table above into Romanian, and thus to
see the comparable behaviour of the verbs with regard to transitivity.
mnca
Poi, de altfel, s sfreti prin a mnca mai mult dect ai fi mncat...
transitive
intransitive Dac mnnci la un restaurant sau bufet, poi s alegi ....
As I have already pointed out, the valency of the verb decides how many clause elements need to
be present to form a complete clause. In the two examples above, as well as in their English
counterparts, mnca and eat used transitively have a valency of 2 in Poi, de altfel, s sfreti
prin a mnca mai mult dect ai fi mncat.../You can also end up eating more than you would
have done... Mnca and eat used intransitively have a valency of 2 in Dac mnnci la un
restaurant sau bufet, poi s alegi ..../If you're eating at a restaurant or cafe, you can make
choices ...

Al cror complement direct nu este exprimat.

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However, if a verb that can be used transitively is used intransitively, then we can say that its
valency is reduced to 1, because in English finite clauses normally require a subject (also see 3.2.
and 3.9.).
Depending on their valency, transitive verbs fall into three classes:
1. monotransitive verbs have only one object, a direct object, as in She knows you. and He hurt
himself.
2. ditransitive verbs have two objects. There are two main patterns for ditransitive verbs: a.
direct object preceded by indirect object (SViOdO) and b. direct object followed by prepositional
object (SVdOppO).
a. The basic ditransitive pattern contains verbs of transfer (give, lend) and intended transfer (buy,
get), as in I gave her a present and I got her a present. Downing and Locke argue that threeplace verbs like give have a subject and two Objects, representing the transfer of goods or
information from one person to another. They also include speech act verbs such as offer and
promise (2006, pp. , 92).
Other verbs in the give category are: hand, lend, offer, owe, pass, promise, read, send, show,
teach, throw, write.
The get category includes: book, bring, build, buy, cash, cut, fetch, find, leave, spare, keep,
make, pour, save.
The same authors illustrate the existence of a prepositional counterpart for the indirect object, the
give type with to, the get type with for (I gave a present to her. I got/bought a present for her).
In the examples, the PP functions as a prepositional/oblique object, defined by Hasselgrd,
Lysvg and Johansson as
a clause element with a semantic role characteristic of an object (affected, effected or
beneficiary), but realized by a prepositional phrase. An oblique object may occur in the
same clause as a direct object. An oblique object may be a variation on an indirect
object, as in I gave some flowers to my neighbours. (Cf. I gave my neighbours some
flowers). Alternatively, an oblique object may be a element which might have been
expressed as a direct object, but which has lost that status in competition with another
phrase, as in He stuffed his mouth with peanuts. (Cf. He stuffed peanuts into his mouth.)
[...] Objects of prepositional verbs are analysed as direct objects, and prepositional
phrases with meanings similar to direct or indirect objects are analysed as adjunct
adverbials. (Hasselgrd, Lysvg, & Johansson, Glossary of grammatical terms used in
English Grammar: Theory and Use (2nd edition))
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In simpler terms, three object types are generally acknowledged in mainstream English
grammars: direct objects, indirect objects, and prepositional/oblique objects, all illustrated in
the following table.
type
direct object (dO)
indirect object (iO)
prepositional/oblique object (ppO/oO)

description
entity acted upon
entity indirectly affected by the action
object introduced by a preposition

example
I gave her a present.
I gave her a present/I gave a present to her.
I was looking for a present for her.

Notice that there are iOs that consist of a prepositional phrase, just like the ppO/oO. The
difference is that an indirect object cannot occur without a dO, while a ppO/oO can.
Downing and Locke (2006, pp. , 93) also point to the existence of two passives with the give
type:
Active:
Passive 1:
Passive 2:

I gave Jo a copy.
Jo was given a copy.
A copy was given to Jo.
? A copy was given Jo.4

(Oi in active clause S in passive clause)

(Od in active clause S in passive clause)

In Romanian, ditransitive verbs5 have two direct objects. According to Neamu (1989, pg. , 177),
only few verbs fall into this category: a asculta, a ntreba, a examina, a nva, a ruga, a trece, a
sftui.
Pe Ion (dO) l-a nvat gramatic (dO) 6
Pe Ionescu (dO) l-am ascultat lecia (dO).
The structure with two direct objects is quite rare in Romanian, and the second direct object is
usually replaced by an indirect object or by another complement or adverbial, as in M- (dO) a
ntrebat despre atribut (iO).
However, the structure with direct object and completiv direct (that replaces the second direct
object) is quite common, L-am rugat s-mi mprumute pixul.
3. complex transitive verbs have a direct object and an object complement (see 3.6.).
They painted the table white.
They elected her president.

Downing and Locke use ? to indicate divided acceptability.

They are called verbe bitranzitive or dublu tranzitive.
6
According to Neamu, pe Ion = complement direct al persoanei, reluat prin pronumele personal l-; lecia =
complement direct al obiectului, nedublabil.
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In both English and Romanian, the large majority of verbs may be used transitively as well as
intransitively, often with the same meaning. Downing and Locke identify the following types:
1 Verbs with an implied Object, such as smoke (cigarettes), drive (a car), park (a car),drink
(alcohol), save (money), wave (ones hand), as in Do you smoke? and He doesnt drive.
The authors comment on the valency of such verbs:
Such intransitive uses can be considered as instances of valency reduction, that is the
normal valency of two of these verbs is reduced to one. As these reductions are based on
cultural schemas and tend to have an implication of habituality, they are not extended to
other object referents such as wave a flag, drink milk. With certain verbs such as read,
write, eat and teach the deleted direct object is not specific, and is perhaps unknown, as
in He teaches and she writes. (Downing & Locke, 2006, p. 91)
2 Causatives with an intransitive counterpart, constituting an ergative pair
SVdO
He opened the door.
She clicked the camera.

