CONTENTS

Introduction

13

Daniel Defoe
The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Famous Moll Flanders

15

Charlotte Ramsay Lennox

The Life of Harriot Stuart, Written by Herself

19

Fanny Burney
Evelina, or, the History of a Young Ladys Entrance into the World

20

Jane Austen
22

Emma

William Makepeace Thackeray

Vanity Fair: a Novel without a Hero

23

Charlotte Bront
Jane Eyre

27

Anne Bront
The Tenant of Wildfell Hall

29

George Eliot
The Mill on the Floss

32

George Meredith
Diana of the Crossways

35

Thomas Hardy
Tess of the D'Urbervilles: a Pure Woman Faithfully Presented

11

36

A Note Concerning Genre Conventions

40

A Brief Introduction to Analyses

44

Moll Flanders A Woman Enters the Mens World

45

Harriot Stuart A Dauntless Young Girl

50

Evelina Anville An Innocent Girl Rewarded

55

Emma Woodhouse A Concealed Rebel

59

Rebecca Sharp A Female Social Climber

64

Jane Eyre An Obedient Revolt of a Governess

68

Helen Huntingdon An Open Rebellion of a Married Woman

74

Maggie Tulliver A Girl Fighting for Erudition

81

Diana Antonia Warwick An Erudite Woman in Reality

89

Tess Durbeyfield A Seduced Woman

96

Conclusions

102

Bibliography

113

Resum

128

English Summary

129

12

INTRODUCTION
This dissertation is concerned with the portraits of female characters
delineated in English literature within the periods of the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries. It focuses on woman condition within contemporary
society.
The basis of this work is established on ten main novels starting on Daniel
Defoes The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Famous Moll Flanders [1722],
Charlotte Ramsay Lennoxs The Life of Harriot Stuart, Written by Herself
[1750], Fanny Burneys Evelina, or, the History of the Young Ladys Entrance
into the World [1778], Jane Austens Emma [1816], William Makepeace
Thackerays Vanity Fair: a Novel without a Hero [1847-48], Charlotte Bronts
Jane Eyre [1847], Anne Bronts The Tenant of Wildfell Hall [1848], George
Eliots The Mill on the Floss [1860], George Merediths Diana of the
Crossways [1885] and completed with the novel Tess of the DUrbervilles: a
Pure Woman Faithfully Presented [1891] by Thomas Hardy.
These literary works depict female protagonists from diverse social strata,
at different stages of their lives or within various life situations. De facto, the
range of these books ought to offer a large number of nuances of the
characters of women, which should also afford and guarantee a more precise
overall picture of women in English literature.
The first chapter encompasses ten short summaries of the above
mentioned novels, supplemented with illustrative quotations. These citations
ought to help to coach the novelists eloquent power of their writings.
The second part of the dissertation analyzes each heroine in connection
with a specific dominating feature of her character or her particular social
station. This section also employs other female protagonists presented in
English literature, who can widen the overall point of view, confirm general or
specific experience shared by women or contrast the analyzed female
character.

These analyses are also founded on references to secondary

sources, including internet and films, which are directly related to a literary
work, the contemporary reality or writers personal experience.
The last section conclusions successively proceeds through a

13

womans life, from the birth to motherhood. It highlights the possibilities or

alternatives of a female destiny. It also encompasses a confirmation or
disapproval of my hypotheses.
To sum up, I have intended to create a literary mosaic. The particles of
this mosaic have been composed of literary women characters starting in the
eighteenth century. I

have selected each literary protagonist in order to

introduce a specific prototype of a heroine. Each literary heroine is a means

which has enabled the survey to illustrate possibilities of a female career, an
actual social station, alarming difficulties of a woman or the inadequacy, with
which she was treated, within contemporary patriarchal society. Therefore
these female literary representatives differ from a commonly accepted notion
of an ideal woman.
Firstly, I would like to remind us that women protagonists, despite their
gender, have been able to perform or undertake worthwhile and leading roles
in literary writings. In fact, they have stepped out of the background of
characters in literary works or a crowd of side literary characters hitherto
employed in literature. Moreover, this writing should highlight that the
powerful destinies of these literary women characters have contributed to the
gradual surmounting of deeply rooted prejudice related to women.
Secondly, it should display that the heroines have been able to direct the
attention to the numerous obstacles and limited prospects that surrounded
their entire female existence. Consequently, the survey should point out that
their challenging stories were able to assist in the changes of the status and
rights of contemporary women as well as in moderating their future outlooks.
Thirdly, the work ought to confirm the correspondence between the
authenticity of writers conceptions of the visions of women presented in the
novels and the reality of these periods of time.

14

DANIEL DEFOE
THE FORTUNES AND MISFORTUNES OF THE FAMOUS MOLL
FLANDERS
Moll, whose mother had been convicted of felony, was born in Newgate.
Thereafter little Moll travels with a group of gypsies and is left in Colchester,
Essex. She is consigned to a pious and nice woman, who brings her up. Later
on, Moll attracts some ladies attention. Her skills at needlecraft and
eloquence enthuse the ladies profoundly, specifically her view on being a
gentlewoman. In the course of time, her foster-mother passes away and a
distinguished family accepts Moll /14/. In the family, she acquires passable
principles of basic erudition, as she also attends educational lessons of two
sisters.

However, the family consists of two other siblings two young

brothers. Moll is charmed and seduced by the older brother, ... Mrs. Betty
was in earnest and the gentleman was not (Defoe, 1994: 23). Thereupon she
is manipulated into a marriage to his brother,

... consider [Moll] what it will be to marry a gentleman of a good family, in

good circumstances, and with the consent of the whole house, and to
enjoy all that the world can give you; and what, on the other hand, to be
sunk into the dark circumstances of a woman that has lost her reputation
... (Defoe, 1994: 59)

whose comportment completely differs from his elder brothers conduct. Moll
is beloved by him and

her hard conditions (Defoe, 1994: 57), related to

their possible marriage, are surmounted by him.

Finally, his parents consent to this unequal wedlock. After five years, her
husband dies and Moll is left with two children. She is married to a
questionable and irresponsible tradesman and spends all the money,
pretending to be a noble person. Within the period of two years, her husband
is arrested by reason of bankruptcy. Due to this fact, Moll changes her name
and moves to the Mint, where ... [she has] the scandal of a whore, without
the joy (Defoe, 1994: 70).

15

In the country, a farmer from Virginia proposes to Moll. She comports as a

wealthy lady, but she never mentions any information on the subject of her
fortune herself in order not to be accused of deceiving. After their marriage,
they sail to Virginia. Whereas their mutual happiness is ruined by the
husband's mothers confession, which indicates that ... this was certainly no
more or less than [Molls] own mother and [she] had now had two children,
and was big with another by [her] own brother, and lay with him still every
night (Defoe, 1994: 96).
Moll is alarmed by this truth and the fact of her incest. Their matrimonial
relationship begins to deteriorate, which results in their frequent quarrels. At
the beginning, Moll is not willing to confide the true to any person, but all the
circumstances compel her to share her secret with her and simultaneously
husbandsbrothers mother. Eventually, Moll apprises her husband of the
horrifying situation and departs for England. In Bath, she encounters a
gentleman and their friendly relationship is soon transformed into an intimate
relation on Moll's impulse. Moll sums up this particular period of life by the
following statement: Thus the government of our virtue was broken, and I
exchanged the place of friend for that unmusical, harsh-sounding title of
whore (Defoe, 1994: 127).
Within the period of six years, Moll gives birth to three children. In the
course of time, Molls gentleman is taken ill and he realizes the depth of his
corruption. He firmly insists on their seclusion and Moll ought to take the
whole charge of her finances. She is introduced to a man, who advices her on
the subject of monetary investment. He is attracted by Moll, but he
acknowledges that he has been married to another woman. Luckily, he
resolved on their divorce. Experienced Moll requests a legitimate decree. In
the meantime, she sets forth Lancashire, where she is captivated by the
apparent property of a man. Finally, they are married. To both bilateral
surprises, they disclose the bitter reality concerning their estates. In an inn,
they resolve on their mutual separation.

Moll is provided with a sum of his

last money, which engraves on her heart. In London, she gives birth to a child
with the help of a dexterous and experienced midwife, who convinces Moll of
her trustworthiness.
Consequently, Moll consigns her baby to the midwife, who commits him to
16

an unknown family. Firstly, Moll hesitates, she takes into account the safety
of [her] child (Defoe, 1994: 192),

but later on, she reaches the conclusion

that she cannot reject her friend at the bank. The man declares his acquired
moral probity by several legal documents. After five years, Molls husband
deceases and she is compelled to face an insecure future with two children.
Desperate Moll strolls in streets,

... I dressed me (for I had still pretty good clothes) and went out. I am very
sure I had no manner of design in my head when I went out; I neither
knew nor considered where to go, or on what business; but as the devil
carried me out and laid his bait for me ... (Defoe, 1994: 209)

She purloins a childs necklace of gold beads, a silver pint mug, two rings et
cetera.
Whilst her children are consigned to another family, Moll /50/ is helped by
a comrade, who has ... dealt in three sorts of craft, viz. shop-lifting, stealing
of shop-books and pocket-books, and taking off gold watches from the ladies
sides ... (Defoe, 1994: 220).
Moll embarks on a career of crime having lost any signs of remorse. She
extensively describes her adventures she dresses like a man and does not
disclose her real identity to her colleague, which prevents her from being
apprehended. She also cooperates with a customhouse officer, but she
manages to deceive even him. Eventually, she encounters a baronet and they
spend a night together. Moll purloins his gold watch, snuffbox, sword, periwig
and money. Despite this fact, the midwife contacts the baronet, he obtains his
property back and Moll establishes a new relationship with him, ... which
added no great store to [her], only made more work for [her] repentance
(Defoe, 1994: 260).
During her career of a thief, Moll experiences even disagreeable
situations. Outside a shop, she is accused of shoplifting (although she has not
entered the shop yet), in the mean time, people apprehend a real thief. Selfconfident Moll requests for some reparation. What is more, her case is
presented at court, but Moll has not learnt her lesson yet. She even admits
that I had sometimes taken the liberty to play the same game over again,
17

which is not according to practice ... (Defoe, 1994: 288).

In a house, she purloins two pieces of flowered silk; she is apprehended
and arrested in Newgate. Her worst notions have become true. She puts
forward the view that ... for indeed no colours can represent the place to the
life, nor any soul conceive aright of it but those who have been sufferers
there (Defoe, 1994: 303).
Firstly, she feels depressed and her soul is pervaded with lethargy. Her
fellow-prisoner acknowledges that Moll should not be sad. She should rather
enjoy her last days, as she will be hanged eventually. During Molls stay in
Newgate, the midwife endeavours to remit Moll's punishment as well as
facilitate her prison living conditions.
At court, she is acquitted of burglary, but she is found guilty of felony and
sentenced to death. For the first time in her life, [she] felt any real signs of
repentance (Defoe, 1994: 315).
Due to her true repentance, a minister begins to comfort her soul; he
arranges Moll's transportation to Virginia.

... [I]t was not without great difficulty, and at last an humble petition for
transportation [was lodged] so ill was I beholding to fame, and so
prevailing was the fatal report of being an old offender; though in that they
did not do me strict justice ... (Defoe, 1994: 322)

During Molls imprisonment in Newgate, her former Lancashire husband (a

member of famous highwaymen) is also arrested there. They encounter each
other and want to move to Virginia. Finally, they are both embarked on a ship
to Virginia, equipped with necessary agricultural tools. In Virginia, the captain
of the ship contacts a planter, who provides Moll with a certificate of
discharge, which proves that Moll has served him faithfully.
Eventually, free Moll observes her son and husbandbrother on a
plantation from a distance. When Moll and her present husband settle on the
opposite bank of a bay, she forms a letter to her brother. Humphrey, her son,
reads the letter on behalf of his father, as his father has been blind. Moll is
welcomed heartedly and is paid her income from a bequeathed plantation.
She is also supplied with diverse useful equipment. Finally, wealthy Moll, at
18

the age of seventy, returns to England in order to ... spend remainder of [her]
years there (Defoe, 1994: 376).

CHARLOTTE RAMSAY LENNOX

THE LIFE OF HARRIOT STUART, WRITTEN BY HERSELF
The adventurous life of Harriot Stuart opens with an accident in a theatre,
where she is rescued by Lord S---. At this moment she realizes that [she]
was born a coquette, and what would have been art in others, in [her] was
pure nature.1
In the course of time, Mr. Stuart is offered a considerable post in America
and the entire family has to move there. During their voyage, Harriot
encounters two gentlemen. Whilst Mr. Dumont gains Harriots affection, Mr.
Maynard evokes her detestation. Mrs. Stuart favours the second candidate on
account of his fortune, social post and right religion; but Mr. Stuart does not
intend to force Harriots choice.
In America, Harriot is courted by Captain Belmein, a governors son.
However, his father refuses to give his consent to Captains marriage to
Harriot. This young man does not surrender and abducts Harriot. At a secret
place, Harriot reveals Captain Belmeins dishonourable intentions, escapes
from him and maintains the honour of her family.
After Harriots fathers death, Harriots god-mother invites her to London.
Harriot and her governess Mrs. Blandon set for a sail to England, but their
ship is captured by a Spanish privateer. Shortly afterwards, Harriot is
liberated from the power of the Spaniards.
In a new ship, she has to face the sea captains daring comportment and
physical assault. She withstands this difficult situation honourably. In London,
Harriot finds out that her god-mother has been taken ill and has not been

All the quotations concerning the novel The Life of Harriot Stuart, Written by Herself by
Charlotte Ramsay Lennox will be related to the following internet sources
<http://xroads.virginia.edu/~MA96/owens/text1.htm>
and
<http://xroads.virginia.edu/~MA96/owens/text2.htm>.

19

present. Consequently, she is confronted with her own financial difficulties

and Mrs. Blandons death.
Lady Cecilia intends to help Harriot, but her envy and vanity cannot
surpass Harriots talent for poetry and other mens admiration. On Lady
Cecilias impulse, Mr. Repoli is commissioned to dishonour Harriot, but his
endeavours are not successful. In the meantime, Harriots most favourite
suitor, Mr. Dumont, has become a Protestant.
Lonesome Harriot befriends Mrs. Dormer, a person with a moving past.
Mr. Dumont contacts Harriot and they fix their wedding day. Due to intrigues,
Harriot is imprisoned in a French convent. Her friendly deportment and poems
assist her in gaining Mrs. Belvilles support. Eventually, she can depart from
the convent. On her return journey to London, she is endangered by men
again, but she is able to arrive at her destination without any blight on her
own or family names.
In the capital city, she can encounter her mother and her married sister
after a long period of time. Mrs. Dormer discloses all the information
concerning Harriots imprisonment in France. Harriot can be united with
beloved Mr. Dumont.

FANNY BURNEY
EVELINA,

OR,

THE

HISTORY

OF

YOUNG

LADYS

ENTRANCE INTO THE WORLD

Youthful seventeen-year-old Evelina, the offspring of a private marriage
between Miss Evelyn and Sir Belmont, has been brought up by Reverend
Arthur Villars. Innocent Evelina is invited to spend an extended holiday in
Lady Howards estate, Howard Grove, because both the Reverend and Lady
Howard intend to prevent Evelina from meeting her vulgar grandmother,
Madame Duval.
In London, Evelina is acquainted with diverse splendid gaieties of this
great city private balls, ridottos, opera performances, shopping, spirited
conversations or superior people, but she is also forced to face the strict

20

requirements of the social etiquette, intrusive and manipulative tricks of men

or the delicacy of her social station.
During her stay, she encounters the Mirvans, Sir Clement Willoughby,
Lord Orville and even Madame Duval. Whilst Lord Orville enchants Evelina
with his perfect gallantry, distinguished manners and no manifestations of the
smallest degree of consciousness2, Sir Clement Willoughby outflanks her
with his immoderate vanity, duplicitous intentions and daring comportment.
Likewise, Evelina witnesses Captain Mirvans impolite comportment towards
Madame Duval. Although this lady does not display any gentleness in her
temper, amiability in her deportment or a firm stock of principles; Evelina feels
sympathy for her. Boorish Madame Duval also threatens Sir John Belmont to
claim, by law, Evelinas inheritance and to prove her birthright.
In the course of time, Sir Clement Willoughby exploits Evelinas
inexperience. He answers Evelinas letter on behalf of Lord Orville and the
tone of the note causes Evelinas detestation of the lordships impertinence
and moral corruption. Similar social humiliation is accumulated upon Evelinas
personality by her grandmother, who introduces Evelina to an inadequate
society or boasts of Evelinas acquaintance with Lord Orville.
Later on, Evelina encounters Mr. Macartney, a Scottish lodger, who
mourns over his dead mother, faces financial difficulties and longs for his
beloved lady, whose father disapproves of their mutual affection. Incidentally,
Evelina prevents Mr. Macartney from committing suicide.
Finally, Evelina overcomes Sir Clement Willoughbys intrigues; her actual
origin is explained by Polly Green (her former wet-nurse) and she is
recognized as Sir John Belmonts true consanguineous daughter and heiress.
She also gains a brother, Mr. Macartney, who is happily reunited with his
adored lady, who was hitherto designated as Miss Belmont and who hitherto
occupied Evelinas legal station. All the obstacles have been surmounted and
Evelina is married to Lord Orville.

All the quotations concerning the novel Evelina, or, the History of a Young Ladys Entrance
into the World by Fanny Burney will be related to the following internet source
<http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/eveli10.txt>.

21

JANE AUSTEN
EMMA
Miss Emma Woodhouse, ... handsome, clever, and rich, with a
comfortable home and happy disposition, seemed to unite some of the best
blessings of existence; and had lived nearly twenty-one years in the world
with very little to distress or vex her ... (Austen, 1994: 5), lives with her
widowed father in their family mansion Hartfield in Highbury.

Emmas sister

was united with Mr. John Knightley previously and they moved to London.
Similarly, Emmas governess Miss Anne Taylor has just been married to
Mr. Weston and dwells in a nearby estate, Randalls.
Emma befriends Harriet Smith /17/, of unknown parentage, and starts to
scheme her social advancement. She want[s] to see [Harriet] permanently
well connected-and to that end it will be advisable to have as few odd
acquaintances as may be ... (Austen, 1994: 24). Firstly, Emma dissuades
Harriet from meeting Robert Martin /24/, a farmer, who has already proposed
to Harriet.
Secondly, Emma assists in Harriets and Mr. Eltons, a local ministers,
matching. Mr. George Knightley, her brother-in-law, discloses Emmas
intention. Emma is warned that Mr. Elton would not condescend to an
unequal matrimony to socially inferior Harriet. Emma opposes against this
opinion. In the course of time, she is compelled to acknowledge that Mr.
Knightleys estimation was precise. De facto, Mr. Elton was fond of Emma,
instead of Harriet. Rejected Mr. Elton sets forth Bath, where he encounters
Miss Augusta Hawkins. In the meantime, Emma takes care of her father; she
entertains him and listens to his continual complaints at diverse subjects.
Emmas flow of life is disturbed by the arrival of Jane Fairfax, Mrs. and
Miss Batess relative. Emma has not taken fancy of her, although Jane can be
regarded as an elegant young lady with best manners and a first-rate
education. Janes excellent talents for singing and playing the piano irritate
Emma. She is also inflamed by Janes reserved comportment and submissive
character, specifically relative to Mrs. Elton. Emma dislikes Mrs. Elton greatly.
Frank Churchill, with whom Emma teases Jane about the secret donor of

22

her piano, represents another interesting and motivating factor in Emmas life.
Emma also assists in organizing a ball and participates in an expedition to
Box Hill, where she is courted by Frank. She accepts his compliments with a
great amusement and thoughtlessly. Nevertheless, she is repeatedly inspired
to scheme another matching plan, which collapses by reason of Jane and
Franks former secret engagement. In the meantime, Emmas misguided
conduct results in impertinent remarks related to Miss Bates. Emma is
reprehended for her dishonourable comportment by Mr. Knightley and she
endeavours to redress it.
In the course of time, Emma is apprised of Harriets secret thoughts
concerning Mr. Knightley and is disquieted by this fact. Finally, she realizes
her true attachment to Mr. Knightley and accepts his proposal. They are
married in October.

WILLIAM MAKEPEACE THACKERAY

VANITY FAIR: A NOVEL WITHOUT A HERO
The first chapter Before the Curtain of the novel Vanity Fair significantly
begins with the following words

As the Manager of the Performance sits before the curtain on the boards,
and looks into the Fair, a feeling of profound melancholy comes over him
in his survey of the bustling place. There is a great quantity of eating and
drinking, making love and jilting, laughing and the contrary, smoking,
cheating, fighting, dancing, and fiddling: there are bullies pushing about,
bucks ogling the women, knaves picking pockets, policemen on the lookout, quacks bawling in front of their booths, and yokels looking up at
the tinselled dancers and poor old rouged tumbles, while the light-fingered
folk are operating upon their pockets behind. Yes, this is VANITY FAIR ...
(Thackeray, 1994: vii; emphasis original)

Miss Rebecca Sharp, an orphaned young girl, sets forth London

23

accompanied by Miss Amelia Sedley.

In London, she endeavours to

strengthen the bond between her and Amelia. She stimulates Amelias
sentiment and points out that ... you [Amelia] who have shown the poor
orphan what happiness and love are for the first time in her life-quit you?
never! (Thackeray, 1994: 23; emphasis original).
As she does not intend to become a governess, she flatters Mr. Joseph
Sedley continually in order to ensnare him with the help of her ingenious
manoeuvres.
George Osborne precludes Beckys intentions relative to the union with
Joseph.

Therefore she ought to depart for Queens Crawley residence,

where she is employed as a governess of two little girls, Rose and Violet.
Becky succeeds in enticing Sir Pitt Crawley. In the course of time, Becky
seizes hold of a promising opportunity and entertains Miss Crawley. This
wealthy lady reaches the conclusion that ... shes [Becky] the only person fit
to talk to in the county! You [Becky] have more brains than half the shire
(Thackeray, 1994: 94, 95).
Calculating Rebecca does not hesitate and maintains control over the
entire Crawleys family. She has become Miss Crawleys indispensable
assistant and she is always prepared to please and satisfy Miss Crawleys
needs. Capable Rebecca manages to enchant Rawdon completely.
Becky passes a long time at Miss Crawleys dwelling, where she is often
requested to return to Queens Crawley, as Sir Pitt is desperately thrown into
woeful perturbation. All of a sudden, Sir Pitt arrives at Park-Lane and
proposes to Rebecca. Becky surprisingly declines his attractive proposal. Her
refusal astonishes even Miss Crawley - ... a penniless governess should
refuse a Baronet with four thousand a year ... (Thackeray, 1994: 136).
From the beginning, Becky holds a dubious view that Sir Pitts wife has
deceased recently and Sir Pitt should go into mourning, but

this allegation

does not beguile Miss Crawley. Later on, Becky departs from Miss Crawleys
estate, still taking into consideration Miss Crawleys romantic views, daring
liberal opinions, and her attachment to her nephew.

In a letter, Becky

confesses to having been married to Rawdon. The newly married couple

believes in Miss Crawleys benefaction.
In the course of time, Rawdon and Rebecca encounter Amelia and George
24

in Brighton. Becky exploits this opportune occasion to punish George for her
spoilt engagement with Joseph. Rebecca charms George and vexes Amelia
in order to demonstrate her power over him.

