Symmetrical Faults

15:25

Balanced and Unbalanced Faults

The steady-State operating mode of electric power system is
a balanced three phase alternating current (ac).

15:25

Due to sudden external or internal changes in the system,

the steady-state conditions is disrupted.

15:25

A Fault:

When the insulation of the system fails

or a conducting object comes in touch with a
live point, a short circuit or a fault occurs.

There are two Classes of Faults:

1. Balanced Fault (Symmetrical Fault)
A Fault involving all the three phases.
2. Unbalanced Faults (Unsymmetrical Faults)
A fault involving only one or two phases.
15:25

Three Phases Fault (Balanced Fault)

IFa

IFb
Transformer

IFc
15:25

Unbalanced Faults
There are three types of Unbalanced Faults:
1. Single Line to Ground (SLG fault)
2. Line to Line Fault (LL fault)
3. Double Line to Ground (LLG fault)

15:25

Single Line to Ground Fault

IF

IF

IF

Transformer

15:25

IF

Line to Line Fault

IF
Transformer

15:25

IF

IF

Double line to ground Fault

IF
IFb
Transformer

15:25

IF

IFc
IF

The majority of the faults are unsymmetrical.

Fault calculations involve finding the voltage
and current distribution throughout the system
during fault condition.
Why do we need that?
To adjust and set the protective devices so
we can detect any fault and isolate the faulty
portion of the system.
To protect the human being and the equipment
during the abnormal operating conditions.
15:25

MVA Level
When fault occurs at a point in a power system,
the corresponding MVA of the fault is referred
to as the fault level at that point.
Different elements in an electric system are
designed and selected based on the short circuit
MVA level.
15:25

RL Circuit Analysis

To understand fault analysis we need to review the

behavior of an RL circuit.
Apply KVL

Ldi (t )
Ri (t ) 2 sin(t )
dt

Before the switch is closed obviously i(t) = 0. When the

switch is closed at t=0 the current will have two components:
1) a steady-state value
2) a transient (dc offset) value
15:25

i (t ) iac (t ) idc (t )

2V
sin(t ) sin( )e t / T
Z

RL Circuit Analysis, contd

iac (t )

Where:

2V
2V
sin(t )
sin( )e t / T
idc (t )
Z
Z
L X
L
X
T
Z R 2 (L) 2 tan 1
tan 1
R

The total current is called the asymmetrical fault current and is plotted as follows:

15:25

RL Circuit Analysis, contd

iac (t )
idc (t )

2V
sin(t )
Z
2V
sin( )e t / T
Z

The RMS AC fault current is Iac = V/Z

The magnitude of the dc offset depends
on . So it will vary from 0 when = to
2Iac when = ( /2)

Since we are interested in the largest fault current, we chose

= ( - /2) then,

i (t ) 2 I ac sin(t / 2) e t / T
15:25

Where Iac = V/Z

RL Circuit Analysis, contd

Since i(t) is not strictly periodic, its RMS value is not strictly
defined.
However, we can treat the exponential term as a constant, we can
stretch the RMS concept to calculate the RMS asymmetrical fault
current as follows:
I RMS (t )

I ac 2 I dc (t )2

I ac 2

2 I ac e t / T

I RMS (t ) I ac 1 2e 2t / T

It is convenient to use T = X/(2fR) and t=/f where is time in cycles and:

I RMS (t ) k ( ) I ac

Where

k ( ) 1 2e 4 /( X / R )

From this equation we can say:

Changing will affect value of the asymmetrical current IRMS.
15:25

Example 1
A bolted short circuit occurs in the series RL circuit of the figure
below. V = 20 kV, X = 8 ohms, and R=0.8 ohm with maximum
DC offset. The circuit breaker opens 3 cycles after fault inception.
Determine:
a) The RMS AC fault current.
b) The RMS momentary current at = 0.5 cycles.
c) The RMS asymmetrical fault current that the breaker interrupts.