SV
The door opened.
The camera clicked.

Neamu (1989, pg. , 173) describes similar pairs in Romanian:

tranzitiv
Mi-l amintesc pe Ion.

intranzitiv
mi amintesc de Ion.

3 Verbs with a reflexive meaning: He shaved (himself), She dressed (herself).

4 Verbs with a reciprocal meaning: Tom and Jo met at a concert. (met each other)
There are some verbs that are always intransitive. They are grouped by Downing and Locke (2006, pp. , 85) in

verbs of behaviour which is typically involuntary or semi-voluntary: laugh, smile, cry, blink, blush,
cough, sneeze, sigh, tremble, yawn; wait, stay; die, collapse, faint, fall.

They all laughed, someone yawned, one soldier fainted.

verbs of weather: rain, snow

Its raining. Its snowing. The sun rose.

verbs of occurrence: appear, disappear, go, come, arrive, depart, vanish, fade, happen.

Has everyone arrived?

Hopes of avoiding war are now fading.

idiomatic intransitive phrasal verbs where there is no verb of the same meaning.
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3.5. The Indirect Object

3.5.1. Definition and properties
A clause may have an indirect object, in addition to a direct object. The indirect object (iO)
refers to a person indirectly affected by the action described in the sentence. The person
generally receives something or benefits from something7.
The following example can be used to illustrate that the indirect object will fill the function of
the direct object if the latter is omitted, and that such an omission changes the meaning of the
whole clause. In Bob is cooking his girlfriend a meal, his girlfriend is the indirect object
(representing the person who benefits from the action) and a meal is the direct object. If a meal
is omitted, his girlfriend no longer benefits from the subjects action and becomes the part that is
directly affected, with Bob at the same time becoming a cannibal!
Formal and functional criteria can be applied to identify the indirect object.
Property Property Description
Although both objects usually occur either as
Form
noun phrases or as clauses in form, the indirect
object is restricted to the relative clause form.
Position The indirect object can occur only when the
direct object is also represented in the clause.
The indirect object occurs only between the
verb and the direct object.

Example
Bob is cooking his girlfriend a meal.
[NP]
I sent whoever wants it copies of a
receipt. [relative-Cl]
Bob is cooking his girlfriend (iO) a meal
(dO).
*Bob is cooking his girlfriend (iO).
Bob is cooking his girlfriend (iO) a meal
(dO).
*Bob is cooking a meal (dO) his
girlfriend (iO).
Bob is cooking a meal (dO) for his
girlfriend (iO).

For a different position, the indirect object must

be paraphrased by a prepositional phrase
functioning as an adverbial, beginning with
either to or for. The choice of the preposition is
governed by the main verb of the clause.
The indirect object can be omitted without Bob is cooking a meal (dO).
affecting the semantic relationships of the
remaining elements of the clause.

Pronoun If the subject and the indirect object of a clause Bob (S) is cooking himself (iO) a meal.
refer to the same entity, then the indirect object
s
will be in the form of a reflexive pronoun. The
reflexive pronoun will agree with the subject in
7

In Romanian, the indirect object is defined very similarly.

I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3

Voice

number, person, and gender, where relevant.

All other pronouns assuming object function
will take the objective form (me, him, her, us,
them not I, she, we, they)
There is also a systematic relationship between
the indirect object of an active voice clause and
the subject of a passive voice clause. The
indirect object of the active voice clause may
become the subject in the passive voice
equivalent.
If the direct object becomes the subject, the
indirect object (if retained) generally consists of
a prepositional phrase introduced by to or for:

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Bob (S) is cooking her (iO) a meal.

The board offered Jane (iO)
scholarship. [active voice]
Jane
(S)
was
offered
scholarship.[passive voice]

a
a

A scholarship was offered to Jane (iO).

[passive voice]

Notice that the indirect object consisting of a prepositional phrase normally comes after the
direct object; consequently, there are two possible variants of a SVOO clause, I will give Jane
my umbrella. (SViOdO) and I will give my umbrella to Jane. (SVdOiO). The two structures
differ to some extent in their use, because of the general tendency for the more important
information to come at the end. For example, if Jane has already been mentioned, but not the
umbrella, we would expect the first to be used rather than the second, though in speech the focus
can be indicated by giving it prominence in the intonation pattern.
In line with Kies, Downing and Locke (2006, pp. , 56) identify the following realisations of the
indirect object and illustrate them with examples:
a. typically, NPs (see examples in the table above)
b. less typically, wh-nominal relative clauses, which occur more usually as a prepositional
alternative:
You can lend the dictionary to whoever needs it. (recipient as nominal relative Cl.)
Phil has booked all his friends tickets for the show. (beneficiary as NP)
c. marginally, a non-finite -ing clause or a PP. These options are only open to a recipient iO.
Im giving reading magazines less importance lately. (-ing cl)
Lets give before lunch-time priority. (PpP)

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3.5.2. The meanings of the indirect object

Greenbaum and Nelson identify the recipient role of the indirect object, as the entity that is
indirectly affected by the action, generally the person receiving something or intended to receive
something, or benefiting in some way (2002, pp. , 36)
Bob was cooking her a meal.
Downing and Locke (2006, pp. , 55) distinguish between two different meanings (they call them
semantic roles): recipient (the one who receives the goods or information), and beneficiary
(intended recipient) and argue that the differences between them are reflected in the syntax.
The authors propose the following examples:
Recipient Oi
She has lent me a few CDs.
The doctor gave the injured man oxygen.
Sammy Karanja is teaching the students maths

Beneficiary Oi
Ill buy you a drink.
He got us the tickets.
She left him a note.