In the Netherlands, Becky

persists in tempting George, who is convinced that ... the wife [Becky] was
dying of love for him (Thackeray, 1994: 269).
During a ball, Becky draws Georges full attention. Audacious George
provides her with a bouquet of flowers, in which a small piece of paper is
placed. That night all the soldiers have to set forth the war tumult. The
proximity of possible death forces Rawdon to secure Becky. Whilst he
ponders Beckys future meticulously, ... [she is] wisely determined not to
give way to unavailing sentimentality on her husbands departure and
[goes] to bed, and [sleeps] very comfortably (Thackeray, 1994: 279).
Smart Becky exploits Josephs cowardice and sells him two horses dearly.
She does not idle even during the war and apprises Miss Crawley of
Rawdons fictitious deserts on behalf of him. Thereafter the war has ended
and Rawdon returns to Becky, but George died.

Later on, both female

characters give birth to sons little Rawdon and little George. Whilst Amelias
little son delights her indescribably, Rawdy represents an encumbrance for
Becky.
In Paris Becky experiences a great social enhancement. She has even
managed to live on Josephs payment for a whole year. During the Parisian
stay, Becky realizes that Rawdon is not able to be a representative husband,
mostly owing to his gambling reputation. In the course of time, Beckys
mnage starts to suffer from the deficiency of money and her house [begins]
to have an unfortunate reputation (Thackeray, 1994: 348). They depart from
Paris and little Rawdon is left there, under the care of a French servant. In
London, the Crawleys ought to silence their former creditors. Becky adheres
to her employed strategy to have or to leave (Thackeray, 1994: 352) any
offered sum of money. Ambitious Becky experiences even an audience with
the King George IV.
In the course of time, Becky befriends omnipotent lord Steyne and she is
allowed to enter high society. She is attended and courted by a multitude of
noblemen. Lord Steyne, who generously subsidises Beckys family,
accidentally reveals that she has not been honest with him. It is necessary to
25

point out that the Crawleys payment has not been altered, despite lord
Steynes sponsorship. In fact, ... by economy and good management-by a
sparing use of ready money and by paying scarcely anybody,-people can
manage, for a time at least, to make a great show with very little means ...
(Thackeray, 1994: 491).
As a result of this unbearable situation, Rawdon is apprehended by reason
of his debts; Becky welcomes his apprehension and is not complaisant to
solve it. Desperate Rawdon is compelled to form a letter to lady Crawley, who
does not hesitate and recompenses Rawdon in all respects. Thereupon he
can sight Becky and lord Steyne in a sociable discourse, sitting on a sofa.
Lord Steyne suspects them from conspiracy and Becky swears that she is
innocent. Rawdon is sheltered in Queens Crawley and accepts the post of a
governor in Swampton. Becky arrives at Queens Crawley and beseeches for
pardon, but hitherto calm Lady Jane recounts all Beckys dishonourable
deeds.
In the course of time, Becky

settles in Europe, where she has

experienced some travail. Later on, she encounters Joseph, Georgy, Amelia
and Dobbin, who have arrived in order to explore the Continent.
In the meantime, little Rawdon has become the sole heir of the Crawleys
clan (his father deceased due to harsh climatic conditions). Becky makes so
bold and directs a letter to him. Rawdon, having learnt his lesson, rejects any
contact with his biological mother. Becky ought to strive for life on her own.
Her questionable reputation pursues her throughout Europe. In Germany,
Becky starts to manipulate Joseph again; she truly confesses to the injustice
that has been done to her. Deluded Joseph confides Beckys status to Dobbin
and Amelia. Firstly, both adult people repudiate even a reference on the
subject of Becky. But when Joseph claims that her son has been taken away
from her, sensitive Amelia rushes to encounter Becky in order to comfort her
soul. Although Beckys knowledge, concerning her son, displays certain
voids; infatuated Amelia trusts her repeatedly. Major Dobbin, who is sensible
of Beckys cunning comportment, protests against a new relationship and
leaves. Afterwards Becky does a good turn. She evinces Georges true
qualities and displays his note to Amelia - that piece of paper placed in the
bouquet of flowers at the ball. ... [T]he foolish young man [George] had
26

asked her [Becky] to fly (Thackeray, 1994: 666).

Amelia forms a letter to Dobbin who hastens to acquire her. Their longtime innocent relationship is completed with their wedlock, followed by the
birth of their daughter Jane.
Becky seizes hold of Joseph, to be specific, of his financial sources, and
she can live a lonesome life in high society.

CHARLOTTE BRONT
JANE EYRE
Mr.

Reed

accepts

Jane

Eyre,

an

orphan,

into

his

family.

He devotedly looks after his little niece, however, in the course of time, he
passes away. Jane looses not only a foster-father and tutor, but also a sole
friend and patron. Due to the uncles great attachment, Jane is greatly
disliked by Mrs. Reed. Her aunt exploits any occasion to humble and
humiliate Jane. Jane is also insulted both physically and emotionally by her
cousins. Nevertheless, Jane a ten-year-old child astounds her aunt by an
exact opinion of her mistreatment.

On account of this revolt, Jane is

consigned to Lowood - an Institute for educating orphans.

Despite various

unfavourable institute circumstances, Jane befriends Helen Burns. This

Scottish orphan is usually reprimanded for trivial faults. Unbearable school
conditions result in typhus fever and the majority of wards pass away,
unfortunately, Helen included.
Thereafter Jane stays here for eight years. In the course of time, Jane
publishes an advertisement in order to find a new job. She is employed as a
governess in Thornfield, where she is treated with definite dignity and respect.
Consecutively, she is acquainted with the inhabitants of the hall Mrs.
Fairfax, Adle, Sophie and Grace Poole. Adle, Mr. Rochesters ward, is
confided to Janes care. Jane also encounters the owner of the mansion Mr.
Rochester, who carefully examines her faculties and personality.
Eventually, Jane is apprised of Adles history and some allusions to Mr.
Rochesters agitated life and some cruel cross of [his] fate (Bront, C., 1994:

27

148). Occasionally, the tranquillity of their lives is disturbed by some

inexplicable laughter, screaming or dangerous accidents.
Meanwhile, Jane is invited to Gateshead. Her aunt informs Jane about her
uncle John Eyre at Madeira. Jane returns to Thornfield and Mr. Rochester
proposes to her. Jane hesitates bearing in mind her social station. Finally, she
accepts his proposal, having been overwhelmed with her great affection
towards Mr. Rochester. On their wedding day, the existence of an
impediment (Bront, C., 1994: 287)

is revealed and all the participants of

the wedding are acquainted with Bertha (Mr. Rochesters insane Creole wife).
Desperate Mr. Rochester highlights all the circumstances, which have
accompanied his marriage to Bertha.
Both Jane and Mr. Rochester are afflicted with this confession.
Consequently, Jane flees without any personal property from Thornfield. She
rambles throughout the district for several days, sleeping in the woods and
searching for some employment. Very exhausted Jane is allowed to stay in a
family consisting of two sisters and a brother. When she recuperates from her
overall exhaustion, Jane Elliot (Eyre) alludes to her life fortunes, excluding
names and places treating of Mr. Rochester. Jane befriends Diana and Mary
the Rivers sisters, whilst gloomy and hard-working Reverend St. John
abstractedly observes Jane. In the end, Jane becomes a teacher in a nearby
village. Miss Rosamond Oliver, who provides Jane with a small house and a
regular income, finances the school.
In the meantime, Jane bequeaths twenty thousand pounds (her uncle at
Madeira passed away) and is informed that the Rivers siblings are her
cousins. Excited Jane divides her bequest into four shares. She furnishes the
Moore House and the Rivers sisters can return home. St. John proposes to
Jane. She rejects his proposal, as it has not been established on mutual
affection, but it has been based on St. Johns calculated purport.
He still perseveres in his endeavours to influence Janes resolution and
expects Jane to yield to his will. Therefore desperate Jane requests some
sign which ought to assist her with the right decision. She can hear Mr.
Rochester's voice and she starts to seek him. She finds a ruin of Thornfield,
but she does not surrender. In an inn, she is apprised of the fire of the
mansion, Berthas death and Mr. Rochesters injuries.
28

Jane does not hesitate and visits Mr. Rochester in Ferndean Mansion. He
cannot believe that his beloved Jane has returned. She endeavours to enliven
his soul and they are united in a church. In a period of two years, Edwards
sight is partially restored and he can see his first-born son.

ANNE BRONT
THE TENANT OF WILDFELL HALL
Mrs. Helen Graham, a tenant of Wildfell Hall, has interrupted the tranquil
style of the Markhams lives. She occupies this estate accompanied by her
little son Arthur as well as her servant and confidant Rachel. Several
inquisitive neighbours visit Helen. However, their desire to reveal more
information, related to her and her mysterious history, is not satisfied. In the
course of time, Helen and Arthur participate in social activities, organized by
her new fellow-citizens. Helen can be characterized as a person, who is
greatly fixed to her son and undertakes the whole charge of her living
throughout her great interest painting. She inhabits an old, uncomfortable
house and is very thankful for it.
In the evenings Mr. Lawrence, the owner of the mansion, is being noticed
at Wildfell Hall, which arises a large number of suspicious questions. Helen is
shielded by Gilbert Markham, Helens friend, in public.
Due to several adverse circumstances, Helens blame, in relation to the
public suspicion, is confirmed. In the course of time, Gilbert (after a short
pause caused by their misunderstanding) obtains her diary in order to form
his own personal and independent opinion, concerning her character. Bring it
back, when you have read it; and dont breathe a word of what it tells you to
any living being. I trust to your honour. (Bront, A., 1994: 108)
In 1821, Helen dwells together with her aunt and uncle - the Maxwells in
Staningley. She is proposed by Mr. Boarham, an old family friend, but his
proposal is declined. Unfortunately, Mr. Huntingdon, a young man, sustains
Helen in order to deprive her of Mr. Boarhams company. She is also provided
with Mr. Huntingdons courtly manners. Besides ... a halo [casts] over all he

29

did and said ... (Bront, A., 1994: 120). Fascinated and captivated Helen
does not bear aunts judgement and her friends words of advice in mind.
Guided by noble concerns, Helen resolves on the following direction in her life
- If he has wandered, what bliss to recall him! (Bront, A., 1994: 126)
In the end, a young couple is married, but within a period of weeks, Helen
acknowledges that

... I must confess, in my secret heart, that Arthur is not what I thought him
at first, and if I had known him in the beginning as thoroughly as I do now,
I probably never should have loved him, and if I loved him first, and then
made the discovery, I fear I should have thought it my duty not to have
married him. (Bront, A., 1994: 164)

In the course of time, devout Helen and their peaceful style of life in
Grassdale Mansion annoy Mr. Huntingdon.

They set forth a journey to

London. In London Helen learns detailed information related to Mr.

Huntingdons friends, namely Mr. Hattersley, lord Lowborough and Mr.
Grimsby. Helen is convinced to depart from the capital city, as calculating Mr.
Huntingdon cannot be accompanied by his quiet wife for a long time.
At the beginning of Mr. Huntingdons visit, he promises to return early and
assures Helen of his imperishable love. His long letters soon shorten and he
declares a slight annoyance caused by Helens requests for his return. Mr.
Huntingdon arrives home. Shortly afterwards, the rest of his companions
attended by their wives settle in their residence. Helen is inflamed by
Annabellas and Mr. Huntingdons dishonourable deportment. She cannot
also vanquish her further disgust for Lady Annabella Lowborough.
In the period of one year, Helen gives birth to a boy, Arthur. Whilst Helen
exults at her son, Mr. Huntingdon persists in his dissolute style of life, which
deteriorates the state of his health rapidly. He does not take into account
Helens advice and exhortation. Sensitive Helen devotes her enlightenment
even to Mr. Hattersley, she elucidates him how profoundly Milicent is
offended by his conduct and how deeply she suffers.
Mr. Hargrave often contacts Helen. On the one hand, he tempts her. On
the other hand, he would like to apprise her of something significant.
30

Bewildered Helen is compelled to evade him. Helen discloses the truth in

relation to Mr. Huntingdon he has committed adultery. Helen suggests
departing from Grassdale Manor, but Mr. Huntingdon

responds in the

negative peremptorily. Admittedly, she experiences a great tribulation with Mr.

Huntingdon for another year.
In 1826, Helen begins to assemble money in order to escape from her
husband. Unfortunately, her purport has been disclosed and she is deprived
of any finances. She cannot capitulate, as Arthur is mischievously
endangered by his father and companions.

[Mr. Huntingdon] utters a word of encouragement to his [little Arthurs]

aspirations after manly accomplishments [for example,] tipple wine like
papa, swear like Mr. Hattersley, and have his own way like a man,
and send mamma to the devil (Bront, A., 1994: 269)

Helens patience and allegiance to her husband evaporates totally after his
announcement that his wife is at the gentlemens disposal. Finally, Helen
implements her intention; she departs from the place, which completed her
with great embitterment and disenchantment. Helens brother, Mr. Lawrence,
shelters her in his former mansion, Wildfell Hall. Intimidated Helen changes
her surname to Mrs. Graham (her mothers maiden surname). In a new
parish, she carefully esteems each step in order to conserve her mysterious
history, but she is exposed to the incessant human curiosity.
Later on, Helen is apprised of Gilberts expectations, but she insists on a
six-month severance. Meanwhile, Helen returns to comfort her ruined
husband. First of all, she requires of Mr. Huntingdon to sign a written
document in presence of witnesses. He satisfies her exigency. Irremediable
and selfish Mr. Huntingdon does not appreciate her sacrifice. He draws her
attention for an entire day - to be precise, he exploits her.

Eventually, Mr.

Huntingdon passes away. Helen, Arthur and Rachel unite with her aunt in the
town of Staningley. In the meantime, Helen has bequeathed great property
that caused Gilberts hesitation, whether he can contact a wealthy lady.
Finally, Helen is married to Gilbert in a summer.

31

GEORGE ELIOT
THE MILL ON THE FLOSS
Dorlcote Mill is located nearby St. Oggs. It has been inhabited by the fifth
generation of the Tulliver's family. Maggie Tulliver, the daughter of the owner
of the mill, eagerly awaits her brother Tom. He is coming home from his first
school. Maggies attachment to Tom is not restricted by any limits; however,
Tom is sensible of his masculine superiority and power and often reprimands
his sister.
In the course of time, impulsive Maggie cuts her hair and pushes her
cousin into a muddy place; the family members condemn her deportment.
Consequently, Maggie flees to a gypsies camp. At home, her father, whom
she does love, forgives her.
Maggie is allowed to visit her brother at Kings Lorton, the place of Toms
additional erudition. At Kings Lorton, she reveals her great disposition to
learning; she is interested in books and Toms school subjects. Her natural
talent for the acquisition of knowledge contrasts with Toms lack of this
quality. At Stellings house, Maggie encounters Toms new schoolfellow
Philip Wakem, a physically challenged and intelligent son of the Tullivers foe.
Vital Maggie contributes to temporary understanding between Tom and
Phillip.
Thereafter the lawsuit between Mr. Tulliver and Mr. Wakems client is
finished. Mr. Tulliver, having lost it, is obligated to pay the lawsuit costs, which
will result in his bankruptcy. Maggie is compelled to leave Miss Firniss
boarding school and Tom is forced to relinquish his private schooling.
Moreover, Mr. Tulliver has fallen off his horse and has lost his consciousness.
Maggie is inflamed by her mothers deep grief, concerning the loss of her
trousseau. Likewise, she is not able to understand the relatives hesitant
attitude and unwillingness to solve their economical situation. The relatives
greatest contributions are restricted to mere words, trivial presents and the
vast criticism of Mr. Tullivers deeds and character. Maggie defends her father
resolutely. Tom utters his father's wish that Mrs. Moss's (Mr. Tullivers
sisters) loan should not be exacted. Meanwhile, Mr. Tulliver revives and

32

insists on repaying Lukes, Mr. Tullivers employees, investment. Tom has

become the head of the family and ought to procure Maggie and his mother.
Thereafter the familys household furniture is sold by auction sale and Mr.
Wakem purchases the mill on Mrs. Tullivers preposterous impulse. Mr.
Tulliver has become Mr. Wakems employee. Tom has to add one important
oath into their family register that ... youll [Tom] remember what Wakems
done to your father, and you'll make him and his feel it, if ever the day comes
(Eliot, 1910: 263).
Afterwards

Tom is employed at the uncles company and Maggie sews

shirts in order to contribute to the family budget. All the family members save
money in a tin box in order to discharge the debts. Voracious Maggies
character hungers for spiritual information. Her desire is partly satisfied by
Bobs (Toms childish friends) books that he has purchased for her.
Nevertheless, secret meetings with Philip in the Red Deeps reach the
sufficient and adequate fulfilment of her internal needs. Maggie is sensible of
her unacceptable conduct referring to the family honour. What is more, Philip
admits that he has fallen in love with her. Their mutual happiness cannot last
for a long time; Tom reveals their secret and compels Maggie to swear that
she will never encounter Philip again.
In the course of time, thanks to Bobs advice relative to investment, Tom
can discharge the creditors. Happy and satisfied Mr. Tulliver informs Mr.
Wakem that his slavery has ended. He also attacks Mr. Wakem with a whip.
Excited Mr. Tulliver passes away. Maggie is employed in a school and during
her holidays she is invited to the Deanes mnage. Artless and genial Lucy is
enthused over Maggie. At the Deanes, Maggie encounters Mr. Stephen
Guest, Lucys suitor. They all organize or participate in sociable activities
music afternoons, boat trips or a charity fair. Simultaneously, Maggie and
Stephen begin to be attracted by each other. Maggie endeavours to resist her
affection, but it slowly gains greater and greater intensity.
Later on, she visits Tom, who has been accommodated in Bobs house.
She would like to obtain Toms permission to encounter Philip. Toms life has
still been focused on hard toil and the fulfilment of the fathers wish to take
possession of the family mill again. Lucy secretly helps Tom in connection
with the family mill. She hopes that it will improve the relationship between the
33

Wakems and the Tullivers. Consequently, the Tullivers family possesses the
mill again. Meanwhile, Maggie still fights against her own affections and
Stephen's attachment. Sensitive Philip anticipates the relationship between
these young people. Maggie does not intend to offend Lucys feelings and
ruin her expectations. During their boat trip, Stephen rows to Mudport and
Maggie nearly succumbs to his pressure. Maggie realizes the possible
impacts of her deed and she returns to St. Oggs alone. Tom condemns
Maggies comportment and acknowledges that

You will find no home with me You have disgraced us all. You have
disgraced my fathers name. You have been a curse to your best friends.
You have been base-deceitful; no motives are strong enough to restrain
you. I wash my hands of you for ever. You dont belong to me. (Eliot,
1910: 474)

Maggies mother accompanies her to Bobs house, where they are

sheltered. Bobs comportment and respect have not been altered.

Stephen

forms an explanatory and liberating letter, in which he accused only himself of

the former situation. Dr. Kenns endeavours to enlighten his parishioners as
well as Lucy and Philip believe in Maggies honesty and innocence, however
St. Oggs passes [a cruel] judgement (Eliot, 1910: 479).

Desperate Maggie

is not able to solve this delicate situation. Whilst she kneels down to pray, she
realizes that flood has entered Bobs house. Consequently, she and Bob
intend to save boats. Maggie, sitting in a boat, is drifted away by the stream of
the river. She sets forth to save Tom, who has been endangered by the flood
in the mill. When they are seated in the boat, they embrace each other. The
fragments of houses, floating in the river, sink their boat. Both siblings drown.

34

GEORGE MEREDITH
DIANA OF THE CROSSWAYS
The beautiful, lively, young and single Irish girl Diana Merion charms many
gentlemen during diverse sociable actions. She often spends her time with
lady Dunstane, her faithful friend. In Copsley, Diana experiences Sir
Dunstanes indiscreet comportment that undermines her belief in her own
self-sufficiency. Consequently, she is married to Mr. Warwick, who has dwelt
in the Merions family mansion the Crossways. Dianas sudden and
unexpected wedlock surprises everyone - Why she [Diana] married, she
never told (Meredith, 1914: 58).
Lord Dannisburgh, who enjoys Dianas company, appreciates her advice
and debates with her about various topics. He often visits the mnage of the
newly married couple. In the course of time, Mr. Warwick steals Dianas
private letters from her desk and accuses her of adultery. Diana resolves on
departing from the country. She does not intend to undergo any humbling
moments in front of a jury. Mr. Redworth, delegated by Lady Dunstane,
convinces Diana to stay in England. In the end, Dianas lawsuit is declared
unwarranted.
After the trial, Diana visits many countries including Italy, Germany or
Switzerland. During her tour, Mr. Percy Dacier frequently seeks her company.
Within this period of Dianas life, her first book The Princess Egeria is written
and she sets forth a literary career. This activity should partially help Diana to
solve her financial situation. She can also apply her excellent skills at
eloquence as well as ... she wr[i]te[s] more and more realistically of the
characters and the downright human emotions ... (Meredith, 1914: 221).
In London, she organizes costly parties appreciated by both female and
male participants. Not only men and women are not separated after dinners,
but also all of them can be involved in lively discussions. Diana is compelled
to sell her estate the Crossways. Feeling desperate and lonesome, she
almost flees with Percy. Dianas friend is operated and Mr. Redworth comes
to accompany Diana to Copsley. Mr. Dacier understands her decision to take
care of her friend and perseveres in meeting Diana. Afterwards Percy

35

confides

the latest secret political information to Diana. She does not

hesitate and sells the secret of immense, immediate importance (Meredith,

1914: 324; emphasis original) to a London newspaper. She does not realize
the impact of her deed.

This piece of precious information should have

repaid her debts, but the whole act results in Dianas and Percys separation.
Dianas strong sense of honour does not allow her to accept the cheque
obtained for the transaction. Shortly afterwards, Dianas husband dies. In the
course of time, she gradually overcomes the loss of her friend Percy and his
marriage to a wealthy lady. Reasonable lady Dunstane draws Dianas
attention to Mr. Redworth. Diana expresses her cautious opinion that But
marriage, dear Emmy! Marriage! Is marriage to be the end of me? (Meredith,
1914: 400)
After a long inner struggle, she connects her life with Thomas Redworth.

THOMAS HARDY
TESS OF THE DURBERVILLES: A PURE WOMAN FAITHFULLY
PRESENTED
John Durbeyfield is apprised

of his old and knightly ancestors - the

dUrbervilles. He continually persuades the whole family as well as

neighbours about his new prestigious social position. Therefore his daughter
Tess is delegated to contact their rich relatives the Stoke-dUrbervilles in
Trantrige. Tess repudiates even the idea of being related to such a significant
clan.
However, due to an adverse coincidence pertinent to their dead horse,
Tess is pressed to seek some help in the relatives' residence, having been
convinced of

her personal blame.