15:25

Example 1-solution
I ac

20 103

82 0.82

( X / R) 8 / 0.8 10

2.488 kA

K (0.5 cycle) 1 2e 4 ( 0.5) /10 1.438

I momentry K (0.5 cycle) I ac 1.4382.488 3.576 kA

K (3 cycle) 1 2e 4 (3) /10 1.023

I momentry K (3 cycle) I ac 1.0232.488 2.544 kA
15:25

Generator Modeling During Faults

During a fault the only devices that can contribute

fault current are those with energy storage
Thus the models of generators (and other rotating
machines) are very important since they contribute
the bulk of the fault current.
Generators can be approximated as a constant
voltage behind a time-varying reactance

Ea'
15:25

Generator Modeling, contd

The time varying reactance is typically approximated
using three different values, each valid for a different
time period:
X"d

direct-axis subtransient reactance

X 'd

direct-axis transient reactance

Xd

direct-axis synchronous reactance

15:25

Generator Modeling, contd

15:25

10

Generator Modeling, contd

15:25

Generator Short Circuit Currents

15:25

11

Generator Short Circuit Example

Example 2 :
A 500 MVA, 20 kV, 3 is operated with an internal
voltage of 1.05 pu. Assume a solid 3 fault occurs
on the generator's terminal and that the circuit
breaker operates after three cycles. Determine the
fault current. Assume

X d" 0.15,

X d' 0.24,

Td" 0.035 seconds, Td'

15:25

X d 1.1 (all per unit)

2.0 seconds

TA 0.2 seconds

Generator S.C. Example, cont'd

Substituting in the values
1 t 2.0
1 1

1.1 0.24 1.1 e

I ac (t ) 1.05

1 1 e t 0.035

0.15 0.24

I ac (0) 1.05
Ibase

0.15

7 p.u.

500 106
14,433 A I ac (0) 101,000 A
3 20 103

IDC (0) 101 kA 2 e

15:25

12

0.2

143 k A I RMS (0) 175 kA

Generator S.C. Example, cont'd

Evaluating at t = 0.05 seconds for breaker opening
1 0.05 2.0
1 1

1.1 0.24 1.1 e

I ac (0.05) 1.05

1 1 e 0.05 0.035

0.15 0.24

I ac (0.05) 70.8 kA
I DC (0.05) 143 e

0.05

0.2

kA 111 k A

I RMS (0.05) 70.82 1112 132 kA

15:25

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

According to Thevenins Theorem, any linear network
containing any number of voltage sources and impedances can
be replaced by:
A single voltage source (EMF) known as Thevenins
voltage. This voltage (EMF) is equal to open circuit voltage
as seen from the terminals under consideration.
A single impedance known as Thevenins impedance. This
impedance is equal to the total impedance under open circuit
condition as seen from the terminals under consideration and
after ignoring the sources.
15:25

13

 Using Tevenins
Theorem,
The circuit can
be simplified
as shown

The Calculation of the

Fault Currents can be
easily done Using
Tevenins Theorem
15:25

Symmetrical Faults
(Balanced Faults)

Three Phase
Short Circuit

A Fault involving
all the three phases.
Transformer

It is an important type of fault and can be easily

calculated

The circuit breaker rated MVA breaking capacity is

selected based on the three phase short circuit MVA.

15:25

14

The following assumptions are made in three phase

fault calculation :

1. The EMF of all generators are 1 per unit making zero

angle.

V 10o

This means that the system voltage is at its nominal

value and the system is operating at no-load conditions
at the time of fault.
Therefore, All the generators can be replaced by a single
generator since all EMFs are equal and are in phase.
15:25

2. The shunt elements in the transformer model

that account for magnetizing current and core losses
are neglected.
3. The shunt capacitances of the transmission
Lines are neglected.

4. The system resistances are neglected and only

the inductive reactance of different elements are

taken into account.