Thus, in passive counterparts iO as recipient corresponds to the subject, while most beneficiary
iOs do not easily become subject in a passive clause, although this restriction is not absolute.
Recipient as Subject
I have been lent a few CDs.
The injured man was given oxygen.
The students are being taught maths by Sammy Karanja.

Beneficiary as Subject
Youll be bought a drink.
We were got the tickets.
He was left a note.

With both its recipient and beneficiary roles, direct objects have an optional prepositional
paraphrase, which functions as a prepositional/ oblique object. For the recipient, the preposition
is to, for the beneficiary it is for. (see 3.4.2.)
3.5.3. Direct objects vs. indirect objects
Some possible rules of thumb for distinguishing direct objects from indirect objects are:
An action verb affects a direct object directly (there is no preposition between them).
Before looking for the indirect object, look for the direct object. A direct object is possible only if the direct
object is present in the clause.
An indirect object is normally a person who receives something, such as a gift or a favour, or who
beneficiates from an activity performed by the subject.
The direct object answers the question << subject + verbal + what/whom? >>.
I told the children a story. I told what? A story (dO).
The indirect object answers the question << subject + verbal + to/for/from whom? >>.
I told the children a story./ I told a story to the children. I told to whom? The children (indirect
object).
If the direct object is omitted, the meaning of the sentence will alter or no longer make sense.
I told the children a story.

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I baked my daughter a cake.

If you remove the indirect object, the sentence will make sense but will be less clear, as the
recipient/beneficiary remains unknown.
I told the children a story.
I baked my daughter a cake.

3.6. The Object Complement

3.6.1. Definition and properties
Etymologically, the term complement was attested during late 14c., and meant "that which
completes," from Old French compliement "accomplishment, fulfilment", from Latin
complementum "that which fills up or completes,"). Originally, it also had senses which were
taken up c. 1650-1725 by compliment (www.etymonline.com). In linguistics, complement
broadly means a word, phrase or clause that is necessary to complete the meaning of a certain
structure.
One type of complement is called object complement, defined by Hasselgrd, Lysvg and
Johansson8 as a syntactic function in the clause, occurring (as we have seen in 3.4.2.), after a
complex transitive verb and a direct object. (Hasselgrd, Lysvg, & Johansson, Glossary of
grammatical terms used in English Grammar: Theory and Use (2nd edition))
The object complement is a type of complement because it completes the object in that it
describes what the object refers to:
At the time, she thought him a quiet, gentle man. (thesunmagazine.org)
In the example above, a quiet, gentle man is the object complement, and him is the object. The
object complement refers to a property or the identity of the direct object, but has a link to the
verbal at the same time (Hasselgrd, Lysvg, & Johansson, Glossary of grammatical terms used
in English Grammar: Theory and Use (2nd edition)). The relation between the object and the
object complement is representable by the verb be: an implied meaning of the above sentence is
that in her view, he was a quiet, gentle man.
The object complement can be realised by a noun phrase - as in the example above - or by an
adjective phrase, as in She has dyed her hair red. Here the implied meaning is that her hair has
become red as a result of dying.
Much on the same line, in Kies view, the object complement completes a reference and/or an
implication suggested by the object of the clause. The object complement is recognizable by a
combination of the following formal and functional properties.

These authors, as well as others, call the object complement object predicative.

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property
form

position

reference

agreement

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property description
Object complements are most usually noun
phrases or adjective phrases, although
gerund and prepositional phrases, as well as
nominal clauses may assume this function
on occasion. (the last three examples are
from suite101.com)

example
They appointed Jane the new manager.
[NP]
They found her very accomplished. [AdjP]
My supervisor considers his least favorite
duty dealing with customers.[gerund-Cl]
Students declare the best time of year
during the summer. [PpP]
I declare the problem that you do not want
to learn about grammar. [nominal-Cl]
Object complements only occur if there is
They appointed Jane the new manager.
an object in the clause and then occur
They appointed the new manager.
normally after that object.
They appointed the new manager Jane.
Unlike objects themselves, object The new manager was appointed Jane by
complements do not have any passive them.
voice corresponding clauses, in which the
complement appears in the subject position.
Object complements complete a reference They appointed Jane (O) the new
to the object of the clause. There is in effect manager (oC).
a copular relation that exists between the {They performed an action directed at
object and its complement, in that the Jane.}
object and its complement can be {Jane is the new manager.} SVC
paraphrased by a SVC structure.
Object complements usually agree with the They appointed Jane (O) the new
object in number (singular or plural).
manager (oC).
They appointed them (O) the new
managers (oC).

The set of verbs which permit an object complement is not large and includes to keep, declare,
leave, call, like, want, consider, find, think, get, make, send, turn, elect, appoint, vote.
In order to make the recognition of this clause element easier for the Romanian speaker of
English, I suggest a correlation between it and the element predicativ suplimentar (EPS),
because they share a number of features.
Property Property description
EPSs are most usually participles, gerunds,
Form
adjective phrases or noun phrases (examples belong
to Bulgr, 1995).

Example
i vedem grbii. [participle]
i vedem grbindu-se.[gerund]
De la grl [] zgomotoi copiii vin.
[AdjP]

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Position EPSs normally occur after the predicate, but other See above.
positions are possible.

Reference

Agreement

When EPS consists in anAdjP, the presence of the De la grl [] zgomotoi copiii vin.
dO is not compulsory.
[AdjP]
Le-am vzut vesele. [AdjP]
When EPS consists in aNP, either the dO or the El este socotit de revoluionari ca specialist.
agent is present.
[NP]
I-am gsit directori. [NP]
EPSs may complete references to the object, I-am gsit directori.
subject and to the predicate. There is in effect a {I performed an action directed at them.}
copular relation that exists between the object or {Ei sunt directori.} SVC
subject and the EPS, in that the object or subject
and EPS can be paraphrased by a SVC
structure. Another relation is between the
predicate and EPS, in that the action or state of
the verb is described by the EPS (especially
when it consists of an AdjP).
EPSs agree with the object in gender Le credeau studente.[fem., pl.]
(feminine, neuter or masculine) and number i credeau studeni. [masc. pl]
(singular or plural). If the object is not present,
Copiii vin voioi. [masc., pl.]
then EPSs agree with the subject.
Fata vine voias. [fem., sg.]