She encounters Mr. Alexander

dUrberville and enlightens him the reasons for her mission. Her declaration is
countenanced by trivial proofs, which have been associated with their
genealogical tree. Tesss beauty and youth attract Alec, who intends to exploit
this favourable situation.
On behalf of his mother, he directs a letter to Tesss family. Tess still

36

hesitates. In spite of her suspense, she reaches the conclusion that only she
is able to satisfy urgent needs of the family. She can also fulfil the dreams of
her siblings by accepting Alecs offered work. Tesss resolution is reinforced
by Alecs disinterested presents - an indispensable horse and toys for
children. Despite Tesss true endeavours to avoid any contact with Alec, she
succumbs to him.
Afterwards

she

returns

home,

having

slighted

Alec's

generous

suggestions. Tesss mother does not comprehend her attitude. Then Tess
gives birth to a baby. Tesss relationship to the baby can be considered as
complicated a wide range of feelings (her complete indifference, hatred and
love). Only the babys disease and the proximity of the death awake Tess
totally. Her darling was about to die, and no salvation. ... She thought of the
child consigned to the nethermost corner of hell as its double doom for lack of
baptism and lack of legitimacy: saw the arch-fiend tossing it with his threepronged fork (Hardy, 2001: 74).
She baptizes the baby herself. Its name is Sorrow. When the baby passes
away, Tess feels some kind of relief.

So passed away Sorrow the Undesired that intrusive creature, that

bastard gift of shameless Nature, who respects not the social law; a waif,
to whom eternal Time had been a matter of days merely, who knew not
that such things as years and centuries ever were: to whom the cottage
interior was the universe, the weeks weather climate, new-born babyhood human existence, and the instinct to suck human knowledge.
(Hardy, 2001: 76)

After the babys burial, emotionally disturbed Tess departs from her native
village and

is employed as a milkmaid. At Mr. Cricks farm, Tess is

acquainted with new people, three girls - Retty Priddle, Izz Huett and Marian
and a young man Mr. Angel Clare. He is attracted by Tesss shy and calm
character as well as her beauty. Owing to her previous experience and being
sensible of her sully reputation, she refrains from accepting Angels proposal.
Insecure and hesitant Tess requires mothers advice, concerning her
confession.

Her mother forbids Tess to acknowledge any details of her

37

former affair, as it could affect Tess's final good luck.

Tess still hesitates; on the one hand, she desires to acquire some
happiness. On the other hand, she cannot endure the pressure of her own
conscience. She compiles her complete curriculum vitae to Angel. By a
coincidence, Angel does not discover Tesss humble and truthful excuse and
they are married in a church.
In the evening, Angel discloses the truth connected to his youthful lapse.
Tess forgives him vigorously. Being encouraged by Angels confession, she
utters the whole truth concerning her agitated life. Tess ought to repeat and
explain some passages from her life. Angel is outflanked and emphasises
that Oh, Tess, forgiveness does not apply to the case! You were one person;
now you are another. My God how can forgiveness meet such a grotesque
prestidigitation as that! (Hardy, 2001: 183).
Tesss secret hopes arise during Angels somnambulism; he carries her to
a memorial park. Tess is immensely contented with his propinquity, but she
does not intend to ruin this charming moment. In the morning, she is reticent.
In the end, Angel, having considered all the facts profoundly, suggests certain
seclusion to her.
Their life journeys are parted. Tess returns home and Angel, having seen
an advertisement concerning Brazilian agricultural perspectives, departs. On
his way to the port, Izz confirms Tesss deep affection towards Angel. In
Brazil, Angel prepares fields for their future lives and he can

recognize the

toughness of Brazilian climate and nature. He is also taken ill there. At the
same time, Tess searches for a new employment. At Flintcomb-Ash farm, she
begins to work together with Marian. The owner of the farm, Mr. Groby,
recognizes Tess Mr. dUrbevilles former friend and persecutes her on any
occasion. Tess toils very hard, regardless very cruel winter conditions, in
order to deafen the voice of her remorse.
Desperate Tess resolves on contacting Angels parents and undergoes a
demanding journey. In the village of Emminster, her courage evaporates. On
her return journey, she encounters Alec, who preaches in a barn. He is very
concerned with the Ten Commandments. He acknowledges that his
corruption has made him realize that he should salve and redeem his soul.
Tess is astonished by Alecs transformation.
38

Thereupon he chases Tess on a path. He endeavours to persuade her

about her wrong attitude towards him. She is also accused of Alecs straying
from his ministry. Puzzled Tess perseveres in her journey. Nevertheless,
Alec does not intend to stop his effort to acquire Tess back to his arms.
Although Tess has promised not to contact her husband, she compiles a long
letter to him. She beseeches him earnestly to return home.
Experienced Angel returns to England. Unexpectedly, Tesss father dies
and the family is forced to leave their dwelling. Whilst Tess is immersed into
solving their problematic situation, Alec colludes and abolishes an agreement
for their new accommodation. They are compelled to spend one night at the
memorial park. Weakened and exhausted Tess, manipulated by her closest
relatives and Alec, accepts his offer to become his fancy woman. Her mother
and siblings are procured and Tess accompanied by Alec settles in the town
of Sandbourne.
Izz and Marians sincere letter countenances Angels feverish seeking, but
he arrives too late. Heart-broken Tess murders Alec and sets forth a journey
with Angel. Eventually, they accommodate in a deserted estate. They hope
that their gained happiness will endure forever. Tess is totally pervaded with
this shared happiness ... within was affection, union, error forgiven; outside
was the inexorable (Hardy, 2001: 315).
However, at Stonehenge Tess is arrested and punished for her crime.

39

A NOTE CONCERNING GENRE CONVENTIONS

Before we proceed to the following part, it would be essential to mention
some information concerning the genre conventions as well as the authors
and authoresses literary techniques.
Daniel Defoe influenced the development of English novel and his book
The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Famous Moll Flanders [1722] stood on
the threshold of a novel period. The work has been composed as the
memoirs of a famous female thief; it exploits the model of pretended reality.
Moll Flanders presents the authentic personal experience. The style of the
narration, namely verbal aspects, has been adapted in order to reduce public
abhorrence and moralists consternation. The literary character of Moll
narrates her life story herself ich-form. She desires to propagate morality as
well as to warn against sins and tricks employed by thieves.
Moll as a literary character corresponds with a characteristic of pcaro
a rogue who endeavours to acquire their place in society by various means,
mainly by artfulness, deceitfulness, impostures (Vlan, 1977: 209). The
picaresque novel usually delineates rascals adventures with humorous, but
realistic details.
The story is very precious from the historical point of view. It supplies the
general reading public and historians with a great deal of information, related
to the contemporary life, inhabitants or Newgate prison.
The style of an epistolary novel (the expression - epistle means a letter) is
exploited by Charlotte Ramsay Lennox and Fanny Burney. Their books have
been written in a series of letters, though Fanny Burneys technique is more
consistent with this form. Burney uses proper addresses, letter openings and
closures. Technically, the novel The Life of Harriot Stuart, Written by Herself
[1750] is also written in a form of an epistolary novel, as Harriot writes to her
friend Amanda.

Bannet (1999: 75) designates Lennoxs novel as an

autobiographical memoir-in-letter-form.
Epistolary novels were very popular in the past. They were the most
distinctive feature of the eighteenth-century literary history; they displayed the
spirit of the time. These novels could entertain the audience and

40

simultaneously, they performed an educative role, a type of conduct books.

This form of a literary work enables writers to achieve a greater realism
and authenticity. The literary characters can offer a decent verisimilitude.
Jane

Austen

has

often

been

designated

as

Fanny

Burneys

granddaughter, but Austen is a real creator of a domestic novel.

Although Jane Austen experiences both parts of romanticism and her
novels result in legal unions between a man and a woman, her style does not
lack the power of reason. Her novels stress the role of reason. Austen
analyzes the inner lives of women and their social expectations, but her views
are camouflaged with a conventional scenario. The calm flow of her novels is
occasionally rippled with sharp ironic comments, which perturb the readers
minds and invite to deeper thoughts.
In spite of the fact that Jane Austens plots are always directed at a
specific aim wedlock; she has been able to create very distinctive nuances
of protagonists. Her books do not suffer from a tedious monotony or a
repetitive stereotype. Each writing is supplied with excellent eloquent
dialogues, good manners, the elegance of writing style and attachment. Jane
Austen has introduces a comedy of manners of middle-class life (the life of
gentry) in England. She has clearly pointed out that society was bounded by
diverse principles, which did not allow an individual, particularly a woman, to
strive for their goal directly.
The social novel emphasized a realistic portrayal of the contemporary
social life. The mask of an apparent order, tranquillity and refinement was
snatched. The naked reality was disclosed. The writers decided to reveal
holdovers and to prepare a suitable ground for reforms.
The heroes and heroines of these literary works underwent a complex
development. They either succumbed to the pressure of contemporary mores
or their souls were crushed by social requirements.
The early Victorian3 writing Vanity Fair: a Novel without a Hero [1847-48]
delineates a realistic and dismal picture of society. Thackerays description
lacks an illusive vision or a look through rose-coloured spectacles. The
presence of an omniscient narrator assists in his goal. The omniscient
narrator has always been informed about everything. They use sarcastic
3

The expression Victorian is connected with the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901).

41

remarks and biting commentaries, with which human weaknesses and the
idolatry of societys values are satirized. The novel reminds us of a satiric
farce.
Thackerays heroes and heroines have been given speaking Christian
names and surnames. Thackeray plays punning games Rawdon, Sharp,
Osborne, Crawley, Briggs, Rook or Steyne.
In this writing, not only William Makepeace Thackeray criticizes the social
hierarchy, but he also encompasses a part of the history Napoleonic wars,
the Battle of Waterloo.
Charlotte Bront partially draws the readers attention to schooling in
Britain and the treatment of children. Naturally, these problems have been
popularized more by Charles Dickens. Charlotte Bront, however, aims at
less frequent goals - the social status of women and their limited possibilities.
She is concerned with the Woman Question, as the nineteenth century
rather oddly called it (Ermarth, 1997: 182; emphasis original).
In her works, she employs contemporary popular literary features, such as
Gothic elements. Gothic combines horror and romance; it encompasses the
supernatural, ghosts, Gothic estates, secrets, villains or monsters.
Anne Bront

has selected the Victorian strongest area wedlock. In

order to present her story, she uses a form of a diary, the story-within-astory (McMaster, 1982: 368). The cogency of this form multiplies the impact
of Anne Bronts criticism. She implies that even men needed some
enlightenment.
George Eliot, George Meredith and Thomas Hardy have aimed their
endeavours at double standard operating within contemporary society.
Different judgements applied on same acts of men and women.
George Eliot delineates narrow provincialism and the monetary gods,
which control human relationships. Eliots novel stresses that society denied a
proper access to erudition to women. In her novel The Mill on the Floss, we
can trace the features of a Bildungsroman (a novel of self-cultivation). Maggie
Tulliver grows from a child to a mature woman. She experiences the clashes
between her needs and desires.
George Meredith revives a real story in order to motivate his readers to
believe in the secular justice. He enlightens the legal terms relative to
42

matrimony. Even a woman can be in the right.

Meredith is verbally-gifted. His writing style abounds in the complexity of
sentence structures and the accumulation of expressions. He usually depicts
intricate motives of human deportment. His literary characters undergo trials
and tribulations, but he can also exploit means of a comedy producing silvery
laughter (Stbrn, 1987: 516).
Thomas Hardys novels are always tragic and pessimistic; the only
exception is the book Far from the Madding Crowd [1874]. A young pretty
woman, Bathsheba Everdene is married to Gabriel Oak, a bailiff in
Bathshebas inherited farm in Weatherbury. Hardys literary characters hardly
control their lives; their human destinies are predetermined by fate.
Hardy locates his works into the beautiful countryside of Wessex. This
historical area is interlocked with the Celts and the Romans. His novels are
abundant in the minute delineations of the nature and the way of the life of
provincial inhabitants.
In Tess of the D'Urbervilles: a Pure Woman Faithfully Presented, Hardy
exceeds the boundaries of taboo themes and language; he attacks the sexual
double standard. In order to intensify the impact of situations on the
readership, he employs the elements of nature and weather. The combination
of Hardys powerful expressions and the phenomena of nature creates a
decent space for readers own independent interpretation. His descriptions
are open to a new symbolic suggestion.
Strong, excited or disapproving reactions can prove the power of the
Victorian authoresses and authors endeavours. For illustration, the novel
Jude the Obscure [1895] by Thomas Hardy was burnt by William Walsham
How, the Bishop of Wakefield, as it was cold in May and he did not want to
waste firewood.

43

A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO ANALYSES

At the beginning of this chapter, it is necessary to point out that female
protagonists - as leading and main literary characters - were not frequent in
English literature. A brief enumeration of several distinct literary characters
can prove that the tradition of heroines was waiting to be successively
established in English literature.
The first notable heroine might be the Wife of Bath delineated in Geoffrey
Chaucers (1340?-1400) The Wife of Baths Tale, Canterbury Tales [about
1386-1400]. Her charming eloquence and the astonishing description of her
life are able to engrave on readers mind immediately. She frankly apprises
other pilgrims of her unusual, but very successful, treatment of men. In fact,
she requests more influence on the course of her own life and financial
sources. She applies diverse scheming projects and tricks to her husbands.
Due to her uncommon attitudes towards her male counterparts, she exceeds
the limits of hardly noticeable literary heroines as well as obedient and
subordinate wives. However, her personality is enclosed into a book of
numerous pilgrims stories; therefore her vivacious female message slightly
dissolves.
Proceeding throughout the course of English literature, it is essential to
refer to the female protagonists created by William Shakespeare (1564-1616).
Shakespeare, a great playwright, provided the readership with a large number
of heroines. One of his distinct female characters is Juliet Capulet in Romeo
and Juliet [1597]. Her growth from a fourteen-year-old girl to a psychologically
mature woman is notable. Not only she desires to select her own husband
independently, but she is also able to recognize the irrationality of the hatred
between the Montecs and the Capulets. The readership might also be
attracted by Porcia in The Merchant of Venice [1600]. She is able to outwit
the greedy usurer Shylock and she saves Antonio. Likewise, Desdemona, in
The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice [1622], astonishes the audience
with her determined will to marry a man, whom she loves. She has to surpass
contemporary prejudice and her fathers wish. The wide range of
Shakespeares heroines might be finished by intelligent Katherina, in The
Taming of the Shrew [1623], whose battles of words with Petruccio coruscate
44

throughout the play.

However, Shakespeares female characters were

usually overshadowed by their male counterparts and these women rather

assisted in the male stories.
At the end of this short introductory part of forerunners of full-time
heroines, it is inevitable to mention John Websters (1580?-1625) plays The
White Devil [1612] and The Duchess of Malfi [1613-1614]. In the first play,
Vittoria Corombona is enabled to climb the social ladder; the Venetian
prostitute becomes a duchess. In The Duchess of Malfi, a rich young widow
courageously decides to marry beneath herself, but complicated intrigues
prevent her from being happy.
This short introduction to the history of female literary characters marks
that women, as literary heroines, were present in English literature, but their
existence and importance, within writings, can be designated as secondary or
subsidiary. They contributed to a plot of a literary work, but they scarcely
exceeded the powerful roles of their male counterparts. Male heroes were
exclusively consigned to distribute a message of a narrative.

MOLL FLANDERS A WOMAN ENTERS THE MENS WORLD

In the eighteenth century Daniel Defoe (1660?-1731) laid foundations of
the establishment of female literary protagonists in English literature. His
pioneer attempt was called The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Famous
Moll Flanders [1722]. Moll Flanders a brand-new literary heroine was set
forth a battle to acquire the readerships attention and attachment. Daniel
Defoe enabled his heroine to occupy all the pages of the entire novel. Two
years later, Daniel Defoe published another novel The Fortunate Mistress,
or, the Lady Roxana [1724]. The main role was also confided to a woman.
Moll struggles with primary difficulties in being a feminine heroine.
Naturally, she is dressed in womans garments, she is interested in
fashionable objects, she experiences subsequent marital unions or she gives
birth to a large number of children. However, she still displays the essence of
a masculine person. She might be designated as a man in skirts or a man in

45

womans garments.
Molls second weakness is the total lack of her emotional life. She does
not allow anyone to penetrate to the depth of her feelings; she does not even
reveal more significant signs of her inner life. For instance, she does not
share her sorrow at her tutors death with the readers. We are not apprised of
the degree of her happiness of being united with the highwayman in Newgate.
Even her husbands are only labelled with ordinal numbers. Her entire life is
restricted to an elaborate enumeration of separate, chronological episodes.
On the contrary, Molls power is accumulated in the authenticity of her
singular character, in the delineated social environment and real physical
conditions, within which she lives. Moll introduces us to the realistic world
inhabited by ordinary people, such as adventurers, shop-lifters, highwaymen,
ladies of pleasure or versatile midwives.
Whilst Moll is a Newgate orphan, Roxana is of a rich family. Although their
starting social positions differ from each other totally, in the course of time,
both heroines have to face complicated life situations and they have to solve
them. They both have to react to the forthcoming changes immediately and
they are forced to satisfy their needs independently. Whilst Moll overcomes
her seduction (partly caused by the lack of her knowledge and experience as
well as no parental guidance) with a marriage; Roxana is forced to exchange
a holy status of a wife for a socially inferior job of a mistress.
In Molls case, it can be stated that this possibility occurred very rarely. In
reality, a girls reputation and her sexual chastity were always guarded
carefully. If a girl lost her most precious capital, a necessary prerequisite for
wedlock; her value was lowered to a zero. Two alternatives were open to
her; either she could become a worker or a prostitute. The first opportunity
offered an extreme drudgery and no promising prospects. In case of the
second opportunity, omnipresent poverty, hunger and the need for
accommodation compelled a seduced girl to accept a job of a lady of
pleasure, although she might have loathed or felt the abhorrence of
prostitution. Therefore Moll suppresses the symbolic remorse of her
conscience and wisely accepts the respectable role of a wife. Her career of a
wife is finished at the age of forty-eight.
Arabella Donn, in the novel Jude the Obscure [1895] by Thomas Hardy
46

(1840-1928), adheres to same philosophy as Moll Flanders; she is also a

professional wife. She has been married several times, to Jude Fawley
twice. Both Moll and Arabella must simply have husbands.
On the other hand, Roxanas apparently calm and secure married life is
endangered by her husbands vanity and ignorance, concerning the
management of their brewery. Although Roxana is aware of basic economic
strategies, she cannot apply her knowledge and cannot assist in an exclusive
mans position. Roxana, as a woman, is not expected to work, because she is
not of the lower class. Additionally, she has been raised and educated to
become a suitable candidate for a marriage and to marry conveniently. Later
on, she and her children are abandoned with no sufficient amount of money.
Contemporary laws and customs did not allow any wife to control her
trousseau. All the financial sources or other property automatically passed
into the control of a husband on their wedding day. De facto, a husband
became the only owner of all wifes earthly possessions. Married women had
to wait till 1882. The Married Womens Property Act enabled women to retain
the ownership of property that a married woman might have received from a
parent. In 1893 womens legal rights were enlarged again. They could own
property acquired either by inheritance or by their own earnings.
In the course of time, both women, therefore, come to conclusion that
highly valued matrimony a desired target for any girl does not afford a
stable asylum. Wedlock does not have to provide a woman with a permanent
economic advantage. Moll compares a marital union to a lottery, there is a
hundred thousand blanks to one prize (Defoe, 1994: 81). Similarly, she
expresses very critical opinions relative to the participants of the marriage
market; they can be characterized as wedlock-eager girls and dowryseeking men.
She instructs women not to jeopardise their future lives. Even they are
permitted to consider the Question asked and they are allowed to refuse.
Molls intentions are quite obvious. She intends to strengthen womens selfconfidence and she desires to reinforce their self-respect. Women can
withdraw from their waiting stations and gain the positions of own
independent decisions. Consequently, mens privileges and superiority will be
undermined.
47

Still a marriage and other adjoining factors are not fully condemned by
either Moll or Roxana. It appears that wedlock is the best and simultaneously,
the worst condition in a womans life.
Before Moll and Roxana start more offensive strategies, aimed at
maintaining economic independence and middle-class respectability, they
have to get rid of their past their children and names (Moll has already been
doing that operatively.). Now they can embark on careers of fancy women
freely.
It is essential to mention that contemporary society endeavoured to
conceal these shortcomings of good manners. Extramarital affairs were
tolerated, unless the other partner was not exposed to public humiliation.
Roxana prefers the station of a mistress to the position of a wife. She
realizes that she, as a mistress, can dispose of her own money
independently, without any permission of a husband. The amount of her
finances depends on her adroitness and dexterity. She can also spend any
amount of money on various, even trivial, objects voluntarily. She does not
have to wait for her pin money4, though it was usually a part of a marriage
settlement.
Roxana associates the second main advantage of being a mistress with
independence. She does not have to obey anyone; she does not have to
serve a man and to bear his bad moods or caprice. She is admired, courted
and supplied with precious presents.
Thirdly, she disposes of a great deal of free time, which can be devoted to
her own cultivation or interests. Probably, the most significant factor,
appreciated by Roxana, is that she does not submit to any power of a man or
any will of an owner. Bjrk (1974: 98) emphasises that Legal prostitution
[wedlock] can be worse than the life of the kept mistress.
Throughout the time, Molls business commodities youth, freshness and
attractiveness have slowly faded away. The market requirements cannot be
satisfied with Molls aging body and Moll is pressed to invent another
4

Pin money was something a wife could have control over This was an amount paid
per year by a husband to his wife for her own use, intended to be used for clothes and other
personal expenses. (Gillian Skinner, Womens status as legal and civic subjects: A worse
condition than slavery itself?; in Jones, 2000: 91)

48

alternative how to survive. Her flexible nature can offer other qualities her
invention and fast hands. Moll becomes a successful thief.
Both female characters, absorbed into their new professions, concentrate
on current assembling of money. They do not assemble only money; their
possessions include fine garments and business speculations. They
constantly count their incomes. They evaluate their financial prospects and
the effectiveness of their activities. They measure their earnings and compare
the prices of anything, which is connected with wealth. They convert
everything into material forms. They both record and carefully watch their
losses and profits. These economic rituals contribute to their mental balance.
Their pragmatic approaches to lives make them sensible of the fluctuating
demands of the market and the economic instability of their jobs. Especially,
Roxana enumerates the growth of her money after each transaction. She
rejoices in every single increase.
Moll as well as Roxana are proud of their achieved success, though this
success is morally dubious. They do not conceal their corruption, but their
weak repentance or deeper moral responsibility cannot prevail over their
activities. They comfort their souls with illusive notions that they can warn
other people against sinfulness, wilfulness and lewdness.
Nevertheless, Molls and Roxanas quests for finances are permanently
accompanied with the fear of losing their fortune. It might consequently have
led to the loss of their independence and the loss of power to govern the flow
of their lives.
Although Roxanas and Molls limits of their creativity and agility appear to
be boundless, they both do not lower themselves to a violent death.
To sum up, Molls character is marked with originality. Her personality
cannot be connected with any legendary, historical or mythological person.
She does not resemble any other literary heroine. Moll has entered the world
of English literature, in spite of her failures summarized by Doleel and
Vov (2005: 77) ... the character of Moll as a wife is totally inconsistent
with that of Moll as a mother.
Moll outlines the possibilities of poor women. The lack of their adequate
training in any trade, the limited scope of their experience, no promising life
prospects and the narrow orientated aims of their lives to become a wife
49

greatly undermined their realization in real life, especially

in cases of

seduction or abandonment. Their choices were usually restricted to two main

possibilities prostitution or theft. Molls singular character experiences both
opportunities.
In spite of her ethical shortcomings and moral ambiguity, she is not usually
judged harshly or condemned as an evil character. She rather gains our
sympathies as she is the fugitive who must always keep moving to stay
one step ahead of the law (Paulson, 1967: 45).
She also proves that she (as a woman) can stand for difficult life
situations. She can react to them with great flexibility, promptness and selfsufficiency. Her inventive and sparkling character, fighting day-to-day
exigencies undauntedly, loves life and displays the will to live. She is aware of
life lapses and obstacles, but she endeavours to enjoy her life as much as
possible.
Nevertheless, her courageous character is finally trapped into the strict
bonds of contemporary society. In order to become a respectable and honest
member of this society, she is forced to express her repentance. Although it is
difficult to estimate the depth of her true repentance, this endeavour enables
her to start a new life in America and later on, to return to England. In Molls
case, the moral standard has won. The material obsession did not
overwhelm, but the strength of her conviction and the purity of her repentance
will always be hidden in her heart and soul.