15:25

15

Three Phase Fault

Calculation

Symmetrical
Fault Calculation

Simple Circuits
Load Ignored
Use Thevenin's Equivalent
1

Three Phase
Short Circuit

Simple Circuits
Load not Ignored
Use Thevenin's Equivalent
Find Pre-fault voltage
2

Transformer

Large Circuits
Construct
The Bus Impedance Matrix
3

15:25

1. Simple Circuits and Load is ignored

The Calculations for the three phase fault are easy because the
circuit is completely symmetrical and calculations can be done
for only one phase.

Steps For Calculating Symmetrical Faults:

1. Draw a single line diagram for

the system.
2. Select a common base and find
out the per unit reactances of all
generators, transformers,
transmission lines, etc.
15:25

16

T1

G1
3 phase
fault e

G2
2

T2

3. From the single line

diagram of the system
draw
a
single
line
reactance diagram showing
one phase and neutral.
Indicate all the reactances,
etc. on the single line
reactance diagram.

10

10

j 0.15

j 0.10

G
G

j 0.20 j 0.16

j 0.23

j 0.23

4. Reduce the single line reactance diagram by using

series parallel and Delta-Wye transformations
keeping the identity of the fault point intact. Find the
total reactance of the system as seen from the fault
point (Using Thevenins Theorem)
15:25

5. Find the fault current and the fault MVA in per

unit.
Convert the per unit values to actual values.
6. Retrace the steps to calculate the voltages
and the currents throughout different parts
of the power system

15:25

17

Example 3:
A three phase fault occurs in the system as shown in the Figure.
Find the total fault current, the fault level and fault current
supplied by each generator.

G1

100 MVA,
11 kV
15% Reactance

100 MVA, 11/132 kV

10% Reactance

T1

G2
50 MVA,
11 kV
10% Reactance

T2
2

X=0.2 ohm/phase/km

200 km

3 phase
fault e

50 MVA, 11/132 kV
8% Reactance

15:25

Example3 -solution:
Step 1: Draw a single line diagram for the system.
G1

100 MVA,
11 kV
15% Reactance

T1

G2
50 MVA,
11 kV
10% Reactance

100 MVA, 11/132 kV

10% Reactance

T2
2

50 MVA, 11/132 kV
8% Reactance

X=0.2 ohm/phase/km

200 km

3 phase
fault e

The single line diagram for the system is given in the

example as shown.

15:25

18

Step 2: Select a common base and find the per unit reactances of all
generators, transformers, etc.
Select the common base as:
100 MVA (100,000 kVA)
11 kV for Transformer low voltage side (LV)
132 kV for Transformer high voltage side (HV)
G1

100 MVA, 11/132 kV

10% Reactance

V Base 132kV

100 MVA,
11 kV
15% Reactance

T1

X=0.2 ohm/phase/km

V Base 11kV

G2

200 km

T2

3 phase
fault e

50 MVA,
11 kV
10% Reactance

15:25

50 MVA, 11/132 kV
8% Reactance

G1

The per unit reactance

XG1 j 0.15

G2

The per unit reactance

XG 2 j 0.1 *

T1

The per unit reactance

XT1 j 0.1

T2

The per unit reactance

XT2 j 0.08 *

100
j 0.2
50

100
j 0.16
50
100 MVA

LINE
( j 0.2 * 200 )
j 0.23
TL The per unit reactance X LINE Z
(132kV ) 2
Base

G1

100 MVA, 11/132 kV

10% Reactance

V Base 132kV

100 MVA,
11 kV
15% Reactance

T1

X=0.2 ohm/phase/km

V Base 11kV

G2
50 MVA,
11 kV
10% Reactance

15:25

19

T2
2

50 MVA, 11/132 kV
8% Reactance

200 km

3 phase
fault e

From the single line diagram of the system draw a single line reactance diagram
showing one phase and neutral. Indicate all the reactances, etc. on the single line
reactance diagram.