In both Romanian and English, the EPS and the oC can be quite easily taken for adverbials of
manner, so extra attention should be paid to their basic features and behaviour.
3.6.2. The meanings of the object complement
The meanings of the subject complement will be treated in the following section, together with the
meanings of the subject complement.
3.7. The Subject Complement
3.7.1. Definition and properties
The subject complement is the element of the clause which typically follows the verb be, and which
consists either of a noun phrase or an adjective phrase:
Jane was the new manager.
She was very accomplished.

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This type of complement is called a subject complement, because it typically identifies or

characterizes the person or thing denoted by the subject. From the two examples above we find
out who Jane is (the new manager) and how she is (very accomplished).
Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson define the subject complement as the clause element that
comes in addition to a subject and a link/copular (two-place) verb, normally placed after the verb
and realised by a noun phrase and an adjective phrase (as shown above), or by a nominal
subordinate clause, as in The problem is finding the right person. (Hasselgrd, Lysvg, &
Johansson, Glossary of grammatical terms used in English Grammar: Theory and Use (2nd
edition)) Their definition brings about the issue of valency which has already been discussed in
2.2. and 3.4.2., and will be reiterated in 3.9.
Because the subject complement is primarily a complement, its basic function is to complete
something. Similar to the oCs behaviour towards the object, the sC completes a reference or an
implication related to the subject. It both shares some of the features of the oC and has properties
unique to itself.
property
form

position

reference
agreement

property description
Subject complements are most usually noun
phrases or adjective phrases, although gerund and
prepositional phrases, as well as nominal clauses
may assume this function on occasion.

example
She is the new manager. [NP]
She is very accomplished. [AdjP]
His least favorite duty is dealing with
customers. [gerund-Cl]
The new rug is out of place. [PpP]
His hobby is to work in the garden.
[nominal-Cl]
The subject complement always occurs after a See above.
copular verb in the SVC clause pattern.
Exceptionally, the sC can occur at the beginning of a A good man he was, indeed!
clause, in front of both the S and the V but
exclusively in contexts marked by emphasis.
sCs do not have any passive voice corresponding
clauses, due to the stative nature of the linking
verbs. This also excludes the possibility of the
objects of any kind.
sCs complete a reference to the S of the clause.
Jane is the new manager.
sCs usually agree with the S in number (singular or Jane is the new manager.
plural)
They are the new managers. (oC).

The behaviour of the Romanian counterpart of the sC is very similar with the features listed
above, with the observation that traditional approaches include the nume predicativ in the
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structure of the predicat nominal. In both languages, the relation created in the clause by the
linking verb is representable by the = sign, and can be diagrammed as follows:
Jane = the new manager.
Jane = very accomplished.
3.7.2. The meanings of the subject complement and object complement9
The complement typically has the role of attribute10. It attributes an identification or characterization to
the subject if it is a subject complement (sC) or to the direct object if it is an object complement
(oC):
subject complement
Jane is my boss.
The girls were happy.

object complement
They have made Jane my boss.
The news made the girls happy.

3.7.3. Linking/copular verbs and subject complement

If a verbal requires a subject complement (sC) to complete the clause, then the verbal is realised by a
linking/copular verb. The most common linking verb is be, but the category also includes appear,
become, seem, feel, get, look, sound, etc. The linking verbs link the subject and the subject complement in
a clause.
Downing and Locke (2006, pp. , 87-88) distinguish between a. verbs of being, b. verbs of becoming and
c. other linking verbs.
a. verbs of being are stative and introduce current or existing attributes:
The reason is simple.
Lloyd George was a man of principle but he was also intensely pragmatic.
We have to remain optimistic about the future.
b. verbs of becoming are dynamic and introduce resulting attributes. In addition, grow suggests
gradual change, while go is used to indicate drastic changes:
Her latest novel has become a best-seller.
We began to grow uneasy when the skin-diver didnt appear.
9

The meanings listed here were identified by Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson in An Introduction to English
Grammar, Longman, 2002
10
Note that the meaning of the tern attribute in English grammar is different from the meaning of atribut in
Romanian.

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His face went white.

c. other linking verbs can function as copulas with specific adjectives as sC:
The child fell flat on its face.
The soldiers all fell asleep/ fell ill.
The label has come unstuck.
d. a verb phrase can also function as copular verb, if it indicates some kind of identity of the subject and
the subject complement, according to Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson, as in She is called Susan. and
She has been voted 'woman of the year'.
As be links the subject not only to a characteristic (sC realized by AdjP) or a status (sC realized by NP)
but also to a circumstance of position, place or time (Your mother is on the phone.). The complement,
underlined in the example, is then identified as adverbial complement, as described in 3.8.2.
3.7.4. Object complement vs. subject complement
Some possible rules of thumb for distinguishing object complements from subject complements
are:
An object complement follows a complex transitive verb and says something about the
direct object of the verb.
If there is no direct object in the clause, do not look for the object complement; it cannot
be present.
A subject complement follows a linking/copular verb and says something about the
subject (what/ how it is).
Examples like the two clauses below show that structures with sC and oC can be quite
similar.
She| has been elected| president|. (subject + linking verb + sC)
They| have elected| her| president|. (subject + transitive verb + dO + oC)
To check if a verb is a copular verb (followed by a sC) or a transitive verb (followed by
an object) you can try if the verb can be replaced by a form of to be, possibly
accompanied by 'I think', as in He seems nervous = he is nervous, I think. (Hasselgrd,
Lysvg, & Johansson, Glossary of grammatical terms used in English Grammar: Theory
and Use (2nd edition))