HARRIOT STUART A DAUNTLESS YOUNG GIRL

At first glance Charlotte Lennoxs (1729?-1804) novel The Life of Harriot
Stuart, Written by Herself [1750] might remind us of the adventurous life of
Moll Flanders. Harriot Stuart also experiences various fortunes and
misfortunes in her life, but, from the contemporary point of view, she does not
exceed the restrictions on purity and does not break the law. She is not also
involved in questionable activities and her reputation is not ruined.
Harriot comes from a middle-class family and her mind is not burdened
with the struggle for survival. She displays customary female qualities
50

concordant with the contemporary expectations of a woman. She can burst

into a flood of tears, her eyes swim in tears or her eyes are drowned in
tears (Lennox) on suitable occasions. She is also seized with fainting fit[s]
(Lennox). She can dress herself with great care and pleasing sensations.
On the other hand, Harriot is never occupied with traditional girls jobs.
She does not play a musical instrument in the novel. She is not engaged in
any manual pursuits. Due to her inclinations to intellectual activities and her
attachment to studious improvements (supported by her mother), she can
compose poems. Her unbridled spirit is countenanced by her father. She is
allowed to employ her independent personal choice of a future husband. She
will not be sacrificed to the family convenience or established rules to be
settled in a superior rank throughout matrimony.
At variance with a general belief, that women are weak, tender flowers and
they should be located in a greenhouse (read fathers or husbands estates),
Harriot enjoys an excellent state of health. The physical state of her body
helps her to overcome long distances easily. However, this factor cannot
support the notion of credibility of Harriots diverse adventures. The
continuous stream of Harriots escapades is hardly believable. Harriot rushes
from one dangerous situation to another menacing affair. Her life is an
improbable compilation of exciting adventures than one person could be
supposed to have (Bannet, 1999: 75).
Nevertheless, it seems that Charlotte Lennoxs novel has been composed
as

an

extraordinary

conduct book. Lennoxs

endeavour has

been

conceptualized in a completely different way than traditional conduct books.

She has selected the range of social situations that might be designated as
uneasy, compromising or even degrading.

Traditional conduct books have

been directed at proper comportment within particular, but standard, social

situations. They ought to have promoted womens (as well as mens
behaviour) prescribed deportment. (More detailed information will be
presented in the following section Evelina Anville - An Innocent Girl
Rewarded.)
In anxious situations, Lennoxs Harriot does not panic and does not
succumb to the vision of unfortunate consequences. She maps out the
situation; she orientates within it and exploits all the accessible means in
51

order to cause herself as little damage as possible. She is aware of a very

significant fact, that despite all the extenuating circumstances and a girls
persevered chastity, a female person is always to blame. In such cases,
mens allegations are always preferred. Their words are taken for granted;
what is more, their sins are difficult to prove. Rich (1986: 260) sadly extends
this matter that men were so seldom punished . [T]he courts always
accepted the mans denial in preference to the womans accusation.
On the contrary, it is essential to underline that Harriots irresponsible
deportment usually causes these problematic situations. Harriot is always
drifted by mens attention; her vanity prevails over any reasonable inner
arguments or previous experience. She believes that all the men are charmed
by her attractive appearance and lively personality. After each lapse, she
repents her preposterous comportment. She realizes her almost fatal faults,
but, later on, she succumbs to her coquettish nature and self-centredness
again.
Harriots inexperience in contacts with men, her inability to suspect and the
possible interpretation of her conduct enhance mens daring attitudes. She
can gradually recognize that even the honest faade of courtesy can be easily
converted into a sexual quest for her youthful body.
Harriots first escapade is associated with captain Belmein and the entire
course of her elopement. This illustration underscores that a romantic escape
can suddenly acquire a bitter flavour. A mans deportment can change totally;
a gallant suitor can turn into an aggressive conqueror. Harriot can only
confirm her brothers warning, concerning shifts in mens behaviour after the
actual elopement. Harriot reacts to this situation with the presence of mind
and avoids inevitable wounds to her reputation.
All the possible real consequences of a clandestine marriage are inserted
very skilfully. The warning is hidden in Mrs. Dormers life story. A clandestine
matrimony does not have to persuade parents to esteem a never-ending love.
A disobedient daughter can be repudiated by her parents and she might be
excluded from a primary family. A marital union, commonly arranged in
Scottish Gretna Green, can lose the essence of absolute happiness.
Harriots second adventure occurs during her voyage to England. This
time Harriot has to face a physical assault caused by the captain. The
52

seriousness of the situation clasping me [Harriot] a second time in his

arms, was bearing me into his chamber, swearing he [the captain] would
posses me or die (Lennox) - requests a vigorous solution, even the attackers
serious injuries.

Harriot can learn throughout this highly instructive lesson,

that even cunning tricks might be employed (Some narcotic liquid has been
poured into Mrs. Blandons tea.) and the presence of a decent chaperon is
not able to discourage determined suitors. Secondly, certain dissimulation is
advised. Minute details of any affair, presented anywhere, can aggravate the
overall situation. It can provoke a public discussion. Thereafter a girls
reputation might be more endangered than by a suitor himself.
As far as romanticism is concerned, in the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries romantic novels often contributed to disastrous love
affairs and imprudent matrimonies. These novels fostered girls imagination,
relative to imperishable love, lasting mens attachment and long-term
happiness.
Even the novel The Life of Harriot Stuart, Written by Herself may seem to
be marked with the triumph of romanticism. It cannot be denied that after all
consecutive escapades, Harriot is married to the beloved Dumont. However,
hidden innuendoes rather criticize contemporary society on the subject of the
reasons for romantic female inclinations.
The contemporary conditions did not enable girls to occupy their minds
with more serious matters. Their home confinement, limited experience or no
meaningful pursuits directed them at dreaming, immature resolutions and
hasty actions. Romantic aspirations were pampered in their souls and hearts.
Women did not obviously present their dreams in public, as they could be
ridiculed. But, in the privacy of their minds, they could devote their thoughts to
charming gentlemen, who would liberate them from their temporary prisons.
Therefore, on the first occasion, a girl fell in love naively. She adorned the
entire personality of a suitor and his deeds, as romantic writings had taught
her to do so. She could recognize his social station, but she was not able to
recognize his bad qualities. She followed him anywhere. She risked her
reputation and she might have been expelled from honourable society.
Some writers feared that their works might have been associated with the
unhealthy influence of romanticism. For illustration, in the original preface of
53

the novel Evelina, or, the History of a Young Ladys Entrance into the World,
Fanny Burney radically rejects that her novel might be tinged with a romance
and consequently, it is absent from reasonability and probability.
Another propensity of idle girls minds is presented in the novel Northanger
Abbey [1818] by Jane Austen (1775-1817). Catherine Morelands mind is
easily stimulated by literary works. Catherine is an eager reader of popular
novels and she believes that she is a heroine of one of the Gothic novels. She
suspects General Tilney of a murder of his deceased wife. Or Catherine
searches the Tilneys estate, Northanger Abbey, for the supernatural.
Naturally, all these suspicions turn to be false.
As it has been stated, Harriot is not also engaged in any mental or manual
occupation, but the chain of escapades (in other words, external impulses)
enlarges the breadth of her horizon. The direct personal experience has
served her as several lectures. Now she can fully agree with her mother that
horrid romances has [sic] turned the girls brain (Lennox). Thanks to
the experience, Harriot can responsibly resolve on a husband. She can
compare mens attitudes towards women and she can evaluate mens
qualities.
The literary heroine, Harriot Stuart is not able to confirm traditional
expectations associated with female deportment. Harriot cannot be included
into a stereotyped female character endowed with patient resignation and
powerlessness. Her lively character romps throughout the novel. Her scope of
knowledge, parental trust and open talks with her brother assist her in
distressing situations. She can sustain all the pitfalls honourably, although
men have left no methods untried to obtain her (Lennox).
Surprisingly, Harriot demonstrates that extreme moments can require
unusual responses. In order to protect herself, she resorts to a violent selfdefensive means and she succeeds. De facto, she suggests that women can
be more defiant. They can struggle with disrespectful terms and injustice
done to them. Her active character as well as her high self-esteem contribute
to her varied life, which can consequently broaden her mind. Harriot proves
that external events do not affect girls in a negative way. Naturally, the
features of these events do not have to be so dangerous.
In spite of Harriots dauntless character, she is tied down by a marital
54

union.

EVELINA ANVILLE AN INNOCENT GIRL REWARDED

The following novel Evelina, or, the History of a Young Ladys Entrance
into the World [1778] by Fanny Burney (1752-1840) seems to continue with
the idea presented in Charlotte Lennoxs writing. Both heroines are involved
in

series

of

social

difficulties,

embarrassing

discomfitures

and

misunderstandings. Provincial young girls are exposed to the lures of the

world as well as almost rigid protocol applied to the contemporary social
relationships and life. Whilst artless, but fearless, Harriot Stuart permanently
struggles for preserving her honour; innocent Evelina only constantly makes
faux pas. Whilst Harriots escapades hold the readers breath, Evelinas
incidents only raise our anxiety and slight uncertainty.
In spite of less thrilling elements of Burneys first novel, Evelina takes the
readership to social London, its great and busy stage as well as its exact
atmosphere. Evelinas social life is organized into successive lessons,
directed at a proper preparation for a girls launch into a big world. Each
lecture consecutively builds Evelinas awareness of the social mores and
reduces the lack of her experience. The exposition is not, however, shaped
into boring moralising instructions with a raised finger and it also lacks the
threatening tone. It gently explains that even trivial errors (in Evelinas case,
often stemming from her sincerity and warm-heartedness) can fatally
influence girls expectations in the marriage market. In some respect, this
novel can be considered as a conduct book.
The birth of this type of educative literature could be dated back to the
Middle Ages. The growth of its popularity was recorded in the mid-sixteenth
century, thanks to the expansion of printing and the increasing literacy of
people. Traditional conduct books became very popular and influential at the
end of the seventeenth century. They advised on various subjects. Either they
were aimed at decent comportment on diverse social occasions (in dining
rooms, ballrooms and so on); or they propagated the best feminine virtues
submissiveness, selflessness, gracefulness, purity or reticence. Definitely,
55

their proclaimed intention was directed at the promotion of female

improvement and virtuous qualities.5 A brief account of these works can prove
that authors and authoresses orientated their attention towards an intricate
complex of themes and that the tradition was alive even in the nineteenth
century.

Savile, George. The Ladys New Years Gift: or, Advice to a Daughter.
[1688]

Essex, John. The Young Ladies Conduct: or, Rules for Education
under Several Heads. [1722]

Gregory, John. A Fathers Legacy to his Daughters. [1774]

Gisborne, Thomas. An Enquiry into the Duties of the Female Sex.
[1797]

Broadhurst, Thomas. Advice to Young Ladies on the Improvement of
the Mind and the Conduct of Life. [1810]

Ellis, Sarah. The Women of England, Their Social Duties and Domestic
Habits. [1838]

Ellis, Sarah. The Wives of England, Their Relative Duties, Domestic
Influence, and Social Obligations. [1843]

Conduct books were valued even in America. Women moved to another

country, they lost a direct touch with their families and they needed some
guidance in the spheres of social interaction and household management.
Contemporary English and American society considered these works as a
necessary component of girls erudition.

Newcomb, Harvey. How to Be a Lady: a Book for Girls, Containing

Useful Hints on the Formation of Character. [1850]

Eliot, William Greenleaf. Lectures to Young Women. [1854]
As it has already been mentioned, Burneys novel approaches Evelinas

Household manuals might be also included as another type of instructive literature. These
manuals provided girls and women with practical information relative to cooking, cleaning or
childrens upbringing.

56

betterment with a mild and kindly tutorial access. Evelina

steps out of the

amiable atmosphere of a secluded vicarage into the social round of London

world. She is endowed with virtuous mind, the tenderness of her heart,
gracious motions and beauty. However, she has not been acquainted with the
manners of the world yet. The naivety of her childish innocence comments on
strange or unnatural phenomena in society. Evelina is not aware of the fact
that established social rules cannot be broken or doubted.
For example, she refuses to dance with one partner and shortly
afterwards, she accepts another partner (wholly indifferent to her) freely. She
also refers to matters that should not be even thought of.

The gentlemen, as they passed and repassed, looked as if they thought

we were quite at their disposal, and only waiting for the honour of their
commands; and they sauntered about, in a careless, indolent manner, as
if with a view to keep us in suspense. (Burney)

Nevertheless, Evelinas observations are accurate, smart and brisk. They

do not lack a sharp criticism, but, simultaneously, they do not intend to
undermine the slavery of customs or the dupes of prejudice. Evelinas private
opinions and conclusions are only presented in letters, directed to Mr. Villars.
Evelina acts naturally, which often brings her to the brink of dangerous and
compromising situations. Her pure intentions are driven by Christian solidarity
and social awkwardness. For illustration, she feels sympathy for Mr.
Macartneys misfortunes and desires to help him. She vacillates between her
feeling heart and social rules.

She will either keep her word, she will

encounter depressed Mr. Macarntey privately and they will discuss his
difficulties. Or she will comply with the established rules, she will not see him
without a chaperon and she will not be compromised. The tenderness of her
heart wins.
Evelinas overall situation is partly aggravated by her grandmother, though
her wealth enables her to enter aristocratic and fashionable circles, her
unprincipled deportment evokes great repulsion. The vulgarity of Evelinas illbred cousins and their disorderly friends cause further Evelinas degradation.
Especially, grandmothers proclaimed connections with Lord John Orville
57

thrust Evelina into one of the most mortifying situations. In order to excuse
herself, Evelina directs a letter to Lord Orville. Her artlessness is not able to
anticipate consequences of her natural deed. Even Harriot Stuart, who
displays certain deficiencies in social interactions, is sensible of the
consequences of imprudent correspondence with a man. She obviously
knows that it could serve as an undeniable proof, which might have reinforced
a mans power over a girl.
In spite of all the traps that have been prepared for Evelina either by other
people or by herself, this sweet angel is able to defend herself, her chastity
and reputation resolutely, specifically in connection with Sir Clement
Willoughby.
Evelinas personality encompasses two contradictory qualities. She is able
to identify restrictions laid on women. But, at the same time, she tends to rely
on a male guidance and succumbs to the patriarchal order. Mainly, she seeks
and surrenders to Lord Orvilles opinions. She has been brought up almost
unconsciously to become a submissive and obedient wife, in short, an ideal
wife. Evelina has learnt rather bitterly that the birth and property are essential
requisites, which can secure the attainment of respect and civil treatment in
society. No qualities of character or a scope of knowledge can compete with
the above mentioned features. Lord Orville is, however, determined to
overlook Evelinas inferior social status. He instinctively believes in Evelinas
ability to be trained in order to become a proper wife. Evelina understands
that her matrimony, supported by her clarified origin and property, enables
her to be recognized in society.
At the end of the novel, we may witness another clash within Evelinas
personality, the clash between her naturalness and the outside pressure of
correct comportment and opinions. Evelina appreciates Mrs. Selwyns
intelligence, eloquence and sarcasm. She is sensible of the rightness of her
precise comments. But, simultaneously, Mrs. Selwyns attitudes do not
correspond with expectations associated with a woman. Evelina designated
her deportment as masculine and fears that she has lost all the softness
of her own [gender] (Burney, emphasis original).
Evelinas imbalance probably stems from Burneys own vacillation
between the deeply-rooted image of female roles in society and the raising
58

consciousness of female importance and equality. Cutting (1977: 519-520)

claims that some feminist elements can be identified in the novel and that the
writing is gradually directed towards a growing rebellion against the
restrictions imposed upon women.
Evelina Anville can be designated as a perfect example of female virtues,
though, at the beginning, she supplies the readership with the daring, but
sincere, evaluation of the social scene. She also struggles with the
incorruptibility of [her] disciplined innocence (Bloom and Bloom, 1982: xviii),
the intransigent firmness of social customs and

extraordinary shyness in

contact with mens attention. In the course of time, she starts to desire to act
right, but she endeavours hard to find a suitable way, that will be in
concordance with her naturalness and social requirements. She is not also
able to anticipate the consequences of her trustfulness and helpfulness; but,
she can rely on dual sources Mr. Villars and Lord Orville. They both greatly
regulate Evelinas educational progress. Likewise, she has come to the
conclusions that moral virtues, physical beauty and female chastity cannot
satisfy uncompromising requirements of the marriage market. She suffers
from more serious disadvantages a questionable family origin and
inadequate fortune. These negative aspects may seriously endanger her
saleability in the marriage market. Both negative obstacles are surmounted
and Evelina is integrated into society as Lord Orvilles wife.

EMMA WOODHOUSE A CONCEALED REBEL

Jane Austen (1775-1817) is often designated as Fanny Burneys
successor. Both authoresses employ the peaceful world of contemporary
stereotypes of morning calls, balls, dinner parties, concerts or mutual visits.
Apparently conventional activities and places as well as the tranquil and
orderly flow of life do not raise any doubts. The requisites, official
proclamations and characters are perfectly concordant with the contemporary
rules and conviction. However, Austens camouflaging performance hides
more offensive and determined hints at female isolation, social and financial
dependence; whilst Fanny Burneys strategy displays an irresolute and
59

hesitant vacillation between conventions and progressive tendencies.

Naturally, it cannot be denied that Jane Austens novels are always
triumphed with wedlock. Her heroines of marriageable age proceed through
the excitement of courtship as well as they experience some trials to be
united with their predestined partners. However, Austens works are
interwoven with expressive and ironic comments, which should appeal to the
readership. Still, her developed remarks are masked very skilfully.
The first heroine, who deviates from the established formula of Jane
Austens novels, is Emma Woodhouse, in Emma [1816]. The main female
character displays several serious, almost confusing, differences. She is of a
rich family and her ardent spirit does not succumb to any authority, but her
own will. She also radiates self-confidence. She is not enthused over any
young man or the delicate notion of matrimony. Blamires (1973: 264) states
that Emma has got her own (single) future firmly and happily worked out
. Although Emma is sensible of the fact that the social station of a single
woman6 lacks respectability and is often ridiculed; her thoughts do not have to
be burdened with these dark visions. Emmas financial independence can
secure her singular prospects and courageous plans (for the time being).
Emmas vivacious character directly contrasts with Fanny Price, in
Mansfield Park [1814]. Fanny, a serviceable, inexpressive, rather dull girl,
worships the conventions of contemporary society and fears public attention.
Fanny has internalized such qualities as patience, modesty or submission,
but her exuberant virtues cannot appeal to the readers intellect. Her weak
and reticent character cannot appeal much to our emotions. Fanny, as an
unmarried girl, has become a superfluous dependant on her relatives.
In general, single women have lost their economic benefits, with which
they contributed to a family budget. Pursuits, such as weaving or spinning,
were no longer needed. These charity wards could be exploited only as
companions, nursemaids or occasional servants.
Self-effacing Fanny prefers to have decisions made for her. She desires to
live in harmony, but she is capable of a revolt. Her revolt is led against her
6

In theory, a single woman had same rights and responsibilities as a man. They both shared
the same legal status, but the gender of a woman affected her equivalence. (Gillian Skinner,
Womens status as legal and civic subjects: A worse condition than slavery itself?; in Jones,
2000: 91)

60

uncles pressure and the lack of other relatives understanding, concerning

Mr. Henry Crawfords proposal. She firmly resists a loveless wedlock, as her
inner moral system would be violated. She withstands a long account of
reasonable reasons, why she should be united with Mr. Crawford.
Similarly, Emma is resolutely determined to estimate the Offer of marriage,
as she has not been willing to confine herself to any cage of a social station,
except for being a loving single daughter, yet. Still, she does not suffer from
any lack of respectability.
Emmas resolution to remain single is also reinforced by the repugnant
example of her sister, Isabella. After Isabellas wedlock, her world has been
minimized. The realm of domesticity and the family members govern her mind
and activities. Emma is almost appalled with Isabellas constant exaggerated
anxiety, relative to the childrens health and lurking illnesses. Her
attentiveness might have underlined her excellent correspondence with an
angelic wife, but, in fact, her dullness has been rather underscored.
The presence of Isabellas character does not intend to ridicule wives and
mothers. It is rather a vigorous excuse of these women. It should have served
as a determined accusation of societys strategies. The explanation of the
decline of female reason is presented in the novel Persuasion [1818].

We [women] live at home, quite, confined, and our feelings prey upon us.
You [men] have always a profession, pursuits, business of some sort
or other, to take you back into the world immediately, and continual
occupation and

change soon weaken impressions (Austen, 1983:

1278)

Nevertheless, Emmas views on marital status are not the sole

revolutionary feature of her literary character. As she is the only master of
her time, she intends to fulfil it with more meaningful activities. She focuses
on Harriets advancement. The main obstacles of this procedure are the
stains of Harriets illegitimacy and dowry. Emma firstly stresses that a person
of obscure birth cannot be responsible for their parents faults.
Contemporary society automatically ostracized a seduced, betrayed or
raped mother and her child. Only a few men recognized their illegitimate
61

descendants or provided them with finances and an access to erudition, but

no means could restore their social decency.
Emma would like to prove that Harriet, in spite of her weak reason and the
blight on her name, can become an equal and worthwhile member of society.
Emma intends to lower herself in order to show the example worth following.
She befriends her and endeavours to incorporate Harriet into diverse sociable
pursuits, organized in the region. Moreover, Emma employs all the sources of
her creativity and female invention in order to elevate Harriet.
The power of social mores, deeply-rooted prejudice and peoples
inculcated conviction cannot be surmounted. Emmas constant matching
schemes are predetermined to collapse. Her noble intention is misunderstood
and it is often misinterpreted as her caprice.
Emmas second revolt might be connected with Jane Fairfax. Jane, a
proper, submissive, talented girl, does not dispose of any finances. It seems
that her only life prospect is to become a governess. No qualities of her
character can be objected. Emma is the sole person who dislikes perfect
Jane. Janes passive resignation, obedient comportment and patient
endurance contrast with Emmas rebellious attitudes and restless character.
Jane excels in a typical female activity, such as playing the piano. Emma can
also play the piano, but it is not the lack of her talent, that discourages her
from the deeper devotion to music. It is a plain and disappointing fact that
women are not taught to play musical instruments or to sing, in order to enjoy
these activities. They are educated in these branches in order to comfort and
entertain others.
Likewise, Emma is not interested in more profound education, as she has
learnt that she will not be able to apply her knowledge in real life. Women,
otherwise, have always been excluded from the higher branches of erudition.
Repeatedly, it is not Emmas weak persistence that should be blamed; it is
her foresighted judgement. No degree of female excellence can change the
societys standard treatment. Any woman with intellectual attainments was
suspicious in that period of time. The novel Northanger Abbey [1818]
countenances this sad truth - A woman especially, if she have [sic] the
misfortune of knowing any thing, should conceal it as well as she can
(Austen, 1947: 89).
62

Emmas masked rebellion is closely watched by Mr. Knightley, a

reasonable and dignified man, who endeavours to protect Emma from grave
and bitter disappointment. He predicts Emmas failure, relative to Harriets
enhancement. He implies, that the ritual of the reverence of conventions and
perfect deportment must be kept, in spite of personal feelings and views.
Mr. Knightley displays a very high degree of understanding. He does not
push Emma to give up her preposterous endeavours and he does not want
to reach Emmas total suffocation. Their mutual amiability, similar intelligence
as well as equality social and economic - might be a good foundation of
their marital union. They can be partners in their matrimony.
Another notable male character appears in the novel Pride and Prejudice
[1813]. Mr. Darcy has been taught to look down upon socially inferior people.
Thanks to Elizabeth Bennet, he reassesses his attitudes towards these
people. He learns that even less prosperous people can maintain their dignity;
they can dispose of intellectual abilities and self-respect. He also starts to
care for the others. Elizabeths rejected proposal contributes to Mr. Darcys
overall betterment and serves him as an excellent lesson.
Mr. John Knightley as well as Mr. Fitzwilliam Darcy can create a group of
men of a new generation; men who will be able to appreciate women and
elevate their ranks.
Emmas character is an evolutionary prototype. She asserts her will and
new ideas. She endeavours to affect established truths and intends to
contribute to their changes. She doubts traditional social values and
introduces almost scandalous attitudes towards them. She desires to govern
her own female lot. Her marriage to Mr. Knightley is not a betrayal of her own
proclaimed aims, but a union built on partnership and fragile equality.
Emmas character confirms bitterly, that any independent spirit could not
be free in that period of time. Any spirit was always conditioned and limited by
contemporary society. Society was not still prepared to any possible
alternatives. Therefore Austen camouflages all the alarming elements with
Emmas apparent immaturity, domination and occasional snobbery.
Jane Austen reinvents (Gilbert and Gubar, 1984: 121) conventional
features of literary plots and stereotypes in order to support the developing
tendencies relative to women. Austen usually depicts stories about women for
63

women. Her books contain smouldering appeals behind the faade of love
stories.