T1

G1
3 phase
fault e

G2
2

10

10

T2

j 0.15

j 0.10

j 0.23

G
G

j 0.23

j 0.20 j 0.16

15:25

Find the total impedance (reactance) of the system as seen from the
fault side.
j 0 . 25

1 0

1 0

j 0 . 115

j 0 . 36

j 0 . 25

j 0 . 115

j 0 . 36

X Total
15:25

20

X Total

j 0.25 * j 0.36
j 0.115
j 0.25 j 0.36
j 0.2625 pu

j 0.2625
IF

10

10
j 3.8095 pu
j 0.2625

| I base | L

( I Base )132kV side

| S Base |3
3 | V Base | LL

100 * 1000
3 * 132

437.4 A

( I F ) Actual ( I F ) pu * I Base

( I F ) Actual j 3.8095 * 437.4 1666.27 90 o A

15:25

V Base 11kV

G1

100 MVA, 11/132 kV

10% Reactance

100 MVA,
11 kV
15% Reactance

T1

V Base 132kV

X=0.2 ohm/phase/km

IF

( I F )G 1
G2
50 MVA,
11 kV
10% Reactance

200 km

T2
2

50 MVA, 11/132 kV
8% Reactance

( I F )G 2

The Fault Level is:

( MVA) Level 3.8095 pu
( MVA) Base 100
15:25

21

( MVA) Actual Level 3.8095 * 100 380.95

3 phase
fault e

( I F )G 1

V Base 11kV

10

10

j 0.15

V Base 132kV

j 0.10

j 0.23

G
G

( I F )Total

j 0.23

j 0.20 j 0.16

( I F )G 2

At 11 kV Side:
( I Base )11kV side

100 * 1000
3 * 11

5248.8 A

The Fault Current at 11 kV side supplied by the two generators is:

( I F ) Actual j 3.8095 * 5248.8 19995 90 o A
15:25

( I F )G 1

10

( I F )G 1
G1

( I F )Total

G
j0.25

T1

j0.36
G

G2

10

T2

( I F )G 2
( I F )G 2

( I F )G1 (19995 90)

j 0.36
11800.3 90 A
j 0.36 j 0.25

( I F )G 2 ( I F )T ,11kV ( I F )G1
( I F )G 2 8194.7 90 A
15:25

22

j0.115

Example 4:
The single-line diagram of a power system is shown in the Figure.
The transient reactance of each part of the system is as shown
and expressed in pu on a common 100 MVA base.
Assuming that all generators are
working on the rated voltages, when a
three-phase fault with impedance of
j0.16 pu occurs at bus 5. Find: The fault
currents.

G1

j0.2 G2

j0.1

Bus 2

Bus 1

j0.1

Bus 3

j0.2
Bus 4

j0.8

j0.4

j0.4

Bus 5

15:25

j0.1

j0.2
Bus 2

Bus 1

j 0.1

Bus 3

G1

j0.2

j0.8

Bus 4

j0.2 G2

j0.1

Bus 2

Bus 1

j0.4

j0.4
j0.1
Bus 3

j0.2

j0.4
j0.2
Bus 3

Bus 4

j0.8

j0.16

j0.8

Bus 4

Bus 5

j0.4

j0.4
j0.4

j0.4

j0.16
15:25

23

Bus 5

Bus 5

j0.4

j0.2

I FG1

I FG1

Bus 4

Bus 3

j0.6

j0.2

j0.16

Bus 5

j0.1

j0.16

IF

j0.1

IF
j0.16

IF

I FG2
j0.4

j0.2

j0.34

I FG2

Bus 5

j0.16

Bus 5

IF

Bus 5

j0.34

ZTH j0.34 j0.16 j0.5

( I F )Bus5

10
j 2.0 pu
j0.5

( I F )G1 I F
( I F )G2 I F

j0.6
j1.2 pu
j0.6 j0.4
j0.4
j0.8 pu
j0.6 j0.4

15:25

Network Fault Example

For the following network assume a fault on the
terminal of the generator; all data is per unit
except for the transmission line reactance

generator has 1.05

terminal voltage &
supplies 100 MVA
with 0.95 lag pf

Convert to per unit: X line

24

19.5
0.1 per unit
1382
100

Network Fault Example, cont'd

Faulted network per unit diagram

To determine the fault current we need to first estimate

the internal voltages for the generator and motor
For the generator VT 1.05, SG 1.018.2
*