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3.8. The Adverbial

3.8.1. Definition and properties
Leech (1992, pp. , 10-11) sees adverbials as the most peripheral of the clause elements which make
up the structure of a clause, possibly for reasons regarding both their position and their relevance. He
defines the adverbial as the (normally) optional element of the clause which adds extra meaning
about the event or state of affair expressed by the verbal.
According to the function of adverbial in the clause, Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson
(Glossary of grammatical terms used in English Grammar: Theory and Use (2nd edition))
distinguish three classes: a. adjuncts, b. conjuncts, and c. disjuncts11.
a. Adjuncts indicate the circumstances of the action. They express relations such as time,
place, manner, reason, condition, etc. They are usually optional, but in certain situations are
obligatory (see below).
Downing and Locke call this class circumstantial adjuncts; this can be a way for the Romanian
learner to see more clearly the analogy with the Romanian complemente circumstaniale and
their corresponding propoziii completive circumstaniale. (see 2.5.2. and 3.1.)
Exactly like their Romanian counterparts, adjuncts answer the questions where, when, how, why
etc. and are named accordingly.
Because of that (adjunct of reason), he took a job in a store (place adjunct) last year (time
adjunct).
Another characteristic the two languages have in common at clause level is that more than one
adjunct can occur in a clause (see example above). This is not true about the other elements of
the clause, as only one subject, verbal, direct object etc. can occur in the same clause.
b. Conjuncts are adverbials that connect and express relations between independent clauses
or sentences. They are realised by conjunctive/coordinating adverbs that often function as
conjunctions in joining two independent clauses. They can occur
-

at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the second of the two clauses in a
compound sentence.
- at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the second of two related sentences.
The table below provides examples of conjuncts and the most common types of relation they
express.
conjuncts of
afterward, at one moment...at the next, henceforth, later, meanwhile, now...then, sometimes...sometimes, soon ,
time
11

For reasons of clarity, during analysis and discussion, the term adverbial will commonly refer to adjuncts.

15

I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3

addition
similarity
concession/
contrast
result
condition

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then, etc.
also, besides, then too, for one thing ...for another (thing), furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover,
partly...partly, etc.
likewise, similarly, etc.
exactly the opposite , however, instead, nevertheless, on (the) one hand...on the other hand, on the contrary,
rather, still, etc.
accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, then, therefore, thus, etc.
otherwise (= if not)

Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson describe conjuncts as text organizers, in that they guide the
hearer/reader through the text, showing how the different pieces hang together, and where they
belong in the text (Glossary of grammatical terms used in English Grammar: Theory and Use
(2nd edition)).
c. Disjuncts are adverbials that are always optional in the clause. According to Hasselgrd, Lysvg
and Johansson, they are evaluative and express
a. the speaker's judgement of the truth of the utterance (modal disjuncts, e.g. probably,
certainly, maybe)
b. the speaker's evaluation of a fact (fact-evaluating disjuncts, e.g. fortunately, actually, to
my surprise)
c. the speaker's comment on his/her own wording of the sentence (e.g. briefly, in other
words, to tell you the truth)
d. the speakers comment on the subject referent (subject-evaluating disjuncts, e.g. Wisely,
she spent the money = 'she was wise to spend the money')
The table below provides further explanations and examples regarding the form, position,
meaning and reference of the adverbial (A).
Property Property description
The adverbial is normally an adverb phrase,
Form
prepositional phrase, or a clause.
Occasionally, a noun phrase can function as
adverbial.
Position

The adverbial is described by grammars as

mobile, that is, it can occur in many different
positions within a clause: at the beginning
(clause-initial), in the middle (clause-medial), or
at the end (clause-final). Additional examples
are provided in the table of conjuncts above.

Example
She quickly put her gloves on. [AdvP]
She put her gloves in her purse. [PpP]
She put her gloves on as soon as she
could.[Adv-Cl]
Last week she put her gloves away. [PpP]
Quickly, she put her gloves on. [initial]
She quickly put her gloves on. [medial]
She put quickly her gloves on. [medial]
She put her gloves quickly on. [medial]
She put her gloves on quickly. [final]

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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3

Though the mobility of the adverbials is

greater than that of any other clause
element, actual usage rules limits the
number of position choices. Besides, the
examples show how, in the case of only,
changes in position produce alterations of
meaning and even ambiguity.
Unlike the other clause elements, adverbials
are normally optional. Their omission does
not change the relations of meaning and
structure in the rest of the clause.
Meaning The adverbial conveys a wide-ranging set
of meanings, among which the most
common are: time, duration, frequency,
place, manner, means, instrument, degree,
purpose. In many cases, these categories
can be distinguished as answering different
questions: when, where, how, why, how
long, how often, how much, how far etc.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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Only12 I ate an egg.

I only ate an egg.
I ate only an egg.
I ate the only13 egg.
I ate an egg only.

She left suddenly. [SV]

She left. [SV]
Im leaving now. [time]
Ill stay for a while.[duration]
I often sing. [frequency]
Ill stay here. [place]
I sing well. [manner]
If raining, Ill stay in. [condition]
Ill cut it with a knife. [instrument]
I worked much. [degree]
I'll stay to finish the book. [purpose]
I sing well.

Adverbials refer to the verbal of the clause.