REBECCA SHARP A FEMALE SOCIAL CLIMBER

In this section, we move from the calm world of the local gentry to the busy
world of London with varied class relationships. The slow pace of Emmas
story is changed into Rebeccas run aimed at her social self-promotion.
Austens skilfully veiled thoughts are interchanged with Thackerays (18111863) open and straightforward narration. Thackeray is very outspoken and
has no mercy upon anyone, including his own person.
Our London guide will not be a prospective, prosperous or aristocratic
lady, but a former employee of Miss Pinkertons Academy for Young Ladies
and a future governess. Miss Rebecca Sharp, in Vanity Fair: a Novel without
a Hero [1847-48], intends to intrude into the higher levels of society. She is
able to penetrate into the strict class stratification of contemporary society.
The fixed system of social strata should have distinguished people. The
attributes of a specific stratum should have automatically pointed to a definite
representatives

status.

Necessary requirements, which

should

have

categorized these social classes, encompassed an ancient lineage, legitimate

birth, decent wealth, gentle blood, proper food, social prestige, appropriate
neighbourhood, titles (including purchased), the specific arrangement of a
house with suitable furnishings and decorations.
Becky lacks all the above mentioned qualifications. She is of a Bohemian
origin. Her father was an insolvent painter and her mother was a French ballet
dancer. Becky was employed as a teacher. She does not dispose of any
finances and does not possess any tangible property. She cannot also boast
on her permanent street address, such as Covent Garden, Piccadilly,
Bloomsbury, Saint Jamess Square or some parts of Westminster. In spite of
the fact, that she is not able to satisfy the preciseness of these social
expectations, she enters the upper classes of society. The only Beckys
quality, which coincides with the qualities of the members of higher classes, is
her reverence for prosperity and success.
64

In order to attain a better social position, she does not hesitate to exploit
all the accessible means. Becky is extremely flexible and she can adjust her
plans to any conditions. Her versatile qualities are proved in London marriage
market, ruled by iron principles. Becky is aware of the fact that the marriage
market is flooded with a large number of candidates for matrimony. These
contenders are supported by their parents, who assist in the sale of their
daughters and who exploit diverse tricks in order to hunt for an eligible
husband. Rebecca has to speculate in the marriage market on her own. She
also has to extol herself, as a market commodity, on her own. She realizes
that she must exploit the enlarged range of Londons meeting places
theatres, evening parties, visits or Vauxhall Gardens in order to be able to
go ahead in the world. The provincial estate, Queens Crawley, will not be
able to serve Beckys intentions sufficiently.
In the marriage market, she can offer her cultivated understanding and
communicative abilities, but her most attractive capital is her skilful treatment
of men. She can flirt with them very well. Thanks to this deviation, she is more
interesting than other marriage-eager girls. Becky has not been inculcated
with the proclaimed contemporary prudery, womans inaction and reticence.
Becky just reacts to external impulses more openly and prompts men to
further actions.
The established standard prescribed the concealment of personal feelings.
Candidates for marriage had to be devoid of any attachment to their admirers,
until suitors actually asked for the girls hands or until the marital unions were
settled. Rebecca knows the borders of the acceptable and suitable limits of
courtesy. Her awareness contrasts with Jane Bennets comportment, in
Austens Pride and Prejudice [1813], as well as Marianne Dashwoods
deportment, in Austens Sense and Sensibility [1811]. Whilst Jane Bennets
reserved (public) attachment to Mr. Charles Bingley is considered as almost
indifferent; Marianne Dashwoods spontaneity and sensibility, directed at Mr.
John Willoughby, are condemned as inappropriate and unacceptable.
Definitely, Becky manipulates men; she tempts them. She exploits
elaborated female weapons consciously and systematically in order to
influence her male counterparts. Her manoeuvres do not lack admirable
refined finesse. Beckys physical beauty, wit and previous sexual experience
65

countenance her final success.

As far as Beckys sexual experience is concerned, it is essential to
underscore that Thackeray does not depict any sexual scenes directly. The
novel encompasses several hints treating of Beckys promiscuity, starting with
the Reverend Mr. Crisp and ending with the Marquis of Steyne. But the
privilege of a right interpretation of Thackerays remarks has been exclusively
reserved for the readership. At all events, if Rebecca was not beginning the
world, she was beginning it over again. (Thackeray, 1994: 13)
Rebecca, luckily, does not have to fear that she would marry beneath
herself or she would be scorned by the rest of her family. De facto, she
has nothing to lose and everything to gain and doesnt much mind slipping
back into the dingy Bohemia of her origins (Betsky, 1958: 148). The intricate
labyrinth of her intrigues is crowned with wedlock.
When she is married to Rawdon, she is not enslaved and she preserves
her autonomy. Even in her matrimony, she adheres to her courageous
ambitions. As she has not been taught to feel the happiness, stemming from
being a humble and dutiful wife; she cannot understand and enjoy these
exclusive pleasures of married women. She does not succumb to a
submissive role of a wife and she does not suppress her wishes and her self.
She does not even subordinate to the role of a mother, as she has not been
conditioned

by the following mottoes daughterhood,

wifehood

and

motherhood (Gilbert and Gubar, 1984: 299). Becky can just identify the sole
fact about motherhood - Rowdy is an encumbrance on her way to the
successful achievement of her aim.
On the other hand, Amelia Sedley has been inculcated with celebrated
female qualities passivity, loyalty, sweetness, meekness or industry.
However, these conventional and proper qualifications in an ideal woman and
wife are not able to provide her with eternal happiness. Although she
worships George Osborne profoundly, she cannot reach his love or respect.
As she has not been trained in the ways of the world, she is not able to
recognize her husbands egoism, self-centredness and vanity. She believes in
Georges pure love, but, in fact, she deceives herself unnecessarily for
several years. She is not also able to identify Major Dobbins genuine
affection and devoted loyalty. All her life she has been just waiting. She
66

almost wasted her life.

Becky has still been beguiled with the false glitter of higher society. She
thrusts her way to the top only with her own strength. She penetrates into the
privileged, even aristocratic, circles. Her energetic character causes that
people, especially men, gravitates towards her. She, consequently, becomes
more society addict. Her inexhaustible potential pushes her onwards at any
price. Her invention is even appreciated by Lord Steyne.
A penniless governess reaches the top of society. The impossible comes
true. Beckys ambitions are not still satisfied, she longs for more. However,
she cannot maintain her acquired success. Pride comes before a fall. Beckys
fall is headlong and directly into the underworld of society.
Hitherto Beckys applied cunning tricks have raised the readers sympathy.
Naturally, we are sensible of the fact, that her methods are not concordant
with the rigid rules of deportment and the code of manners. But we appreciate
how Becky is able to control the course of events for her own benefit. At the
end of the novel, it appears that Rebecca loses her lovely playfulness. Firstly,
it is difficult to interpret her help to Amelia in order to acquire William Dobbin.
Secondly, Beckys return to society is tainted with a criminal tinge, relative to
Joseph Sedleys death. Probably, the ambivalence, relative to the
interpretation of Beckys deeds, is caused by the total lack of her inner
emotional life. It can be stated that Rebecca is incapable of any attachment or
loyalty.
In several respects, she might remind us of Moll Flanders, but Becky lacks
the ability to repent, which leads to the authors indicated uncertain happiness
and possible damnation. Almost identical correspondence might be traced
between the character of Becky Sharp and the character of Lady Annabella
Lowborough, in the novel The Tenant of Wildfell Hall [1848] by Anne Bront
(1820-1849). Annabella is also married to Lord George Lowborough for
convenience, namely his title and pedigree and that delightful old family
seat (Bront, A., 1994: 161). She mercilessly exploits her husbands
attachment and she deceives him. She is naively convinced of her excellent
personal qualities, her supremacy over other women and her assumed
positive influence on Mr. Huntingdon. She dies in indigence and isolation.
Rebecca Sharp is a strongly individualized heroine. She is a vigorous
67

fighter. She is not limited by her own gender. She is not also outflanked by
the social assumptions and possible expectations of her social post. She
intends to navigate the course of her life on her own and her voyage should
end in the best social stratum forever. In order to reach her final destination,
she exploits all methods to alter her female lot fulfilled with obedience and the
lot of a poor girl. She does not abhor any means she lies freely, she flatters
continually, she operates with human vanities and self-absorption. She wears
diverse hypocritical masks. She struggles hard for the entre to higher society
in order to experience all the joys, pleasures and delights offered in the Vanity
Fair. Her ingenuity, invention and flexibility exceed the abilities of the
honourable representatives of higher social classes. Her intelligence even
contrasts with the illiteracy and incompetence of the members of aristocracy.
The aristocratic comportment often lacks basic principles, whilst Becky can
undergo the royal audience honourably.
She is not crushed beneath the established and recognized rules of
society; therefore she can penetrate into the almost hermetically sealed class
division. Not only she storm[s] the mens world (Kettle, 1969: 152), but
she also overshadows her male counterparts (King, 1978: 73).

JANE EYRE AN OBEDIENT REVOLT OF A GOVERNESS

In the previous chapter, the literary character of Rebecca Sharp evaded
the destiny of a governess, but Jane Eyre actually experiences the profession
of a governess as well as the job of a teacher. Whilst Becky enforces only her
private aspirations, in spite of possible consequences; Jane carefully
considers all the aspects of her comportment and decisions. Janes ambitions
are not established or driven by financial motives, but Becky selfishly intends
to conquer upper social spheres and to settle in this area.
Both heroines destinies examine the possibilities of poor and unmarried
girls, who have to overcome various life difficulties. However, each female
character introduces different methods of surmounting specific obstacles.
Whilst Becky exploits morally dubious, but successful, means; Jane relies on
a conventional cooperation of a requested duty, Christian principles and inner
68

personal codes.
In the novel Jane Eyre [1847], Charlotte Bront (1816-1855) delineates a
deep insight into a human heart as well as a precise observation of the life
prospects of a poor, single girl. Jane can embark on three socially acceptable
life careers, which are available to her. She can become a nun, a governess
or a teacher. But her choice is always limited by one essential factor;
throughout her job, she has to earn her own living.
Mrs. Reeds designs and Janes ardent spirit exclude the career of a nun.
The profession of a teacher affords Jane some decent independence, but the
repetitive tediousness of teaching shifts her further. The last remaining
possibility is the job of a governess.7 Jane as well as other governesses had
to display right graces, the knowledge of etiquette, suitable erudition and
ladylike deportment.

Especially, French language was appreciated and

considered as a bonus in this profession. Governesses should have prepared

their students to their future social stations. However, all these qualities and
qualifications did not allow any governess to be welcome to the circles of her
master, mistress and their friends. When a governess was invited into a
drawing room, she did not feel very comfortable. She was not considered as
her masters or visitors equal.
A governess could not be included into the group of servants either, as
she stood higher in a domestic hierarchy. She was on the same level as a
housekeeper; still, she had to be at an employers disposal from seven
oclock in the morning until seven oclock in the evening, seven days per
week (Stone, 1977: 244). If need be, a governess might have been asked to
assist in some domestic duties.
On the contrary, a governess was privileged to be accommodated in a
separate bedroom in the childrens wing. She was addressed as Miss Eyre
and she could address her students by their Christian names. The overall
situation of governesses was either aggravated or reinforced by their
employers, because other servants adjusted their conduct to their masters
attitudes and treatment of a governess.
The ambiguous class position contributed to the great isolation of
7

The incomes of governesses differed the range was from 12 to 30 per year, excluding
washing expenses (Stone, 1977: 244).

69

governesses; they were usually surrounded by great hostility. All these

aspects

might

have

caused

diverse

psychological

and

consequent

psychosomatic illnesses. Their only forms of recreation were letter writing and
book reading. Governesses frequently had to face permanent slavery and
humiliation.
Therefore it can be stated that Jane Eyre has discovered a satisfactory
mnage. Adle is Janes only pupil. Jane does not have to surmount Adles
spoilt manners or her strong reluctance to learning. Jane is not also chicaned
by Mr. Rochester. She is not harassed by him and consequently, she is not
dismissed pregnant from her job without any reference. The most painful
humiliation is afflicted by Miss Blanche Ingram; not only she disdains Janes
oppressive social standing, but she also doubts Janes moral purity in public.
The second disturbing factor, that affects almost calm domestic atmosphere,
is occasional mysterious accidents caused by Bertha Mason.
Another literary character and the member of the governess trade is Miss
Agnes Grey, in the book Agnes Grey [1847] written by Anne Bront (18201849). She is exposed to more brutal and more frequent hardships than Jane
Eyre. Agnes is accused of the inappropriate comportment of her students.
She endeavours to fight against the childrens perverted interests (for
example, the maltreatment of birds), but her corrective attempts are rather
opposed by the childrens parents and relatives. Agnes is tyrannized by the
children physically and psychologically.
In order to balance all the aspects treating of governesses, it is important
to mention Lord Curzons personal experience. Even children might have
been exposed to the tyranny produced by governesses.

She [his governess] persecuted and beat us in the most cruel [sic] way
[with her brushes, the sole of her slipper on the bare back] tied us for long
hours to chairs in uncomfortable positions [No] one of us [walked]
upstairs and [told] our father or mother. (quoted in Calder, 1977: 168)

Despite the fact that Clara Peggotty, in Charles Dickens (1812-1870)

novel The Personal History and Experience of David Copperfield the Younger
[1849-50], cannot be classified as a governess; she has established a lasting
70

attachment to David. Peggotty (as she has been called kindly) has been
employed as Davids nursemaid and a family servant, but she has never
treated David badly. She has rather recourse to him. David has found a loyal
friend and a wise adviser.
Although Janes employment at Thornfield Hall cannot be designated as
ideal, she does not intend to escape her almost predestined career. She is
aware of the fact that the peculiar position of a governess is not defined firmly
in the social orderliness, but she does not resort to questionable means. For
illustration, Gwendolen Harleth, in the novel Daniel Deronda [1876] by
George Eliot (1819-1909), is so horrified by the profession of a governess that
she is rather united with Mr. Henleigh Mallinger Grandcourt. She believes that
she has evaded the worst destiny of a poor girl.8 She also trusts in her ability
to govern an abusive and authoritative man. Her marital martyrdom and
helpless despair are ended with her husbands death.
It might seem that a similar solution to Janes social rank is within her
reach, but Janes social elevation and redemption from the social insecurity
do not succumb to any selfish calculations. She prefers a pure relationship
concordant with moral principles and her austere conscience.
At the beginning of her relationship with Mr. Rochester, Jane is enthused
over the charm of language playfulness exploited by Mr. Rochester. She
inspects her own garments or examines her beauty. She has also been
initiated into her own sexuality. However, she does keep her affection in the
strict boundaries of innocence and chastity.
The fatal blow to Janes happiness is delivered in front of an altar in a
church. Jane might liberally have ignored the fact that Mr. Rochester had
been married to Bertha Mason. She might have excused his deed, because
his wife had suffered from a mental disease. She might have been deprived
of the fetters of a governess. However, Jane does not intend to throw herself
into the mire of the world and become a contemptible pariah.
The intensity of her fighting and passionate spirit increases, specifically

Emma Watson, in the novel The Watsons [1871] by Jane Austen (the fragment of her novel
was written about 1803-1805), shares the same opinion, concerning the hard lot of
governesses, as Gwendolen. [S]uch females [for whom there is nothing they would not do
to get married] would rather marry a man they dislike than teach school or enter the
governess slave trade (Gilbert and Gubar, 1984: 126).

71

her awakened human passion burns fully. Nevertheless, the strength of her
attachment does not exceed the rules of religious doctrines and her
responsibility for the moral duty. Her virtue prevails. After the aborted
wedding, Jane exerts a strong morality; she mobilizes her self-respect and
leaves everything behind. Her reason and obligation to her spirit win over the
immense passion and prevent her from any moral lapse.
From the beginning of the story, Jane Eyre has displayed a strong
passionate disposition. First manifestations can be traced to her childhood.
She revolts against the Reeds tyrannical comportment and aversion applied
to her. Despite her youth, she is able to identify the injustice done to her as
well as Mrs. Reeds hypocrisy.
Secondly, Janes inner fervency is not extinguished even by Mr.
Brocklehursts false accusation or his harsh educational methods. These
methods should have taught the wards to humility and modesty. Janes
stronger spiritual formation is paradoxically strengthened by the appalling
conditions of the wards accommodation, rigid discipline, deficient nutrition,
insufficient garments as well as improper methodology for erudition9. She is
not also able to share Helen Burns enthusiasm for the exclusive positivity of
forgiveness, endurance and love.
Thirdly, in Thornfield Hall, Jane courageously touches the conceptions of
gender hierarchy within contemporary society. She attacks the range of
female activities as well as the expectations of women, whose even splendid
female talents must retreat domestic charges. Her observations are not only
hidden in her mind, she can astonish even Mr. Rochester. [W]hen one
asks you [Jane] a question, or makes a remark to which you are obliged to
reply, you rap out a round rejoinder, which, if not blunt, is at least brusque.
(Bront, C., 1994: 132)
Later on, Jane is proposed by St. John, a single and religious person. St.
John is able to satisfy the strictest criteria of a suitable and proper partner, an
excellent example of perfect morality. However, his conception of matrimony
repudiates Jane. Firstly, it lacks the most essential component any

In reality, the conditions of Lowood Institute for Educating Orphans correspond with Bronts
personal experience from Clergy Daughters School at Cowan Bridge from 1824. The school
was partially supported by charity.

72

attachment. Their hitherto mutual relationship can be characterized as an

innocent relationship between two siblings. Secondly, their wedlock would be
an ingenious calculation, in which Jane would be only a means that would be
able to satisfy St. Johns ambitions. St. John has come to the conclusion that
Jane would be a suitable companion in his missionary life. His fanatical
enthusiasm is able to sacrifice his own personal life and inner inclinations to
Miss Rosamond Oliver.
However, Jane is not willing to suppress her feelings. Although the
missionary life might be rewarding or noble, Janes spirit cannot be void or
emotionless. Jane is not frightened by St. Johns overwhelming and
threatening morality, she firmly insists on her resolution. She puts
conscience before love, refusing to become Rochesters mistress and
declining marriage to a clergyman less interested in her than the support she
would give his mission (Alexander, 2000: 273).
Jane has experienced exhausting emotional battles, but her stubborn
persistence seems to be rewarded with her uncles inheritance. Her
ambiguous and uncertain social situation is solved. Now she can employ her
own free will. Her female activities will not be restricted by the societys
expectations. Jane can exchange a fictitious work basket, waiting for any free
moments of a woman10, for her own independent interests. She can develop
her intellectual abilities and she can elevate her own personal culture. Her
decisions resolutions of a prosperous woman will not be questioned. The
bequeathed financial source encompasses her into the group of such people
as Miss Havisham, in Charles Dickens (1812-1870) Great Expectations
[1860-61].
Miss Havisham has stopped the course of her life, as she has been
deserted by her fianc. She has still been dressed in her satin wedding dress.
Her great bridal cake has been veiled into the spiders webs. However,
nobody dares to object her manners or deportment; her relatives visit and
worship her. They have been patiently waiting for their portions of legacy.
Naturally, Jane lacks Miss Havishams peculiarity, but the autonomous force
of money enables them to stand above conventions.
With the help of the uncles finances, Janes present social station equals
10

This was a proper picture of a contemporary woman in her free time.

73

Mr. Rochesters rank, therefore she can seek him. She can offer him an equal
union based on their financial parity, passionate attachment, mutual respect
and reverence. Due to the fact that Edward Rochester has been injured, Jane
can invert a conventional mans ruling or leading role in matrimony. Jane can
direct Edwards steps literally as well as figuratively.
The character of Jane Eyre throbs with life and vibrates with a great
passion. Jane disposes of an exceptional defiant spirit which can help her to
overcome various obstacles. She has to fight against the incongruity of her
social station as well as gender norms applied to women. Her moral strength
does not allow her to succumb to the relationship for convenience as well as
her uncompromising conscience excludes the relationship based on reason.
She does not betray her cardinal stickiness to moral duties. She does not also
suppress her own self. The bequest contributes to her social stability. Her
name has not been blotted and her happiness is crowned with the marriage to
Edward Rochester.

HELEN HUNTINGDON AN OPEN REBELLION OF A MARRIED

WOMAN
Both Bront sisters, Charlotte and Anne, have been touched by the
contemporary disturbing realities and have reacted to them. Both authoresses
resolve on drawing the readerships attention towards these contemporary
problems. Whilst Charlottes conception offers passionate, but obedient,
attitude; the distressing situations delineated in Annes novels are dealt with a
straightforward, sincere and revealing method.
Charlotte Bront used the example of Jane Eyres destiny to illustrate the
subservient social status of women and their general inequality. She implies
that the social stratification and cash nexus influence human relationships
and serve as a basis for the further judgement of a person. She also
countenances an equal partnership in matrimony. However, all the above
mentioned inconveniences are presented in a less intense way, respecting
the canon of contemporary conventions and principles.