I Gen

1.018.2

0.952 18.2
1.05

E 'a 1.1037.1

Network Fault Example, cont'd

The motor's terminal voltage is then
1.050 - (0.9044 - j 0.2973) j 0.3 1.00 15.8
The motor's internal voltage is
1.00 15.8 (0.9044 - j 0.2973) j 0.2
1.008 26.6
We can then solve as a linear circuit:
1.1037.1 1.008 26.6

j 0.15
j 0.5
7.353 82.9 2.016 116.6 j 9.09

If

25

Network Fault Example, cont'd

The motor's terminal voltage is then
1.050 - (0.9044 - j 0.2973) j 0.3 1.00 15.8
The motor's internal voltage is
1.00 15.8 (0.9044 - j 0.2973) j 0.2
1.008 26.6
We can then solve as a linear circuit:
1.1037.1 1.008 26.6

If
j 0.15
j 0.5
7.353 82.9 2.016 116.6 j 9.09

Superposition Approach
Faulted Condition

Exact Equivalent to Faulted Condition

Fault is represented
by two equal and
opposite voltage
sources, each with
a magnitude equal
to the pre-fault voltage

26

Superposition Approach, contd

Since this is now a linear network, the faulted voltages
and currents are just the sum of the pre-fault conditions
[the (1) component] and the conditions with just a single
voltage source at the fault location [the (2) component]

Pre-fault (1) component equal to the pre-fault

power flow solution
Obvious the
pre-fault
fault current
is zero!

Superposition Approach, contd

Fault (1) component due to a single voltage source
at the fault location, with a magnitude equal to the
negative of the pre-fault voltage at the fault location.

I g I (1) I g(2)
g

I m I m(1) I m(2)

(2)
(2)
I f I (1)
f If 0If

27

Two Bus Superposition Solution

Before the fault we had E f 1.050,
I (1) 0.952 18.2 and I m(1) 0.952 18.2
g

Solving for the (2) network we get

I g(2)
I m(2)
I (2)
f

Ef
1.050

j7
j0.15
j0.15
E f 1.050

j 2.1
j0.5
j0.5

j 7 j 2.1 j 9.1

I g 0.952 18.2 j 7 7.35 82.9

This matches
what we
calculated
earlier

Extension to Larger Systems

The superposition approach can be easily extended
to larger systems. Using the Ybus we have
Ybus V I
For the second (2) system there is only one voltage
source so I is all zeros except at the fault location
M
0

I I f

0
M

28

However to use this

approach we need to
first determine If

Determination of Fault Current

Define the bus impedance matrix Z bus as
1
Z bus @ Ybus

Z11 L
Then M O

Z n1 L

V Z busI
(2)
M V1

Z1n 0 V2(2)

M I f M

Z nn 0 V (2)
n 1
M (2)
Vn

For a fault a bus i we get -If Z ii V f Vi(1)

Determination of Fault Current

Hence

Vi(1)
If
Z ii
Where
Zii

@ driving point impedance

Zij (i j )

@ transfer point imepdance

Voltages during the fault are also found by superposition

Vi Vi(1) Vi(2)

29

Vi(1) are prefault values

Three Gen System Fault Example

For simplicity assume the system is unloaded

before the fault with
E g1 Eg 2 Eg 3 1.050
Hence all the prefault currents are zero.