Reference
Property Property description
Example
The adverbial is normally an adverb phrase, She quickly put her gloves on. [AdvP]
Form
prepositional phrase, or a clause.
Occasionally, a noun phrase can function as She put her gloves in her purse. [PpP]
adverbial.
She put her gloves on as soon as she
could.[Adv-Cl]
Last week she put her gloves away. [PpP]
Position The adverbial is described by grammars as Quickly, she put her gloves on. [initial]
mobile, that is, it can occur in many She quickly put her gloves on. [medial]
different positions within a clause: at the She put quickly her gloves on. [medial]
beginning (clause-initial), in the middle She put her gloves quickly on. [medial]
(clause-medial), or at the end (clause-final). She put her gloves on quickly. [final]
Additional examples are provided in the
table of conjuncts above.
12

In such contexts, only is a focusing adverb that point to one part of a clause, in this example to the subject I.
When only focuses on the subject, it usually comes before it. Other focusing adverbs are: also, either, even, just,
mainly, mostly, neither, nor, etc.
13
In such context, only is an adjective meaning either having no equal or rival for excellence or desirability or
being the one or ones of a class with no other members (only adjective)

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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3

Though the mobility of the adverbials is

greater than that of any other clause
element, actual usage rules limits the
number of position choices. Besides, the
examples it show how, in the case of only,
changes in position produce alterations of
meaning.
Unlike the other clause elements, adverbials
are normally optional. Their omission does
not change the relations of meaning and
structure in the rest of the clause.
Meaning The adverbial conveys a wide-ranging set
of meanings, among which the most
common are: time, duration, frequency,
place, manner, means, instrument, degree,
purpose. In many cases, these categories
can be distinguished as answering different
questions: when, where, how, why, how
long, how often, how much, how far etc

sem. I, 2014

Only I ate an egg.

I only ate an egg.
I ate only an egg.
*I ate an only egg.
I ate an egg only.
She left suddenly. [SV]
She left. [SV]
Im leaving now. [time]
Ill stay for a while.[duration]
I often sing. [frequency]
Ill stay here. [place]
I sing well. [manner]
If raining, Ill stay in. [condition]
Ill cut it with a knife. [instrument]
I worked much. [degree]
I'll stay to finish the book. [purpose]
I sing well.

Adverbials refer to the verbal of the clause.

Reference
Notice: In spite of their name, adverbials do not necessarily contain adverbs. Adverbials
can be realized by adverbs, adverb phrases, noun phrases, prepositional phrases, or
subordinate clauses (see table above).
3.8.2. The Adverbial Complement
Though adverbials are normally optional, some elements that convey the same information as
adverbials, are obligatory because the main verb is not complete without them. Such adverbials
are called adverbial complements (aC). Typically, adverbial complements refer to space, that is,
location or direction.
adverbial
Your mother is talking on the phone.
The sentence is complete without the adverbial.

adverbial complement
Your mother is on the phone.
The sentence is not complete without the adverbial
complement.

Because the most common verbal in the SVcA structure is be, we should note that it can be quite
difficult to distinguish between an adverbial complement and certain varieties of subject
complement. This is due to the complex nature of be, recognized by some grammars to have a
copular nature even in contexts where the location of the subject is expressed, i.e. They were in
the garden. One possible argument would be that the part that follows be refers to the subject, by
18

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giving information about its location, as in the example above, and this makes be copular.
However, for the Romanian speaker it is more convenient to adopt the view that recognizes be as
a lexical verb expressing the existence or location of the subject, in line with the Romanian
grammar, and label adverbial complements expressing location/existence as obligatory
adverbials.
3.9. Verb complementation and clause patterns
3.9.1. Verb complementation
The element(s) required after the verb to complete its meaning is/are called the
complementation of the Verb and should be seen in relation to valency.
Thus, as we saw in 3.8., in an example like She left suddenly, the omission of the adverbial
produces no effect on the verb meaning and on the clause structure (SV both with and without
the optional adjunct). If we omit any of the other elements of the clause, as in Left suddenly or
She suddenly, we will no longer have a complete meaningful clause.
Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson suggest that the complementation of a verb thus consists in supplying
all the elements that are necessary for that verb to function as verbal in a clause (Hasselgrd, Lysvg, &
Johansson, Glossary of grammatical terms used in English Grammar: Theory and Use (2nd edition)).
This means that the great majority of clauses in English contain a subject and a verbal, as well as other
elements whose presence is determined by the verb or, put differently, by its valency, as we saw in 3.4.3.
3.9.2. Clause patterns
According to Leech (2006), a clause pattern 14 is a pattern which contains a main verb and
whatever elements have to follow that verb to complete its meaning grammatically.
Downing and Locke (2006, pp. , 83) identify and illustrate three main types of complementation:
intransitive, copular and transitive.
type of
complementation
intransitive
copular
transitive
monotransitive
ditransitive
complex-transitive

structural
pattern
S-V
S-V-C

illustration

comment

Ted| laughed.
The idea| is| crazy

verb used intransitively

linking verb

S-V-O
S-V-O-O
S-V-O-C

He| bought| a video

He| gave| Jo| the video
I| find| the idea| crazy

verb used transitively

pattern with iO
pattern with oC

The pattern with obligatory adverbial can be added as another type of complementation.
14

Also called verb pattern.

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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3

intransitive

S-V-A

Your mother| is| on the phone.