74

On the contrary, Anne openly attacks diverse untouchable bulwarks of

contemporary mores and the rules of patriarchal system in the novel The
Tenant of Wildfell Hall [1848]. Her offensive encompasses a large number of
targets and her attitude is revolutionary to some extent. Anne does not intend
to seek domestic solutions to appalling and carefully concealed problems.
She does not also want to avoid wider public context or promulgation. Her
intentions are clearly stated in the preface to the second edition.

I know that such characters do exist, and if I have warned one rash
youth from following in their steps, or prevented one thoughtless girl from
falling into the very natural error of my heroine, the book has not been
written in vain. (Bront, A., 1994: 14)

Anne Bronts first criticism is led against girls inexperience and its
consequent inability to select a partner with a decent responsibility. The
acuteness of this problem is underlined by the contrast of Helens single and
premarital judgements, treating of mans qualities. When she is not engaged,
her requirements of a suitable husband are sober and reasonable. However,
the first courtship of a man, the impact of her own affection, initial attraction
and the false notions of wedlock completely destroy her previous sensible
opinions. The subconscious fear (omnipresent in the marriage market) of
losing opportunity to catch a husband and Helens misleading intentions,
concerning Mr. Arthur Huntingdons faults, bring her to the brink of a deep
abyss of her own self-destruction.
The union between Helen and Mr. Huntingdon also refers to another very
essential fact, that people, who are united, scarcely know each other. After
their marriage, they should spend the rests of their lives side by side.
Especially, this unfortunate aspect decisively influences Helens future.
Shortly after the actual rite, Helen is compelled to acknowledge her mistake.
De facto, she has been shot to the realities of the relationship with a
completely unknown man.
Firstly, Helen is shocked by Mr. Huntingdons curious hobby to tease her,
until she starts to cry and leaves. Mr. Huntingdon misuses Helens virginal
bashfulness, stickiness to moral and Christian values in order to trample on
75

her soul and inner principles. He enjoys her shame with a masculine glory.
The generally acknowledged proclamation, that men are not expected to
dispose of negative virtues, is proved to be false.
Mr. Huntingdon also prefers the company of his friends and the joys of the
capital city to his wifes monotonous company. Helen can bitterly confirm that
men do have to have special male territories, which are not restricted by
temporal limits. Whilst women were predestined to devote their lives to
creating domestic atmosphere, men located the majority of their activities
outside their houses. Whilst women were overwhelmed with duties and
charges, men were constituted to seek pleasurable mens pursuits for
illustration, smoking, card playing, gambling, hunting, shooting or gaming.
Whilst main female life content was directed at elevating the cult of home, the
male privilege was to relax in the peaceful atmosphere in front of a fireplace.
Helens most urgent marital problem, however, is not spatial separation
between two genders or Mr. Huntingdons perverted bragging; she has to
undergo a very degrading experience stemming from her husbands
alcoholism, debauchery and unfaithfulness. She has to share a gradual
deterioration of an alcoholic, who ruins his body and mind, who endangers his
sons good manners and who humiliates his wife even in public.
It is essential to underline that the taboo problem of drunkenness can be
revealed in its wide profundity, thanks to Anne Bronts personal experience
connected with her brother Branwell. He endangered his health by opium and
alcohol. Consequently, he could not control his deportment and he produced
violent domestic outbursts. He used vulgarisms and depicted obscene visions
in front of his inexperienced sisters.
Contemporary society tolerated male habits and diverse excesses,
including sexual alternatives; but society connived at these activities on the
presumption, that a husband was discreet in his armours and did not
humiliate his wife publicly (Stone, 1977: 318).
However, Mr. Huntingdon exceeds even this unwritten principle. His
mistress and his wife are present in the same house and he offers his wife to
his friends. When Mr. Huntingdons adultery is disclosed, Helen hypothetically
inverts the situation. Mr. Huntingdon is irritated and reacts ferociously. Mr.
Huntingdons offer as well as his infidelity do not degrade Helen only as a
76

woman; these aspects degrade her human existence and her dignity
At the beginning of their marital discord, Helen resorts to an uncommon
defence, she locks the door of her bedroom. In fact, her husbands conjugal
rights cannot be asserted. Helen affects the male dominance of her husband;
she might have been violently subjugated to his claims. When any wife did
not want to satisfy her husbands advances, he could punish her in several
ways starting from minor constraints, over domestic violence to a rape
within matrimony. Contemporary society enabled men to take advantages of
women and women served as easily reachable sacrifices.
The

degree

of

unbearable

conditions

gradually

increases

and

consequently, it ends with Helens escape. But before Helen can actually
escape, she realizes her total financial dependence on her husband. Even
after her flight, her financial difficulties continue. As she has not been
educated in any specific branch or she has not trained in any trade, de facto,
she has not been expected to work at all; she has to rely on her hobby
painting as a source of her income. She is generously, but secretly,
subsidized by her brother, Mr. Frederick Lawrence.
Repeatedly, the importance of a marriage choice is underscored. In
matrimony, any wife was at the mercy of her husband within economic, social
and geographical areas. A husband was a source of authority and he was
responsible for his dependants economically. His legal position was
recognized in a number of aspects he had a separate legal identity, he
could sue or he could be sued, he controlled his wifes trousseau and he was
a legal guardian of his children.
Namely, the last feature of the husbands legal authority is in Helens
awareness. The removal of their son, Arthur, from Mr. Huntingdons house is
an illegal act11. Therefore Helen changes her surname and she is not willing
to talk about personal topics. In her paintings, she avoids any geographical
data.

If she [any wife] leaves her husband, she can take nothing with her,

11

The Custody of Infants Act [1839] allowed only divorced or separated women, against
whom infidelity had not been proved, to have custody of their children under the age of seven
and to have the rights to access to other children.

77

neither her children nor anything which is rightfully her own. If he [a

husband] chooses, he can compel her to return, by law, or by physical
force; or he may content himself with seizing for his own use anything
which she may earn, or which may be given to her by her relations. It is
only legal separation by degree of a court of justice, which entitles her to
live apart, without being forced back into the custody of an exasperated
jailer (Mill, 1917: 212)

Surprisingly, Mr. Huntingdon has not asserted his paternal right, although
his natural claim could severely have punished Helen for her flight and it
would have been more understandable than Mr. Dunstan Cass intended
claim of his daughter Eppie, in the novel Silas Marner, the Weaver of Raveloe
[1861] by George Eliot (1819-1880).
Mr. Cass, a biological father of Eppie, did not recognize his daughter for a
long time. His present matrimony is childless and he can claim his
descendant even by law. However, he is sensible of the fact that sixteenyear-old Eppie cannot be reclaimed at any time. Silas Marner has become
Eppies true father.
Therefore, when Helen returns to her husband, she insists on signing a
document in presence of witnesses.
Helens last revolutionary feature is her enlightenment of men. She dares
to instruct or advise men the monopolistic rulers of patriarchy. On Helens
impulse, Mr. Ralph Hattersley exchanges his dissolute and solipsistic
philosophy of life for a moral rebirth. It is surprising that a man listens to a
word of female advice and succumbs to it.
The fighting spirit of the novel does not die away yet. It openly criticizes
mens attitudes towards women as well as generally accepted treatment and
opinions applied on women.

his [Mr. Huntingdons] idea of a wife is a thing to love one devotedly

and to stay at home-to wait upon her husband, and amuse him and
minister to his comfort in every possible way, while he chooses to stay
with her; and, when he is absent, to attend to his interests, domestic or
otherwise, and patiently wait his return; no matter how he may be
78

occupied in the meantime. (Bront, A., 1994: 192)

Probably, the most repulsive view on the subject of women is presented

and practiced by Mr. Grimsby. Women are the inexhaustible source of a large
number of problems. They are deceitful and they can be considered as the
bane of the world. Therefore he adjusted his deportment towards women to
his opinions.
On the whole, wives and women were proprietary objects, husbands
commodities. They subordinated to male charge and command. The
relationship between a husband and a wife could not be interfered. Women
could not complain about their husbands comportment, whims or the range of
their activities. Women were not expected to resist any mens requirements.
They were obliged to satisfy husbands wishes with a great enthusiasm and
pleasure. They served their husbands. The possibilities of some protests
were limited and mutinous behaviour was punished. Girls were generally
warned not to appeal to the rights of women.
When Helen requests a divorce, her husband - a morally rotten person - is
appalled by Helens immoral proposal. He takes into account public reactions.
He is not able to recognize the balance between his unprincipled conduct and
Helens consequent and rightful claim. De facto, Mr. Huntingdon cannot
realize his bad comportment towards his wife; he cannot admit his faults, as
he has not been brought up to these thoughts. Society countenanced the cult
of a man and his primary role within all the possible areas. Society
participated in mens spoilt deportment.
As far as the divorce is concerned, Mr. Huntingdon is not as noble in mind
as Mr. Richard Phillotson, in the novel Jude the Obscure [1895] by Thomas
Hardy. Mr. Phillotson frees his wife Sue from the bonds of matrimony. He has
not tyrannized her either physically or psychologically. He does not also insist
on his conjugal rights. He does not compel her to surrender her affections
towards Jude Fawley; he does intend to understand her attachment. He
returns Sue her liberty, although he is sensible of the possible consequences
and impacts on his own personality. Later on, he is requested to resign from
the post of a teacher, as he supports his wifes infidelity. Even a man could
be ostracized by society.
79

In spite of bold opinions and actions depicted in the novel, the plot has to
surrender the conventional tendencies. Helen returns to her husband in order
to fulfil the Christian, moral and marital duties. She procures her husband
under the inner pressure of her strong sense of duty. Helen even goes into
mourning. Nevertheless, it can be declared that Mr. Huntingdon has not been
capable of reformation.
This conventional ending is partly formed due to two factors. The
Victorians were not able to imagine any other alternatives; other possibilities
except for these conventional ones were far beyond their thought. The
second reason is that Helen would always be a societys outcast, despite her
objective extenuating circumstances and the sense of justice.
Moreover, Victorian literature was not expected to delineate the harsh
realities of the contemporary period of time and Anne Bronts pioneer
attempt did touch such a harsh reality. Armitage has observed that Wildfell
Hall was way ahead of its time, so much so, that may people now label it a
twentieth century novel written in the nineteenth century .12
Helen

Huntingdon,

alias

Mrs.

Graham,

undergoes

complex

psychological development in the novel. A young optimistic idealist is trapped

into matrimony. Her inexperience initiates her to diverse marital miseries. Her
youthful naivety and mainly imprudence are forced to face various unknown
tribulations. She is uncompromisingly exposed to hitherto classified secrets
of a marital life and male privacy. She consecutively recounts all the trials of
wedlock. However, she does not intend to bear her husbands insults and
caprices without any complaint. She radically solves her degrading situation.
Her standpoint seriously undermines the societys most venerated values and
doctrines. Helens gradual and painful process of maturity is redeemed costly,
but it has to be finished conventionally. Her newly-established relationship
expresses more hopeful and happier vision of a marital life.

12

This quotation is related to the following internet source - <http://www.mickarmitage.staff.shef.ac.uk/anne/an-novls.html>.

80

MAGGIE TULLIVER A GIRL FIGHTING FOR ERUDITION

In the previous chapter, the literary character of Helen Huntingdon
revealed the dark corners of the revered Victorian bastion matrimony. Helen
cannot agree with the frequently proclaimed motto, that wedlock is the only
way of the girls most suitable self-realization and betterment. She can
designate a marital union as a source of painful experiences, public
humiliation and the rescue operation of her own child. She struggles hard in
order to escape from the prison of her marriage.
Maggie Tulliver, in the novel The Mill on the Floss [1860] by George Eliot
(1819-1880), also fights, but she fights against the imprisonment in the castle
of female ignorance. She desires to be cultivated by knowledge and love. Her
natural aptitudes for learning and inner drive shift her forward, but she
encounters many obstacles, that hinder her progress. Unfortunately, Maggies
private aim directly collides with the patriarchal principles, which do not intend
to enlarge any female mind and prejudice educated women.
Since Maggies childhood, she has been designated as strange or
different. She does not fit the traditional models of feminine delicate beauty
and ladylike comportment. Her hair is inflexible and does not curl. Maggie
does not like the beautifying methods of her mother and Maggies vivacity
always spoils the consequent effects of the whole process. Or Maggie cuts
her hair freely.
Maggies natural skin is not also concordant with the cult of female image.
Her face lacks the colours of porcelain or alabaster. She does not drink any
vinegar in order to achieve the right colour of her face. She does not also
wear a tightly-laced corset in order to modify her figure. She prefers ordinary
garments, which can bear some stains or mud.
Maggie cannot also satisfy the cult of female fragility, as she shares the
bodily freedom with her brother. She spends a lot of her free time in the fresh
air. She disposes of enterprising spirit; this quality is not obviously admired or
encouraged by her mother. Mrs. Tulliver wants to have a lifeless doll, whose
dressing and hair brushing can amuse her in her spare time. Her visit to the
gypsies camp proves her physical strength.
Maggies person cannot confirm the general female weakness and she
81

does not suffer from numerous illnesses, which were usually wished on
women. She has not been taught various modes of fainting13, but she wisely
enjoys her good health in grateful silence but never boasts of possessing
it (Stone, 1977: 283).
A contemporary girl was trained to acquire all the above mentioned tactics
from a very early age, in order to conform to the image of a fine lady.
Therefore these girls often suffered from anorexia or they were permanently
on a diet. They were advised to avoid physical exercises as much as
possible. The only activity, that was officially recommended, was dancing.
Another woman, whose stamina should be admired, is Elizabeth Bennet,
in Pride and Prejudice. Elizabeth is able to walk three miles to see her ill
sister Jane at Netherfield. Next exception to these rules is George Eliot
herself. As a child she was sun-tanned and enjoyed adventurous boyish
explorations in nature.
Maggies range of interests can also be characterized as peculiar. She
has made a wooden doll, which helps her to balance any painful experience
or misfortunes. So far the doll has been pierced with three nails, which
commemorate Maggies worst crises. Maggie is also interested in strange
things, such as wry-necked lambs. She is not also segregated from the
company of her brother Tom and his male friends. They all play harmlessly
together, without being distracted by their genders. For illustration, at schools
boys and girls were separated from each other. They had separate entrances,
classrooms and playgrounds.
Maggies fellow in the area of awkwardness can be Catherine Morland, in
Jane Austens novel Northanger Abbey. She is famous for rolling down the
green hill, wildness, keeping a canary or her hatred of confinement. She
enjoys boys games and loves playing cricket or baseball.
Even George Eliots private life can display similar fondness. She was
surrounded by male company, partly due to her social status and partly
thanks to the breadth of her horizon (her intellectual scope encompassed
philosophy, music and a large number of foreign languages). George Eliots

13

The Girls Book of Diversion [1840] underlines that the modes of fainting should be all
as different as possible and may be very diverting (originally quoted in Cunnington, C. W.,
Feminine Attitudes in the nineteenth century, p. 124; Gilbert and Gubar, 1985: 146).

82

relationship with Mr. George Lewes was not based on a legal form Mr.
Lewes had been already married. Therefore Eliot was not invited to social
parties, society ignored her.
Definitely, the most unusual quality of Maggies character is her desire to
reach a higher level of knowledge. She is able to exploit every single
opportunity to elevate her culture. However, she has to rely on her selfeducation, which is established on diverse books, talks to Phillip Wakem, the
visit at Kings Lorton and Toms acquired school knowledge. By reason of
Maggies female gender, her erudition is not officially supported. She has not
been sent to study at any schools, except for Miss Firnisss Boarding School.
Maggie cannot be educated by her mother either, as Mrs. Tulliver is obsessed
with her son Tom, her monographed (Gilbert and Gubar, 1985: 758) linen
and the Dodsons reputation. Maggies mother is not as broad-minded and
self-sacrificing as Mrs. Susan Garth, in another George Eliots novel
Middlemarch: a Study of Provincial Life [1871-72]. Mrs. Garth is able to
execute several activities simultaneously. She makes cakes, observes Sally
at the oven, washes the clothes and gives lessons to her youngest daughter
and son.
Maggies aptitude for learning and her prompt understanding contrast with
Toms dullness. Specifically, at Kings Lorton this contrast is underscored.
Maggies hunger for knowledge is not nourished properly. Her inner need of
mental cultivation seems to be inexhaustible. However, her determined will
and perceptive qualities cannot defeat a widespread prejudice, that only men
are better predetermined to the perception of erudition and its consequential
application. Therefore only men are enabled to be cultivated.
To educate a girl was not a rentable activity, as a girl could not employ her
acquired knowledge in reality. Intelligence rather hindered girls expectations
and their saleability in the marriage market. Girls should have concealed
their scope of knowledge. Ignorant girls were more valued and considered as
delicately innocent.
The only countenanced educational branches open to women were
reading, writing, music, dancing, water-painting, embroidery, French, possibly
Italian, household management and the smattering of the general knowledge
of English history (for illustration, the dates of the Kings of England). A special
83

attention was paid to the ability to raise girls fondness for dress and to make
themselves attractive.14 The overall educational process relied on the
conduct books (discussed in the chapter Evelina Anville - An Innocent Girl
Rewarded), household manuals, properly selected materials, etiquette
manuals and mothers. Mothers, as teachers, should have trained the next
generation, although their levels of erudition hardly satisfied more strict
criteria. The scope of their knowledge was limited and its depth varied.
Society did not realize a very important fact. When a husband died; a wife,
who could not think deeply and who was always guided by her husband, had
to undertake his duties and manage her female tasks. She had to educate her
children in the roles of both a father and a mother. She had to supervise the
financial investments and expose her descendants to the affairs of the world.
Simultaneously, she had to consider own marriage offers carefully, as she
might have been defrauded.
The imprudent consequences of a marriage have to face even trustful Mrs.
Clara Copperfield, in the book The Personal History and Experience of David
Copperfield the Younger [1849-50] by Charles Dickens. Her childish
innocence and inexperience in the ways of the world are exploited by Mr.
Edward Murdstone and his sister Jane. Clara is crushed under the
Murdstones hegemony and her maternal feelings are exposed to deep
suffering. After Claras death, Mr. Murdstone seizes her property. Claras son,
David is employed in a factory.
Next paradox, caused by the female ignorance, is mens discontent with
their female counterparts. Men often complained at trivial women, but mens
restrictions on female erudition are to blame.
Why were contemporary women excluded from the educational process?
Why were not they supported in the acquisition of knowledge? The lack of
female erudition enabled men to manipulate women. Men selected suitable
branches of education, which were accessible to women, in order to enslave
them and prevent them from a rebellion. Even articles and literary works were

14

We can compare the early eighteenth-century and the nineteenth-century educational

subjects. The schedule of Mr. Playfords school for gentlewomen - at Islington
encompassed the following areas reading, writing, paper-cutting, wax-work, japanning,
painting on glass, patch work, shell-work, moss-work, feather-work, the arts of housekeeping and polite conversation (Stone, 1977: 230).

84

censored by men, namely magazine editors and publishers. Men maintained

womens complaisant subservience by conventions, a suitable interpretation
of religious mores or the fear of the failure in the marriage market.
It is almost unbelievable that in the nineteenth century this fear of the
intellectual woman became so intense that the phenomenon was recorded
in medial annals (quoted in Gilbert and Gubar, 1984: 56). The precise
description of female difficulties, caused by the process of learning, is
presented in Ermarths (1997: 187) study The English Novel in History 1840
1895 (Clarke Edward, Sex in Education or, a Fair Chance for Girls, Boston,
1973; originally quoted in Helsinger at al., 1983, II: 75).

The brain cannot take more than its share without injury to other organs,
particularly in womens reproductive organs; womens brains compete
with their reproductive organs so that too much blood to one means too
little for the other. A woman who thinks is liable to damage her ovaries.
Think of the danger to the production of heirs! Women must choose
between babies and thought.

Maggies life has also been influenced by four men. The first one is her
father, who endeavours to compensate her misfortunes and soothe her
childish soul. Their mutual connection is consequently strengthened. After the
loss of their mill, Maggie supports her father and fervently defeats his deeds
against the rest of the family and relatives. She takes care of him, when he is
taken ill. She participates in the taking possession of the family mill, in order
to fulfil the fathers wish. She directly requests some needlework in a linenshop in person; she bravely ignores the public humiliation, her own
mortification and the power of gossip.
George Eliot also gravitated towards her father, who adored her. He
allowed her to accompany him on his journeys throughout the district. Eliot
was supplied with extraordinary experiences as well as the feeling of being
loved.
The second man, Maggies brother Tom, is a source of her immense love.
She almost worships him. They spend their spare time together, although
Tom often reprimands her. Tom likes to control the others and he disapproves
85

of Maggie sometimes. He underlines his superior male status, but it cannot

change Maggies deep devotion. Maggies attachment to Tom cannot also be
weakened even by their mothers obvious preference to her son. Tom totally
succumbs to the family pride, money collecting, the repossession of the mill
and the vengeance recorded in the family register. All these factors inflict
Toms obstinacy. He is not able to enjoy the living of his life. His judgements
lack humanity, specifically the cruel condemnation of his sister or his
restrictions concerning Phillip Wakem. However, Tom is not the only member
of the Tulliver family, who is influenced by the loss of their mill; the cohesion
of the family members is damaged by this constricting provincialism.
In reality, the bond between George Eliot and her brother Isaac was also
very strong. By reason of Eliots relation to George Lewes, a solicitor was
commissioned to inform Eliot about Isaacs wish. Isaac did not desire to be
contacted by Eliot. After Mr. Lewess death, Eliot was married to Mr. John
Walter Cross. Eliot consequently received a brothers congratulatory note.
Her legal union consolidated their estranged relationship. Isaac had not
communicated with her since 1857.
In Maggies life, Phillip Wakem represents a kindred soul in relation to
erudition. Maggie appreciates his almost universal talent and he supplies
Maggie with emotional stability. They share the inner dilemmas of their
tortured souls. Phillips acknowledgement of his love strengthens Maggies
self-confidence and encourages her soul. Her urgent and constant need of
affection is satisfied, but the emotional contentment is terminated by her
brother.
The fourth man, Stephen Guest evokes immensely striking passion,
intensive emotional exaltation and mysterious powers in Maggie. After a long
period of emotional deprivation and suppression, Maggies feelings cannot be
controlled and they stroke vehemently. [T]he violence of [Maggies] desire
so overwhelms her that she cannot see her conduct in perspective at all
(Cecil, 1848: 235).
Her social situation can be honourably solved in Gretna Green in Scotland.
The Marriage Act [1753] did not apply for this area and eloped couples were
not asked any inquisitive questions. Similarly, a clandestine marriage might
have been performed by a disreputable priest in the Fleet Prison. The regular
86

course of a church wedding included the public readings of banns on three

successive Sundays or a licence, two witnesses, an authorized priest and a
record in an official Marriage Register.
However, the vision of her own happiness cannot defeat her sense of duty
and the reverence for others, although, for a short period of time, Maggie is
overwhelmed with this close happiness. She does not allow herself to
succumb to her private wishes and passion. She does not intend to build her
future life on the ruined expectations of her relatives. Her previous bitter
experience and own throes enable her to imagine the other peoples
emotional martyrdom. Maggie, who has always been straightforward in her
intentions and deportment, cannot betray her own self. She faces a deep
moral dilemma. She rather accepts the societys cruel punishment than her
marital integration into society.
Maggies return provokes the peoples detailed analyses. She is judged by
wider public according to the militant moral views and finally, she is ostracized
both by society and by her brother.
The flexibility of public opinion is presented eloquently in the novel.