Three Gen Example, contd

Ybus

0
15 10
j 10 20 5

0
5
9

Zbus

0
15 10
j 10 20 5

5 9
0

0.1088 0.0632 0.0351

j 0.0632 0.0947 0.0526

0.0351 0.0526 0.1409

30

Three Gen Example, contd

1.05
For a fault at bus 1 we get I1
V (2)

j 0.1088

j 9.6 I f

0.1088 0.0632 0.0351 j 9.6

j 0.0632 0.0947 0.0526 0

0.0351
0.0526
0.1409
0

1.050
0.600

0.3370

Three Gen Example, contd

1.050 1.050 00
V 1.050 0.6060 0.4440

1.050 0.3370 0.7130

31

Fault Calculations Using Zbus

15:25

15:25

32

15:25

15:25

33

15:25

Circuit Breaker and Fuse Selection

15:25

34

A circuit breaker is a mechanical switch capable of

interrupting fault current and re-closing.
The breaker is designed to extinguish the arc by elongating
and cooling it.
The fact that AC arc current naturally passes through zero
twice during its 60 Hz cycle aids the arc extinction process.
There are different types of circuit breaker depending on the
medium: air, oil, SF6 or vacuum.
Modern circuit breakers are based on symmetrical
interrupting current.
It is usually necessary to calculate only symmetrical fault
current and then select a breaker with a symmetrical
interrupting capability equal to or above the calculated
current.

Circuit Breaker and Fuse Selection

A simplified method for breaker selection is called the E/X

simplified method. The maximum symmetrical short-circuit
current is calculated as previously discussed.
If the X/R ratio at the system location is less than 15, a
breaker with a symmetrical interrupting capability equal to or
above the calculated current.
On the other hand, if X/R is more than 15, the DC offset may
not decay to low value and hence a correction method is
needed.
If X/R is unknown, the calculated fault current should not be
greater than 80% of the breaker interrupting capability.

15:25

Circuit Breaker and Fuse Selection

Voltage ratings:

Rated maximum voltage: The maximum RMS line-line operating

voltage. The breaker should be used in systems with an operating
voltage less than or equal to this rating.
Rated voltage range factor K: The range of voltage for which the
symmetrical interrupting capability time the operating voltage is
constant.

For example, the symmetrical interrupting capability

of the 69-kV class breaker is shown in the following
graph.
At operating voltages between Vmin and Vmax, the
symmetrical interrupting capability is:
15:25

35

I Vmax 1378

kA
V
V

Definition of interrupting ti me
given in ANSI/IEEE Standard
C.37.010 - 1979
Application Guide for AC High
Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated
On a Symmetrical Curret Basis .

15:25

Circuit Breaker and Fuse Selection

Current ratings:

15:25

36

Rated continuous current: The maximum RMS current

that the breaker can carry continuously while it is in the
closed position without overheating.
Rated short-circuit current: The maximum RMS
symmetrical current that the breaker can safely interrupt at
rated maximum voltage.
Rated interrupting time: The time in cycles on a 60 Hz
basis from the instant the trip coil is energized to the
instant the fault current is cleared.

Fuses

15:25

Fuses are one of the simplest

over-current devices.
The fuse consists of a metal
link encapsulated in a tube
and packed in filler material.
At normal operation, the
current will flow between the
terminal through the link.
If the current increased more
than certain level, the link will
melt and a gap is formed and
an electric arc is established.
The arc will further burn the
link till the resistance of the
arc reaches a high value that
the arc cant sustained and
an open circuit will be
formed.

Fuses

15:25

37

Voltage rating: This RMS voltage determines the

ability of a fuse to suppress the internal arc that
occurs after the fuse link melts. A blown fuse
should be able to withstand its voltage rating.
Continuous current rating: The fuse should carry
this RMS current indefinitely with melting.
Interrupting current rating: This is the largest
current that the fuse can safely interrupt.
Time response: The melting and clearing time of a
fuse depends on the magnitude of the over-current
or fault current. This time is specified by the timecurrent curve as shown in the following slide.

Fuses
This is the time-current characteristics curve
of a 15.5 kV, 100 A current limiting fuse.
For example, the current will melt after 2
seconds and clear after 5 seconds for a 500
A.
For 5000 A, the fuse will melt in less than
0.01 second and clears within 0.015 second.
Fuses are inexpensive, fast operating,
easily coordinated and they do not require
protective relays or instrument transformers.
On the hand, the melted fuse must be
replaced manually.
15:25

38