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pattern with obligatory A

Each pattern specifies what is required for completeness, in other words, all the elements that are
sufficient and necessary for meaningful complete clauses. However, optional adverbials can always be
added, but this does not affect the description of the basic pattern. For instance, if we add an adverbial
to a SVO clause pattern, as in The man/ is writing/ a poem/ for his lover, the verb pattern will still be
recognized as SVO.
In Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johanssons view,
a verb with a valency of one (=a one-place verb) needs only a subject in order to build a
complete sentence. A verb with a valency of two (=a two-place verb) needs two other
clause elements (subject + direct object, subject + subject predicative, or subject +
adverbial). A verb with a valency of three (=a three-place verb) needs three other clause
elements (subject+ indirect object + direct object, subject+ direct object + object
predicative, or subject + direct object + adverbial). No English verb has a valency of
more than three (Hasselgrd, Lysvg, & Johansson, Glossary of grammatical terms
used in English Grammar: Theory and Use (2nd edition)).
There are many verbs in English that admit more than one type of complementation and thus
have different valencies in different patterns. They are mostly verbs of general meaning, such as
get, turn and make, as well as some of the sense verbs (smell, see, etc.). Downing and Locke
chose make, a verb that can enter into all but intransitive patterns, and propose the following
examples:
I|ll make| some tea. SVdO
I|ll make| you| a pizza. SViOdO
He| made| the coffee| too strong. SVdOoC
They| make| a good couple. SVsC
It| makes| for good relations. SVpO
To summarize, in English there are one-place verbs, which require a subject only (SV), two-place
verbs which involve a subject and one other element (SVO, SVC and SVA) and three-place
verbs, with a subject and two other elements ( SVOO and SVOC).
3.9. Verb complementation and clause patterns

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3.9.1. Verb complementation

The element(s) required after the verb to complete its meaning is/are called the
complementation of the Verb and should be seen in relation to valency.
Thus, as we saw in 3.8., in an example like She left suddenly, the omission of the adverbial
produces no effect on the verb meaning and on the clause structure (SV both with and without
the optional adjunct). If we omit any of the other elements of the clause, as in Left suddenly or
She suddenly, we will no longer have a complete meaningful clause.
Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson suggest that the complementation of a verb thus consists in supplying
all the elements that are necessary for that verb to function as verbal in a clause (Hasselgrd, Lysvg, &
Johansson, Glossary of grammatical terms used in English Grammar: Theory and Use (2nd edition)).
This means that the great majority of clauses in English contain a subject and a verbal, as well as other
elements whose presence is determined by the verb or, put differently, by its valency, as we saw in 3.4.3.
3.9.2. Clause patterns
According to Leech (2006), a clause pattern 15 is a pattern which contains a main verb and
whatever elements have to follow that verb to complete its meaning grammatically.
Downing and Locke (2006, pp. , 83) identify and illustrate three main types of complementation:
intransitive, copular and transitive.
type of complementation
intransitive
copular
transitive
monotransitive
ditransitive
complex-transitive

structural pattern
S-V
S-V-C

illustration
Ted| laughed.
The idea| is| crazy

comment
verb used intransitively
linking verb

S-V-O
S-V-O-O
S-V-O-C

He| bought| a video

He| gave| Jo| the video
I| find| the idea| crazy

verb used transitively

pattern with iO
pattern with oC

The pattern with obligatory adverbial can be added as another type of complementation.
intransitive

S-V-A

Your mother| is| on the phone.

pattern with obligatory A

Each pattern specifies what is required for completeness, in other words, all the elements that are
sufficient and necessary for meaningful complete clauses. However, optional adverbials can always be
added, but this does not affect the description of the basic pattern. For instance, if we add an adverbial
to a SVO clause pattern, as in The man/ is writing/ a poem/ for his lover, the verb pattern will still be
recognized as SVO.
In Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johanssons view,
15

Also called verb pattern.

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a verb with a valency of one (=a one-place verb) needs only a subject in order to build a
complete sentence. A verb with a valency of two (=a two-place verb) needs two other
clause elements (subject + direct object, subject + subject predicative, or subject +
adverbial). A verb with a valency of three (=a three-place verb) needs three other clause
elements (subject+ indirect object + direct object, subject+ direct object + object
predicative, or subject + direct object + adverbial). No English verb has a valency of
more than three (Hasselgrd, Lysvg, & Johansson, Glossary of grammatical terms
used in English Grammar: Theory and Use (2nd edition)).
There are many verbs in English that admit more than one type of complementation and thus
have different valencies in different patterns. They are mostly verbs of general meaning, such as
get, turn and make, as well as some of the sense verbs (smell, see, etc.). Downing and Locke
chose make, a verb that can enter into all but intransitive patterns, and propose the following
examples:
I|ll make| some tea. SVdO
I|ll make| you| a pizza. SViOdO
He| made| the coffee| too strong. SVdOoC
They| make| a good couple. SVsC
It| makes| for good relations. SVpO
To summarize, in English there are one-place verbs, which require a subject only (SV), two-place
verbs which involve a subject and one other element (SVO, SVC and SVA) and three-place
verbs, with a subject and two other elements ( SVOO and SVOC).

EXERCISES
Exercise 3.1 Subject, predicate, verbal
In each sentence below, underline the subject and circle the verbal.
1. Since September, the airline industry has suffered its greatest ever slump in business.
2. Analysts predict several years of diminished business.
3. Several thousand airline workers lost their jobs.
4. The general public is still nervous about flying.
5. People prefer to travel by train.
Exercise 3.2 Operator; Do, have, be
Use the contracted form nt to make each sentence below negative.
1. Protesters were in the streets.
2. The party was at war with itself.
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3. The tide of revolution toppled one European government after another.

4. The changes had been foreseen.
5. The party could be humbled soon.
Exercise 3.3 Operator; Do, have, be
Turn each sentence below into a question that can be answered by yes or no, and underline the
operator in the question.
1. Brain bulk is related to brain ability.
2. This correlation applies across species.
3. Within the human species, brain bulk is unimportant.
4. The largest human brains are those of idiots.
5. Humans are able to lose substantial portions of the brain without undue suffering.
6. The main part of the human brain is divided into two hemispheres.
7. Messages from one hemisphere can reach the other.
Exercise 3.4 Subject and verbal
Identify the subject in each of the questions or exclamations below and underline it. Circle the
operator and (if relevant) the rest of the verb phrase.
1. How should I know?
2. How much does all this matter?
3. How we long to be home again!
4. Have you found any advantages in the present arrangements?
5. Can the roots of the decline in the standard of English cricket be traced back
a long way?
6. What a fuss they made!
7. Did Britain recognize the Argentine at that time?
*Exercise 3.5 Subject and verbal
In each sentence below, underline the subject or subjects and circle the verbal or verbals. If a
sentence contains more than one clause, it may have more than one verbal. For example in the
following sentence there are three subjects and four verbals:
1. If you hold a strong man down for a long time, his first instinct may be to clobber you
when he climbs to his feet.
1. If the European Union is not built on democratic foundations, the whole edifice will
never be stable.
2. Even the most extreme Euro-zealots must acknowledge that fact.
3. On the other hand, the process of enlargement cannot be held up by one or two member
states.
Exercise 3.7 Subject
What evidence do you find in the sentence below to show that the implied subject of a
subjectless imperative sentence is you?
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Help yourself to another piece of cake.