If Miss Tulliver, after a few months of well-chosen travel, had returned as

Mrs. Stephen Guest, with a post-marital trousseau, and all the
advantages possessed even by the most unwelcome wife of an only son,
public opinion, which at St. Ogg's, as else where, always knew what to
think, would have judged in strict consistency with those results. (Eliot,
1910: 480)

It is essential to mention that the judgements of the public voice have often
been formed or derived from such people as Mr. Michael Henchard, in the
novel The Mayor of Casterbridge: the Life and Death of a Man of Character
[1886] by Thomas Hardy, or Mr. Nicholas Bulstrode, in George Eliots
Middlemarch: a Study of Provincial Life [1871-72]. They both share the sinful
past and the respectable present.
Drunken twenty-one-year-old Henchard sold his wife Susan and his
daughter Elizabeth-Jane to a sailor in an auction. The price was five guineas.
Later on, he becomes a proper member of society and a mayor. Mr. Bulstrode
87

used to be a pawnbroker and he was selling stolen articles. Presently, Mr.

Bulstrode, a deeply religious Evangelic Protestant, is a prosperous banker
and supports a hospital.
On the other hand, a pious, clever and young girl Miss Dorothea Brooke,
in Middlemarch: a Study of Provincial Life, is condemned by the vox populi.
Firstly, due to the fact, that she is united with an elderly husband, Mr. Edward
Casaubon. Dorotheas youthful illusion and idealism are captivated by the
vast library knowledge of Mr. Casaubon. However, Mr. Casaubon only needs
an obedient wife and a helpful assistant in order to be able to compose his
book The Key to All Mythologies. In the course of time, Dorothea is
disappointed by her husbands sterile attitude as well as she is frustrated by
her destroyed previous expectations. Her marriage serves her as a painful
lesson of her own self-recognition. She learns that the cultivation of a person
is not only established on erudition, but the development of the personality
can also be supplemented with the emotional impulses.
In comparison with Dorothea, Maggie wisely combines both branches of
the personal cultivation, although she has not been allowed to exploit all the
sources as Dorothea has. Maggie has not had a proper long-term suitor and
she has not been married. Her erudition has not also reached deeper levels
and encompassed higher branches.
Secondly, Dorothea marries Mr. Casaubons relative, Mr. Will Ladislaw.
She appreciates the qualities of his character and she ignores his doubtful
origin. She is drifted by her own passion and freedom. Dorotheas second
marriage to Will breaks Mr. Casaubons addendum to his will and
consequently, Dorothea loses her heritage. However, she is loved and feels
happy.
Dorotheas as well as Maggies judgements are not influenced by wealth
or they both do not succumb to the power of money.
Maggie Tulliver is a distinctive heroine. Her ambitions differ from the
acceptable female aspirations. She does not cultivate her physical
appearance, she is not interested in feminine traits or she does not reinforce
her post in the marriage market.
Maggie prefers erudition and affection. She reveres the true values of life
and feels sympathy for other people. She is not able to betray her self as well
88

as the bonds of blood. Her moral responsibility wins over any private and
selfish aims. Nevertheless, her normative deviations are punished by St.
Oggs society and by her brother Tom.
The reconciliation between the brother and the sister, at the end of the
book, is very satisfactory for Maggie. However, her personality would not be
able to exist in the contemporary atmosphere, therefore, Maggie must die.

DIANA ANTONIA WARWICK AN ERUDITE WOMAN IN

REALITY
The writing Diana of the Crossways [1885] by George Meredith (18281909) appears to be linked with the themes presented in the novels The
Tenant of Wildfell Hall and The Mill on the Floss.
Helen Graham as well as Diana Warwick are imprisoned in the labyrinth of
wedlock. Whilst Helens entrance to matrimony is driven by her blind love and
noble intentions, Dianas reasons are purely pragmatic. Both heroines
husbands, however, infringe upon their personal liberty and request their total
suffocation. Helen and Diana protest vehemently. Diana persists in her revolt,
whilst Helen succumbs to the influence of the deeply rooted principles, the
acquired models of comportment and the possible social consequences.
Finally, they both achieve freedom, but Dianas enfranchisement of marital
slavery is more precious.
In comparison with Maggie Tulliver, Diana does not have to fight for the
access to erudition. Her social station has enabled her to acquire a decent
level of knowledge. Later on, she can even enlarge the breadth of her horizon
with the help of travelling. Maggie and Diana share the fates of clever women.
They are prejudiced and condemned by society. Their views exceed common
frames of female thoughts. Their opinions are incomprehensible and they are
often designated as peculiar or evil.
The novel Diana of the Crossways presents two non-traditional themes a
matrimonial rebellion accompanied by the legal accusation of adultery and the
profession of an authoress.

89

The literary character of Diana introduces an unnatural idea she desires

to preserve her outward and inward freedom. Her applied method is very
simple, she will not get married. Her financial situation and social status assist
her in this goal. Her intelligence can countenance her single life with dignity,
as she is able to employ her mind in a large number of activities.
Nevertheless, two decisive factors participate in changing Dianas
resolution an outrageous blow delivered to her female dignity and the lack
of a domestic shelter.
In reality, men could not understand Dianas emancipated deportment. Her
single status was misinterpreted as a signal or a challenge to a sexual
relation. The male superiority and pride were prepared to conquer this
fortress and establish a secret extramarital alternative. Men as well as
women were indoctrinated, that the only acceptable form of the dignified
social existence of a woman was to be married. Only the status of a wife
could

enable

woman

to

acquire

proper

social

recognition

and

establishment.
The most illustrative example can be traced in the novel Pride and
Prejudice. Lydia Wickhams, ne Bennet, social status of a married woman
shifts her on the scale of a family hierarchy, in spite of her moral qualities, her
weaker intelligence, her elopement or the shameful circumstances of her
marriage. Elder sister Jane has to leave her position at the mothers right
hand, because she is single.
Emma Woodhouse, in the novel Emma, cannot start the ball as the first
dancer. She has to submit to Mrs. Elton, a married woman. Although Mrs.
Elton is new to Highbury community and she is vulgar, her privileged marital
status has to be respected.
The second aspect, relative to Dianas changed mind, is that she does not
dispose of a real home. She is not protected by any parents or patrons. Her
half-home at Copsley is occupied with Lord Dustane, the author of the insult.
Her injured self-confidence has no space and peaceful atmosphere to be
balanced. The idea of a marriage emerges as an issue of security.
This impetuous decision underscores and warns against girls imprudence.
A partial blame can be put on society, which force Diana into a
stereotyped role regardless of fit (King, 1978: 75).
90

Some women, including Diana, believed that matrimony could liberate

them in some respects. For example, Contessa Maria Alcharisi, in the book
Daniel Deronda [1876] by George Eliot, escapes from her fathers hegemony
throughout wedlock. She marries a religious man, who adores her. After her
fathers death, she can become a renowned actress and singer. Marias
matrimony enables her to realize her private dream.
However, Merediths novel stresses that when a woman is married, the
golden gate of freedom is locked for ever. In the contemporary world, the
acceptable end of a marriage was the death of one of the partners. The other
possibilities, though less plausible, were a legal separation or a divorce.
A legal separation might have proceeded to a divorce, or a husband and a
wife could reconcile. In order to be legally separated, a couple had to petition
a court to recognize their separation. Living apart could not be considered as
a legal separation.
Diana has left her husband of her own free will. She rather accepts the
status of perpetual widowhood (Meredith, 1914: 215) and the adjoining
factors of her social status (for example, uncertain pecuniary future or
possible social ostracism) than the presence of her husband. De facto, she
cannot establish any formal relationship with a man; otherwise, she will be
accused of adultery.
Before 1857, people could achieve their divorce, only if they applied to
Parliament for a Private Act. However, this costly option was open to
prosperous inhabitants. In 1857, The Matrimonial Causes Act enabled a
secular divorce. Under the terms of the act, the husband had only to prove
his wife's adultery, but the wife had to prove her husband had committed not
just adultery but also incest, bigamy, cruelty or desertion.15
On the contrary, Clara Middleton (in the book The Egoist: a Comedy in
Narrative [1879] by George Meredith) is able to realize the termination of her
freedom in advance, before she is actually married to Sir Willoughby
Patterne. She identifies her fiancs self-love and self-importance in time.
Clara has not been sentenced to a life-long marital imprisonment yet, but she
has to fight hard in order to release from her mistaken engagement. She can
15

This
quotation
is
related
to
the
following
<http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/Wmatrimonial.htm>.

91

internet

source

rely only on her abilities, as her father is merely interested in Patternes port;
Willoughbys will is determined and society is waiting for Willoughbys final
triumph. Clara apparently excuses her comportment, wisely exploiting
societys expectations on women - We [women] are vain and shallow.16
The marriage between Diana and Augustus Warwick indicates a clash, the
clash between the new and the old. Whilst Diana represents unfettered
female spirit, Augustus is a perfect model of male superiority and supremacy.
Their marriage also contrasts Dianas innocent, but emancipated, activities
with Augustuss limited intelligence.
Thanks to Dianas cultivated mind, she does not succumb to depression or
to sitting on a sofa and cuddling a pug like Lady Bertram, in the novel
Mansfield Park [1814]. Lady Bertram is not alarmed by any troubles and her
thoughts as well as her life are safely guided by Sir Thomas Bertram.
Diana does not also resort to romantic visions or emotional selfdramatization as Mary Musgrove, in Jane Austens novel Persuasion [1818].
Self-pitying and self-centred Mary is stressed or taken ill, when she is not the
centre of others attention. She requires others compassion and permanent
reassurances, that she is still important and loved.
It is essential to underline that the literary characters of Diana of the
Crossways correspond with the history. Meredith revived a London scandal
from 1845. The character of Diana Warwick has been based on a real person
- Mrs. Caroline Norton, the granddaughter of Mr. Richard Brinsley Sheridan
the playwright. Mr. Norton accused his wife of adultery and she was
examined at a court of law. She was accused of a secret relationship with
Lord Melbourne (in the novel - Lord Dannisburgh). Caroline was also
rumoured to be involved with the politician Sidney Herbert (in the novel Percy Dacier) and to sell a confided secret of the intended repeal of the Corn
Laws by Peel to the London Times (Weygandt, 1925: 207 and Baily, 1947:
163).17
As far as the second unconventional element in Merediths novel is
16

All the quotations concerning the novel The Egoist: a Comedy in Narrative by George
Meredith
will
be
related
to
the
following
internet
source
<http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext99/egost11.txt>.
17

Due to Mrs. Caroline Nortons sad personal experience, she actively participated in the
campaign for the legal act The Marriage and Divorce Acts.

92

concerned, it focuses on female writers. Diana resorts to writing books by

reason of the lack of monetary sources. But, later on, she discovers that a
book can be an excellent medium for expressing her sentiments and
opinions.
The profession of an authoress was prejudiced in the past. For illustration,
John Malcolm Forbes Ludlow depicted a female writer as follows she is a
creature with ink halfway up her fingers, dirty shawls and frowsy hair
childless and, by implication, neurotic [by reason of the critics of the twentieth
century] (Showalter, 1999: 6).
Women were discouraged from their literary ambitions from the very
beginning of their careers. Publishers, male writers or editors stressed, that
this occupation was strictly predetermined for men. Women generally lacked
proper abilities and their works were influenced by their unjust criticisms of
their social stations. Authoresses frequently desired to ventilate allusions to
the attachment between a man and a woman (mainly physical) or they
delineated stories with exaggerated asperity. All these topics were highly
inadmissible.
Writings created by women were thought to lack serious themes and
artistic outlook. When women did intend to publish, they had to use
pseudonyms, such as George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans), Currer Bell (Charlotte
Bront) or Acton Bell (Anne Bront). When their incognitos were lifted, their
books were not given warm reception from critics and scholars. In the critical
reviews, the authoresses were frequently addressed by their Christian names,
whilst their male colleagues were addressed as follows - Charles Dickens.
The most expressive male view on female writing has been stated by Mr.
Robert Southey. Literature cannot be the business of a womans life, and it
ought not to be. The more she is engaged in her proper duties, the less
leisure will she have for it, even as an accomplishment and a recreation.
(Gaskell, 1920: 156)
When a female craving for writing was very urgent, a woman might have
been treated as Mrs. Gillian Charlotte Perkins. Her husband applied his own
medical treatment in order to cure his wife. He imprisoned Mrs. Perkins in a
hired estate and he [forbade] her to touch pen to paper until she [was] well
again (Gilbert and Gubar, 1984: 89).
93

On the contrary, men (husbands) were not horrified by the job of an

authoress, when their wives incomes helped to balance their financial
difficulties, for illustration, Margaret Gatty, Emma Marshall, Isabella Banks
[or] Lucy Clifford (Showalter, 1999: 47).
Dianas character cannot be included into the group of submissive and
obedient women and wives. Single Diana does not pay attention to the stigma
of the social inadequacy of single girls. She also overlooks the precisely
formulated canons of female deportment and the hints at her eccentricity.
In spite of all the negative aspects of her peculiar social status, runaway
Diana can enlarge the scope of her knowledge and she can devote her time
to her private hobbies. She does not have to serve anyone or be at her
husbands beck and call.
Diana also breaks a fictitious wall of the spatial division between men and
women. After dinners, both genders are not divided, but they can participate
in lively discussions. Their human relations are strengthened consequently.
These activities could have contributed to their mutual deeper understanding.
From historical point of view, it was Mrs. Vesey, who preferred the art of
conversation to the tediousness of card playing and who dared to put her
faith in tea and sweetmeats as sufficient refreshments for the conversazione
(Masefield, 1927:49).
Diana is able to resist even the vox populi. In the novel The Mill on the
Floss, the public opinion is of an immaterial substance. The readers are
informed of its effects, its firmness and its gender. In Diana of the
Crossways, this element is embodied in a woman, Mrs. Wathin. This selfappointed judge of morality and the guard of female propriety analyze Dianas
comportment. Diana is reminded of her marital duties. She is reprimanded for
her lapses.
However, Dianas attitude is unbreakable. Her honour has been
questioned in public. Her dignity does not allow her to be subjugated again
and probably treated worse than before. Diana is supported in her
endeavours; she has a large number of apologists and defenders. One of
them is George Meredith himself.
He also experienced marital difficulties in his private life. He underwent
complicated trials within his own matrimony, but he did not intend to push
94

exclusive blame on his wife. He was of the opinion that both partners could
contribute to the failure of a marriage. He did side with women and
underscored mutual love between united partners.
A direct consequence of Dianas distressing experience is her immense
fear of wedlock. Now she is able to understand the depth of the
powerlessness of wives, specifically within legal terms and within domestic
surroundings. Diana is not able to satisfy a male requirement of being a mere
decorative supplement and a silent manager of a household.
Susanna Florence Mary Bridehead, in Thomas Hardys novel Jude the
Obscure, shares Dianas fear of matrimony. She even dreads wedlock. She
feels that this tight and formal union can destroy the attachment between her
and Jude Fawley. Therefore they do not get married.
Diana Merion - Warwick is gifted at quick observation, eloquence and
living mind. She represents an equal debater to her male counterparts within
the area of serious themes and subjects. Her opinions are grounded. Dianas
ardent nature and instinctive resolutions thrust her into complicated social
situations, but she still defends her female existence bravely. No
consequences, no rebukes and no raised eyebrows of the public can
manipulate her to enter the right road. She persists in her decisions (at least
for a limited period of time). She preserves her female dignity and
independence.
Her second marriage is a compromise. Mr. Tom Redworth is sensible of
Dianas qualities and appreciates them, whilst Diana has to learn to respect
her new husband and is allowed to live (read survive) in contemporary
society.18

18

In George Merediths original ending, Diana Merion committed suicide.

95

TESS DURBEYFIELD A SEDUCED WOMAN

In the chapter Harriot Stuart A Dauntless Young Girl, dangers to
innocent girls were delineated without any actual impacts. The previous
passage stressed that even a temporary weakness could ruin Maggies
reputation. In the novel Tess of the D'Urbervilles: a Pure Woman Faithfully
Presented [1891] by Thomas Hardy (1840-1928), the consequences of these
threatening situations can be traced in practice.
The impact of lost chastity is depicted in its depth and it is multiplied with
the concatenation of tragic events, with which Tess is overwhelmed. Societys
stable principles are not able to distinguish between Tesss seduced body
and her innocent spirit. And Tess is not able to suppress her story.
Society is not able to appreciate either Maggies or Tesss adherence to
their inner moral principles. It is not also able to understand their loyalty to
their own selves. Tess and Maggie, on the other hand, are not willing to wear
the masks of hypocrites, which results in their total destruction.
Tesss story also reveals another chamber in the castle of the female
ignorance. Tess has not been properly exposed to the secrets of a physical
relation with a man. She has not been instructed about any possible
consequences of this relationship. She has been left to the tender mercies of
the big world.
Pure-hearted Tess is trapped in an invisible and endless circle of diverse
factors, which predetermine her fall. Tess is a victim of her own family, two
men, adverse circumstances and society.
Especially, Tesss mother exploits the power of filial ties and urges Tess to
claim kinship with Alec. But she fails to perform her educative and protective
roles. Mrs. Durbeyfield cannot be fully blamed for Tesss lack of knowledge
within sexual terms, as society recognized prudery. However, she is guilty of
her inability to warn Tess against mens tricks and lures. Mrs. Durbeyfield
rather appears to expect Tesss seduction and to await material advantages.
As it has been declared, society did not support sexual education. Young
girls were not enlightened as to the biological functions of their bodies, the
procedure for procreation or child-bearing. The natural processes of
menstruation or pregnancy were ignored. A special reticence has been
96

reserved for a sexual relation between a man and a woman.

In prosperous families nursemaids, servants or governesses were allowed
to lecture on the taboo sex. The practical part of sexual relations were
confided to white mice which were kept in childrens rooms (Frankov,
2004: 122). Poor families might have relied on the reproduction of domestic
animals or fragmentary information from informal adults talks.
Girls entered marriages with a limited range of knowledge. They were not
prepared for sexual relationships, the pressures of the realities of household
management, the deliveries of children and the rearing of their descendants.
Society appreciated their innocence (read ignorance) within sexual terms and
underscored their virginity.
Womens sexual experience strictly belonged to the matrimonial period of
time, whilst men were allowed to dispose of a decent level of sexual
knowledge and experience. A newly-married wife was frequently instructed
about her conjugal duties shortly before a wedding night. She was expected
to resist her husbands claims slightly.
Even a sexual area succumbed to exclusive mens control. The function of
a sexual relation was not restricted by the actual conception any more. But a
woman was considered as a mere source of male contentment. Rarely, she
was enabled to receive her own pleasure. When she enjoyed the intimate
relation, her inappropriate comportment might have been misinterpreted or
evoked the negative opinions of her husband. Naturally, all these aspects did
not have to contribute to a misleading idea, that women disliked sexual
intercourses.
Men could assert their conjugal rights according to their wishes and
women were forced (sometimes violently) to satisfy their husbands. Men often
demanded their advances even within the whole period of pregnancy or
shortly after a delivery. George Egerton (Virgin Soil, Discords, London,
1894: 155; quoted in Showalter, 1999: 189) assesses the overall situation as
follows marriage becomes for many women a legal prostitution, a hateful
yoke under which they age, mere bearers of children conceived in a sense of
duty, not love.
The number of children also depended on men. Frequently, a man was not
willing to subordinate his physical exciting moments to contraceptive
97

methods. He might have found them complicated, expensive or interruptive.

In order to prevent from a conception, people employed abstinence, coitus
interruptus, vaginal sponges, condoms or breast-feeding periods.
The growing number of children exhausted women from the physical and
psychological points of view as well as the number of descendants burdened
a family budget. Therefore women had to resort to radical arrangements,
although these arrangements were not concordant with societys official
opinion and Christian values.
Women either underwent illegal abortions or self-abortions. They used
diverse tools and methods, for illustration, wire coat-hangers, knitting
needles, goose quills dipped in turpentine, celery stalks, drenching the cervix
with detergent, lye, soap, drinking purgatives or mercury, applying hot
coals to the body (Rich, 1986: 267).
Tess has not been sensible of any information mentioned above.
Nevertheless, Mrs. Durbeyfields endeavour to procure her daughter can be
partially understandable, as the monotony of her life and the exhaustive
drudgery are demotivating. Only occasional visits at Rollivers Inn can enliven
her daily programme. She wishes to be redeemed from gloomy conditions.
Therefore she is not able and willing to understand Tesss resolute rejection
of Alecs lucrative offer. Mrs. Durbeyfield does not also support unhappy
Tess, when her baby is delivered.
Mrs. Durbeyfields second betrayal of her daughter can be associated with
her advice, mentioned in the letter to Tess. She believes in Tesss second
promising opportunity to be elevated.
A more decisive influence, that enhances Tesss resolution to contact their
relatives in Trantrige, can be attributed to her siblings earnest pleas. Tess
feels a great pity for her brothers and sisters. Who would be able to resist?
Actually, Tess becomes Alecs mistress for the sake of her family
(Alexander, 2000: 302).
Alec Stoke-dUrberville initiates Tesss social difficulties. Her natural
beauty, cheerful character and innocence invite Alec for an insidious act.
Thanks to his tactical manoeuvres, he blunts Tesss instinctive cautiousness
and he unexpectedly attacks.
Thomas Hardy does not clearly state or delineate this scene in the woods.
98

But Alecs manipulative tricks, physical predominance, Tesss fatigue,

drowsiness and defencelessness can evidence that Tess has been raped.
Contemporary society did not employ the term rape. Society preferred the
expression seduction, with which womans guilt and her natural liability, for
stimulating a man, were indicated. A raped woman frequently had to prove,
that her conduct did not exceed the doctrines of good conduct and she did not
provoke a mans adequate reaction.
The best example, drawn from reality, is mentioned in Patricia Beers book
Reader, I Married Him: a Study of the Women Characters of Jane Austen,
Charlotte Bront, Elizabeth Gaskell and George Eliot (1975: 29).

[A young girl was seduced] by her brother-in-law when she was a guest at
his house while his wife was having a baby. The girl became pregnant
and was cast off by her family who, however, went on paying visits at
their wealthy brother-in-laws house

Tesss expectations, located in the secret of her heart, are precluded. Her
physical chastity has been destroyed; she has become a fallen woman.
Moreover, she has been branded more visibly she gives birth to a child.
It is necessary to emphasise that Tess has been exposed to a great
danger as any other pregnant woman. The hygienic conditions were
insufficient, midwives were not properly trained and a doctors assistance was
expensive. Infant mortality was also very high, particularly before children
were one year old.
Naturally, Alec has planed intricate schemes and lustful intrigues. His
comportment is not concordant with moral principles; his offers can be
considered as scandalous. However, his intentions are not veiled into
apparently noble words. His harmful activities do not seem to exceed Angel
Clares destructive impact on Tess.
With Angel, Tess discovers an emotional dimension of the relationship
between a man and a woman. She is excited about this feeling. She is
pervaded with immense happiness. However, her conscience is not able to
ignore the throes of remorse. Within Tesss soul, a severe battle rages. It is
the fight between the desire to live quietly with a loving person and the
99

shadows of the past.