Can you think of any other evidence that points in the same direction?
Exercise 3.8 Transitive verbs and direct object
The direct object is underlined in each declarative sentence below. Turn the sentence into a
question introduced by who or what, as indicated in brackets. Use one of these interrogative
words to replace the direct object. Position the operator and the subject after who or what:
1. She introduced the school head to her parents. (Who)
2. Normas parents met her English and Biology teachers at the Open Day. (Who)
3. Caroline submitted a poem about her dog to the school magazine. (What)
4. All the members of staff considered Janet the best student in the Upper Sixth. (Who)
5. The school head recommended a careers advice test. (What)
6. Marilyn chose Sussex as her first preference on her application form for university
entrance. (What)
*Exercise 3.9 Transitive verbs and direct object
In each sentence below, underline the direct objects. If a sentence contains more than one clause,
it may have more than one direct object. For example, in the following sentence there are two
direct objects:
The president has offered substantial concessions, but he should not expect much gratitude.
1. The president promised the end of racial discrimination, but he rejected the black demand for
one man, one vote.
2. That sort of democracy would mean rule by a black majority, which might feel an
understandable urge for retribution for past oppressions.
3. Whites, equally understandably, want safeguards for white rights, but you cannot ensure
safeguards once you surrender your power.
Exercise 3.11 Linking verbs and subject complement
Underline the subject complement in each sentence below.
1. Outside, the company sign seems modest.
2. Inside, the atmosphere is one of rush and ferment.
3. The company is a genetic engineering firm.
4. It has become a leader of a brand-new industry.
5. The focus of the project is DNA recombination.
Exercise 3.12 Intransitive verbs and adverbials
Underline the adverbials in the sentences below. Some sentences may have more than one
adverbial.
1. Opossums frequently appear to be dead.
2. Sometimes they merely pretend to be dead.
3. In that way they avoid attacks by predators.
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4. Often they simply are dead.

5. Few opossums remain alive far into the second year.
*Exercise 3.13 Adverbial complement
Complete these sentences by adding an adverbial complement.
1. My parents live __________
2. Unfortunately, nobody is __________
3. Everybody behaved __________
4. You can get __________
5. The soldiers are keeping __________
Exercise 3.14 Direct object and indirect object
Underline the indirect objects in the sentences below. Some sentences do not have an indirect
object.
1. Can you tell me the time, please?
2. Who taught you how to do that?
3. Pauls parents promised him a bicycle for his twelfth birthday.
4. You can save yourself the bother.
5. The college provides accommodation for all first-year students.
6. I owe my parents several hundred pounds.
*Exercise 3.15 Direct object and indirect object
Use each verb below to make up a sentence containing both a direct object and an indirect object.
1. pay
6. make
2. bring
7. cook
3. leave
8. spare
4. read
9. ask
5. find
10. charge
Exercise 3.16 Direct object and object complement
In each of the following sentences, state whether the underlined phrase is an object complement
(oC) or an adverbial complement (aC).
1. Jack has put his coat and hat in my bedroom.
2. The noise is driving me mad.
3. They keep their house too warm.
4. I can see you home.
5. She made me her assistant.
.
*Exercise 3.17 Direct object and object complement
Use each verb below to make up a sentence containing both a direct object and an object
complement.
1. like
3. find
5. appoint
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3

2. consider

4. call

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6. declare

*Exercise 3.18 Direct object and object complement

Use each verb below to make up a sentence containing both a direct object and an adverbial
complement.
1. place
3. wish
2. keep
4. get
Exercise 3.19 The basic sentence structures
Identify each sentence element by writing the appropriate abbreviation in the brackets after it:
S (subject) sC (subject complement) V (verbal) oC (object complement) dO (direct object) aC
(adverbial complement) iO (indirect object) A (adverbial).
1. Salt ( ) was ( ) the first food seasoning ( ).
2. Many people ( ) consider ( ) the accidental spilling of salt ( ) bad luck ( ).
3. The Romans ( ) gave ( ) their soldiers ( ) special allowances for salt ( ).
4. They ( ) called ( ) the allowance ( ) salarium ( ).
5. That ( ) is ( ) the original of our word salary ( ).
*Exercise 3.20 The basic sentence structures
The sentences below are ambiguous. For each meaning, state the structure (the set of sentence
elements) and give a paraphrase of the corresponding meaning. For example:
They are baking potatoes.
S + V + SC They are potatoes for baking.
S + V + dO They have put potatoes in the oven to bake.
1. You will make a good model.
2. Ill call you my secretary.
3. Your men are revolting.
4. They left him a wreck.
5. You should find me an honest worker.
Identify the type of phrase (NP, VP, AP, AdvP).
1) anti-terrorist laws;
2) quite hot;
3) pretty soon;
4) the urban young;
5) in a hurry;
6) a small black bag;
12) so efficient in his work

7) a student of Physics;
8) very kind to Mary;
9) rather carelessly;
10) before the war;
11) every bridge over the river;

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