Tess naively believes that she and Angel are partners and their sins can
be judged on equal terms. Whilst Tess forgives Angel his preposterous lapse,
Angel is horrified by Tesss history.
In the past, double standard operated. According to this sexual double
standard, Tesss lapse could not be ignored or forgiven, as she was a
woman. Mens promiscuity was considered as natural, including their marital
infidelities; whilst womans slightest deviation from established norms was
inexcusable and was severely punished. Society uncritically accepted
conventional rules and consequently, ostracized this persona non grata.
Angel, who has propagated new progressive thoughts, is deeply
influenced by traditional principles and conventional mores laid on a girls
chastity. De facto, he is a slave to the rigid concepts of religious ideas and
expected womans immaculate purity. His inability to be fair to Tess is
disappointing.
On the contrary, honest Tess is not able to exploit female weapons. She is
not able to stimulate Angels animosity as Arabella Donn, in Jude the
Obscure. Arabella coquettish deportment tempts Jude Fawley and he
succumbs to her enticement. Arabella can marry Jude.
As far as adverse circumstances are concerned, they flood over Tess.
Especially, the timing of misfortunes is fatal to Tess. Her admirable
persistence, in her struggle against miseries, is not rewarded. She is crushed
under the pressure of desperate, physically and mentally demanding ironies
of her fate. The chain of these circumstances results in tragedy. Tess does
not control [her] own destiny (Widdowson, 1989: 213).
The last factor of Tesss successive destruction is society. The wrath of
society intensively attacks Tess and her family after the fathers death. Their
lease on the cottage is not prolonged, by reason of Tesss dark past.
From the historical point of view, society mercilessly punished a single
mother and her bastard in order to show [the consequences of this sin] to
young girls (Utrio, 1994: 129).
Tess is not able to adapt flexibly for societys requirements as Becky
Sharp, in Vanity Fair. Tesss inner values are unshakeable. Tess has not
learnt how to modify facts for her own benefit or how to manipulate cold and
100

cruel social rules. All her miseries do not allow Tess to become a spoilt,
cunning adventuress. The nobility of her character and her gracious mind are
uncompromisingly destroyed by venerable society.
The story of Theresa Durbeyfield indicates that society and its revered
mores should be reconsidered. Firstly, societys uncompromising judgements
should react to specific features of individual cases, as the inflexibility of the
norms is damaging. Secondly, the progress moves forward without restraint,
therefore the anachronistic character of the canons of comportment and other
rules has to be altered.
The book wisely contrasts old convention and traditional opinions with new
conditions and modern technical machinery, such as steam engines, sowing
machines and threshers. The irrepressible progress necessarily has to
influence society and its rules.

101

CONCLUSIONS
This presented dissertation has analyzed ten literary heroines within the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The female protagonists experienced
various adventures; they underwent trials and tribulations as well as they had
to solve varied problems. However, whatever activity these female characters
performed, the course and the result of this activity were always influenced by
their female gender. Their gender was a limiting factor.
When a girl was born, she was sentenced to be a second-rate human
being. She could not take the first place in her parents esteem, as she was
considered to be weaker in her body and mind than a boy. At a girls birth,
she did not inherit any rights, only a destiny to be an angelic and submissive
creature. The right of primogeniture applied only for boys. It enabled an eldest
son to inherit his parents property.
The best illustration of a parental horror can be found in Charles Dickenss
novel Dealings with the Firm Dombey and Son Wholesale, Retail and for
Exportation [1846-48]. Mr. Paul Dombeys first descendant is a daughter,
Florence. He will not be able to convey his firm to a son in order to continue
the family business tradition. Therefore angry and resentful Mr. Dombey
ignores his daughter almost all her life and designates her as a bad boy
(Dickens, 1995: 7).
Any girl, born in a family, burdened her parents with a large number of
problems; the chief one was to marry her eligibly. In the course of her life, she
was inculcated with the canons of excellent deportment, the principles of
etiquette and the features of an ideal woman. Obedience belonged to one of
the most decisive qualities of a girls character. No girl should have asserted
her own free will; firstly, she succumbed to a parental authority; secondly, to
her husbands wishes; thirdly, to social mores.
A girl was also instructed not to display her private sentiments; any
manifestations of her affection might have been considered either as a great
personal weakness, or as a social faux pas. These social requirements
pressed a girl to suppress her emotional expression, but this suppression
frequently led to an entire destabilization of her self and resulted in improper

102

acts or sudden outbursts.

As far as the physical appearance was concerned, girls underwent drastic
procedures to conform the image of a perfect girl a wasp waist; a pale skin;
the right postures of a body; gracious, almost immobile movements; the
liability for fainting at the slightest impulse and the minimal supply of fresh air.
These celebrated symbols of femininity rather poisoned girls. They often
suffered from anorexia, agoraphobia or claustrophobia.
Girls were allowed to dispose of a certain level of accomplishments, such
as reading, writing, music et cetera (A detailed list was presented in chapter
Maggie Tulliver A Girl Fighting for Erudition.), but they were not taught
these disciplines for their own sake or to enlarge the breadth of girls
horizons. Girls were educated in these branches in order to amuse, satisfy or
assist men in their careers or easier styles of their living.
In order to prevent women from being too inquiring, men made them
believe, that when they devoted their energy to mental activities,

the supply of blood and phosphates [was distributed from their]

reproductive system to the brain [and consequently, they might have
suffered from] dysmenorrhea, ovarian neuralgia, physical degeneracy,
and sterility (Showalter, 1999: 77).

Another method, which should have protected women from knowing, was
censorship. Society and parents exercised vigorous censorship upon written
media as well as the sources of entertainment. Inopportune items were
uncompromisingly excluded from a girls educational process or removed out
of her reach. With the help of recommended educational materials, girls and
women were unconsciously forced to accept uncritically everything that
was submitted to them at home, at school and in literature (Abrams, 2005:
67).
Girls academic studies were not supported and appreciated by society,
parents or suitors. What is more, they could hardly employ their knowledge,
as sophisticated girls were prejudiced. The fragments of appropriate
knowledge served as the outstanding means of womens imprisonment in the
castle of ignorance.
103

Girls were lectured on housekeeping and the roles of a perfect wife and a
good mother. Unfortunately, the level of this training was insufficient and its
depth was superficial. Mottoes, such as subservience, neatness, purity, piety,
affability; only served as brainwashing methods.
Girls were informed about conversational themes, while they were dancing
with a man a size of a room, a number of dancers or a type of a dance.
However, they hardly knew anything about conception, childrens psychology
or the process of childbearing.
All the above mentioned qualities of a female character helped parents to
sell their daughter in the marriage market. The main centres of the marriage
market were located in London, Bath, Brighton and Cheltenham.
Within a period of approximately six months (from the period of after
Christmas time until June), young ladies from aristocratic or upper classes
were introduced into society in London. They were presented as debutantes.
Social society organized balls and dinner parties or evenings at the opera and
theatre. The outer world was informed that these girls had reached a suitable
age, the age of maturity, and they might have been courted and got married.
The marriage market was governed by iron laws. Before a girl was
proposed, she was judged according to several criteria a genealogical
ancestry, primary family origins, the purity of blood, perfect breeding, the
grace of manners, an economic situation and an immaculate reputation (The
public opinion played a crucial role in evaluating this aspect, it was not
advisable to be guilty of any family or personal weakness.).
Girls were market articles. Their sales were ruled by market competition
and market demands. A girl was usually sold at the most attractive bid.
Sometimes a girl could not satisfy the market requirements and was forced to
accept the first and probably the only proposal.
For example, Charlotte Lucas, in the novel Pride and Prejudice, is sensible
of her limited expectations, therefore, she wisely accept Mr. William Collins
offer. Charlotte is able to recognize Mr. Collins dullness and sycophantic
conduct, but she will be a married woman.

Men were liable to take advantage of this anxiety [that women desired
to get married], and to contribute energetically to reinforcing the idea of
104

marriage as a privilege for women [which should have been repaid] in

terms of service and the devoted fulfilment of duty. (Calder, 1977:125)

If a single (usually poor) girl did not get married, she had to bear the
stigma of oddness or ridiculousness. When a single girl stayed at home, she
was imprisoned in a house and was exploited by the family. She had to
devote her life to the care of others.
Otherwise, a single girl was condemned to become a companion, a
governess, a teacher or a nun. These professions were poorly paid, they
were confining and demanding as well as they lacked any social prestige.
Prosperous single girls or women disposed of a decent degree of
independence; they could follow their own ways and apply their free will.
For illustration, Miss Matilda Crawley, in the book Vanity Fair: a Novel
without a Hero, can choose her heir or heiress, thanks to her wealth. Her ill
sense of humour and bad habits are tolerated among the relatives. Many of
her relatives are often alarmed by the digestive problems, caused by her
permanent overeating. But nobody dares to object her deportment.
If a girl lost the basic capital for matrimony her immaculate chastity or if a
girl was found dubious by the vox populi; she could not succeed in the
marriage market. She might have asked for some needlework, but the wage
could not cover her expenditures. De facto, these girls were predestined to
become prostitutes, due to economic reasons. They might have abhorred this
job, but starvation and malnutrition contributed to changing their minds.
A common loss of a girls chastity was associated with a seduction. A
fallen woman might have ranged from a raped child, an innocent girl seduced
or a passionate adulteress; but no circumstances could have excused them.
They (the victims) should have proved that they were not guilty of the present
situation.
In the eighteenth century, lower social classes did not worship a girls
purity so intensively; workers and peasants appreciated different qualities of
female characters a good state of health, a good bodily constitution or
industry.
As far as the choice of a partner was concerned, people in the eighteenth
century were luckier than their predecessors. In previous centuries,
105

marriages were arranged only by parents. Contemporary people could select

their partners on their own. Only if a candidate for wedlock did not satisfy the
family members requirements, parents could disapprove of the choice.
For example, Anne Elliot, in Jane Austens novel Persuasion, is attracted
by Mr. Frederick Wentworth. He proposes to her, but Lady Russell (an old
family friend) finds this connection to be disagreeable. Anne is persuaded to
refuse Mr. Wentworths proposal. Fredericks fine personal qualities cannot
regard him as an eligible match. He seems to have no further rise in his
uncertain profession of a navy officer. Later on, he will become a rich and
respected captain of the Navy.
After all premarital proceedings, a couple could be married. Frequently,
girls were enthused over matrimony. Society promised them to be more
respected and some works of art promised them to experience imperishable
love until the end of their days. A press announcement was a hallmark of this
event.
For example, Mrs. Bennet, in the book Pride and Prejudice, is pervaded
with immense happiness, when she can see a short note about Lydias
wedlock in The Courier and The Times. The world has been informed about
this event.
In reality, women were usually disappointed greatly. On a wedding day, a
permanent business contract initiated a mans private and exclusive
ownership of a woman. The legal system did not recognize a wife as a legally
responsible person and patriarchal society did not recognize a wife as an
equal and spiritually advanced human being.
A wife was a husbands dependant in various areas she could not
possess any property, she could not dispose of any pecuniary sources, she
could not go out without a proper companion. A wife was imprisoned in a
husbands house and overwhelmed with daily routines. She organized all the
domestic activities and social rituals as well as she had to make herself
charming. She was responsible for a smooth course of a household. She had
to dance attendance upon her husband. She did not dispose of any free time,
which she could devote to herself, or she did not dispose of any room of her
own. A wifes spare time was fulfilled with work for charity sewing shirts or
the organization of charitable fairs. Or she might have been engaged in
106

netting purses, painting tables, the embroidery of pen cases or covering

screens; because female hands should not have been idle.19
Prosperous ladies were seated in their drawing rooms and enjoyed
monotonous futile existence with their Chinese dogs. These styles of living
often led to the distortion of womens values and deterioration of their abilities
to think.
For illustration, Lady Maria Bertram, in Jane Austens Mansfield Park, has
not paid much attention to her daughters erudition. She is not alarmed by Sir
Thomas Bertrams voyage to the New World. She is only interested in
cuddling her pug.
An honourable profession of a wife did not afford any space for a female
privacy or self-development. Talented or clever women were not allowed to
cultivate their interests, the range of female pursuits was determined by
society and husbands rather than by their own individual choices.
On the contrary, a marriage was not a conventional settlement only for
women; particularly homosexual men might have been sheltered under a
concealing mask of wedlock (Gittings, 1978: 53).
If a marriage was highly advisable for girls, motherhood was compulsory
for wives. In fact, a wifes respectable social status wifehood was
multiplied by motherhood. However, the total shortage of knowledge
enveloped an intimate part of a matrimonial life in mystery. Mothers did not
mention any hints, which might have been connected with physical relations.
No personal experience was allowed to be at a newly-married wifes disposal.
Men were not always willing to proceed with mutual intimacies successively.
The physical relation could guarantee two aspects the obligatory
satisfaction of husbands conjugal rights and pregnancy. However, female
ignorance, a high degree of infant mortality and the mortality of mothers
caused the womans horror of conception and childbirth. Women could only
share their fears either with private diaries or share them in intimate
friendships with one or two other women. There were strong taboos against
sharing them with men (Showalter, 1999: 81).

19

In a Danish kingdom in the seventeenth century, even needlework was inspected thoroughly.
[K]nitting was forbidden for a certain period of time; because a womans mind was open to an idle
trance (Frankov, 2003: 119).

107

With motherhood, two difficulties were associated infertility and the

necessity to bear a son. If a couple failed to produce any descendants,
women were always responsible for this defect. Similarly, a woman was
believed to influence or select the gender of a child. Her primary duty was
to deliver a son.
Lady Rosalie Ashby, in Anne Bronts novel Agnes Grey [1847], does not
fulfil this compulsory duty, her first child is a girl. Sir Thomas Ashby is not
satisfied with the gender of a baby. He cannot redistribute the family wealth
and the title in the male line. Therefore he departs for London. Rosalie is
sensible of her failure and it consequently results in her tepid attitude
towards her daughter.
Childbearing exhausted women physically year in year out pregnancies
increased the risks of infections or death. From the psychological point of
view, women were terrified by the vision, that they would not be able to
influence or reduce the growing number of descendants. They could not
employ any effective methods of contraception. The entire mechanics of
sexual intercourse and the process of procreation were not controlled by
women at all.
Due to the fact, that childrens nurture was absorbing and time consuming,
mothers might have consigned their sons and daughters to the care of
nursemaids, governesses and private tutors; or they might have devoted the
whole portion of their time to their descendants. Naturally, these possibilities
largely depended on material conditions of families.
In the first case, children were distanced from their mothers and fathers,
as they were shown to their parents at established intervals, these brief
contact periods for warmly demonstrative cuddling (Thompson, 1988:
126) could not form deeper mutual relationships. These separated
descendants might have teased servants, including governesses, or they
might have formed lasting affections towards them.
In the second case, a womans decision, to take care of children on her
own, raised the probability that a husband would be prompted to spend his
time with a mistress or a prostitute. These women were not obsessed with the
acknowledged model of a mother.
Although women might have suffered in matrimony, although they might
108

have been discontented; they could not escape from their sordid unions. After
1857, they might have petitioned for a divorce, but the applied law did not
treat women fairly. The status of a legally separated woman (the status of
neither married nor divorced wife) was even more confining than the status of
a married woman.
Or women might have run away from their husbands. On the one hand,
they would never achieve any respectable social position in the future. On the
other hand, the power of the patriarchal law compelled them to return.
Afterwards husbands were allowed to punish runaway wives either by house
arrest or corporal punishment.
Women had to survive in wedlock, in spite of all the negative
circumstances. Only a husbands decease could have liberated them fully.
Lord Grandcourts death released Gwendolen Harleth, in George Eliots book
Daniel Deronda, from a distressing marriage. Her decision not to become a
governess was redeemed costly.
The complicated character of matrimony can be proved by the female
character of Lady Russell in Jane Austens novel Persuasion. Her financial
situation and her social station do not press her to risk her independence of a
widow. Another marital union would tie her down and she would not be able
to navigate the course of her life.
To sum up, women were located into precarious positions, nothing in their
lives depended on their independent personal choices. Throughout their
entire lives, they were conditioned by clever manipulative techniques. Their
subordination was countenanced by female ignorance, prejudice, fears and
social mores. In spite of womens inner desires, talents or thoughts, they had
to follow a conventional scenario to get married.
An independent, single and sophisticated woman was far beyond the
contemporary thought. Even literature a fictitious world was not able to
imagine any different alternative. Literary heroines, who refused to conform
to societys idea of a womans proper role, had to either die or commit suicide.

109

Hypothesis 1
This survey proves that female literary characters successively penetrated
into literature as main heroines. First of all, female protagonists had to be
deprived of male qualities and attributes in order to become more feminine
Moll Flanders. This refinement supplied them with the hallmark of
trustworthiness and they could perform believable female roles in literary
works. Heroines were even improved from the psychological point of view,
they matured Maggie Tulliver.
Heroines advanced personality could disapprove of prejudice associated
with real women. They were not fragile creatures Tess Durbeyfield. They
could prove their morality Helen Huntingdon. Or they could display that they
were high-principled people Diana Antonia Warwick. They were also
capable of independent acts Harriot Stuart and reasonable thoughts Jane
Eyre.
Although they were prevented from a first-rate erudition (one of the
prejudice put forward that they were weaker in mind), their natural intelligence
Rebecca Sharp and the talent for observation Evelina Anville could,
otherwise, broaden their horizons partially. In spite of true mens endeavours
to isolate women in the castle of ignorance and to guide them to think justly,
women were able to realize their secondariness in society.
A romantic, confined, passive and submissive figure (frequently a puppet)
has been gradually transmuted into a courageous, fighting and advanced
personality.
The hypothesis 1 has been proved.

Hypothesis 2
The

agitated

destinies

of

literary

female

protagonists

prompted

contemporary women to realize, that their social positions were restricted and
their outlooks were limited really. The novels disclosed that when a heroine
desired to extricate from the yoke of limits, she had to overcome many
obstacles and, otherwise, her endeavours did not have to be awarded with a
triumphal victory. But, at least, they achieved partial successes and
concessions.
The process of changes slowly paced forward and literature played a
110

crucial part in this long-term and successive progress. Many literary works,
starting from Jane Austen (whose challenges were waiting to be disclosed for
a long period of time, as they had been hidden behind the refined faade of
love stories), became the milestones in the history of a modern woman. In
fact, they motivated this process of changes.
The hypothesis 2 has been proved.

Hypothesis 3
The last hypothesis is concerned with the degree of authenticity of
delineated literary situations. The analyses frequently referred to the
hypocrisy of contemporary society. It also pointed at the celebrated
sacrament of matrimony and proclaimed marital faithfulness. However, the
reality differed from these values.
Charles Dickens, a married man and a father, was in love with eighteenyear-old actress, Ellen Ternan.
William Wilkie Collins, a novelist, a playwright and a contributor to
Household Words; lived with Mrs. Caroline Graves, a widow. They were
buried together in Kensal Green Cemetery, although they had not been
married.
Samuel Pepys, a naval administrator, the Member of Parliament and a
diarist, had a thirty-three-year liaison with Mary Skinner, a sophisticated
woman.
All these relationships were well-known, but society tolerated them. On the
other hand, when George Eliot was not married to George Henry Lewes and
they lived together, same society was horrified by their relationship.

On their [George Eliot and G. H. Lewes's] return to England in 1855 the

Victorian 'double standard' came into immediate operation: while Lewes
was still invited out, Marian Evans entered her long period of social exile,
shunned by the female community apart from a few radical spirits.
(Shuttleworth, 1991: xi)

The depth and the power of indoctrinated acceptable attitudes and

opinions can be proved by George Eliot or Charlotte Bront.
111

George Eliots life relation to a married man and her literary works created
an impression, that she was an independent woman with revolutionary
opinions. However, she was able to acknowledge a profound irritation,
concerning the mutual relationships in Thackerays novel The History of
Henry Esmond, Esq. [1852]. Henry has devotedly loved a young belle, Beatrix
Castlewood for a long time. But, finally, he marries her mother, Lady
Castlewood.
Similarly, Charlotte Bront, who attacked the unequal positions of women
in her writing, did not feel comfortable about George Eliots liaison with Mr.
Lewes. Charlotte Bronts great admirer, Elizabeth Cleghorn Gaskell (18101865), expressed her anxiety about this relationship in a letter to George Eliot
I wish you were Mrs. Lewes (Gilbert and Gubar, 1984: 484; emphasis
original).
The hypothesis 3 has been proved.

Definitely, contemporary society and people did not realize the relativity of
human existence and natural human fallibility. Otherwise, they would have
attached to plain, but precise truth presented in Thomas Hardys novel Tess
of the D'Urbervilles: a Pure Woman Faithfully Presented.

The stranger had sojourned in many more lands and among many more
peoples than Angel; to his cosmopolitan mind such deviations from the
social norm, so immense to domesticity, were no more than are the
irregularities of vale and mountain-chain to the whole terrestrial curve.
(Hardy, 2001: 274)

112

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127

RESUM
Tato rigorzn prce se zabv portrty literrnch hrdinek zachycench
v anglick literatue v obdobch osmnctho a devatenctho stolet.
Zklad tto prce se opr o deset novel - o Moll Flandersovou od Daniela
Defoa a pokrauje nsledujcmi autory a autorkami Charlotte Ramsay
Lennoxovou a jejm romnem ivot Harriot Stuartov, Evelinou od Fanny
Burneyov,

Emmou z pera Jane Austenov, Jarmarkem marnosti od

Williama Makepeace Thackerayho, Dvojm ivotem Heleny Grahamov od

Anny Brontov, Jane Eyrovou napsanou Charlottou Brontovou, Mlnem na
ece Floss od George Eliotov, Dianou z rozcest od George Mereditha a je
zakoneno Thomasem Hardym a jeho knihou Tess z D'Urbervill.
Tato literrn dla zachycuj hrdinky z odlinch socilnch vrstev, v rznch
obdobch jejich ivota i v rozmanitch ivotnch situacch. Vbr tchto
romn by ml nabdnout velk mnostv nuanc hrdinek, kter by mly
garantovat vstin obraz en v anglick literatue.
Prvn kapitola obsahuje deset krtkch obsah ji zmnnch novel. Tyto
obsahy jsou doplnny ilustrativnmi citacemi, kter maj zachytit vmluvnou
slu slov spisovatel a spisovatelek.
Druh st tto prce analyzuje kadou hrdinku ve spojen se specifickmi
charakteristickmi rysy nebo jejm socilnm postavenm. Tato sekce zapojuje
i jin ensk romnov postavy, kter mohou rozit hel pohledu i potvrdit
zkuenosti en. Tyto analzy tak odkazuj na sekundrn literaturu, vetn
internetovch zdroj i film, vztahujc se k tto problematice.
Posledn oddl

postupn nart ivot eny v soudob spolenosti, od

jejho narozen a po zral vk. Tato st osvtluje monosti en v tehdejch

socilnch podmnkch. Je zde tak zahrnuto vyhodnocen stanovench
hypotz.

128

ENGLISH SUMMARY

This dissertation is devoted to the portraits of women in English literature,

specifically within the periods of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The
survey starts with Daniel Defoes novel The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the
Famous Moll Flanders and is finished with Thomas Hardys book Tess of the
D'Urbervilles: a Pure Woman Faithfully Presented.
The first part of the work consists of ten short summaries of novels. The
second section analyzes female protagonists from various points of views.
These analyses are also founded on references to secondary sources,
including internet and films, which are directly related to a literary work, the
contemporary reality or writers personal experience.
The conclusions sum up the results of analyses and confirm the
hypotheses, formulated in the introduction.

129