Deep Foundation (2) Kaea4234 Student All

12/4/2013
Background
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING (KAEA 4234)

GEOTECHNICS (KAES 3235)
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
- Deep Foundation -
Type of Piles
- Installation Effect
In situations where the soil at shallow depths is poor, in

order to transmit the load safely, the depth of the
foundation has to be increased till a suitable soil stratum
is met.
- Material
- Installation Mode
2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY
3.0. GROUP PILE ACTION
The manner in which soil resists stresses from shallow

and deep foundation is quite different.
Dr. Meldi Suhatril

Department of Civil Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya.
The mechanisms that resist load applied to foundations

have been depicted in subsequent slides.
Background
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
In view of increased depth, such foundations are called

deep foundations.
Background
Pv
Pv
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Pu
Pu
References
Background
Background
Type of Piles
Type of Piles
- Material
-Material
- Installation Mode
Skin friction

3.0. GROUP PILE ACTION
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
End bearing
Vertical compressive loads:
Shallow foundation: by bearing capacity.
Deep foundation : by a combination of skin - friction and
end bearing.
Vertical uplift loads:

Shallow foundation:
by dead weight of foundation and soil above it.
Deep foundation:
by a combination of dead weight and skin friction.
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Background
Background
H
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
References
Background
Background
Type of Piles
Type of Piles
-Material
-Material
-Installation Mode
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Horizontal loads:
Shallow foundation:
by friction or adhesion developed along the foundation soil interface.
Deep foundation:
by lateral earth pressures.
Moments:
Shallow foundation:
By redistribution of bearing pressure.
Deep foundation:
by converting them to axial compression and uplift.
Background
Background
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Pile foundations are an example of deep foundations
Background
Type of Piles

3.0. GROUP ACTION
References
Background
A pile is a relatively small diameter shaft, which is

driven or installed into the ground by suitable means.
-Material
-Installation Mode
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Type of Piles
Piles are useful in transferring loads through poor soil

or water to a suitable bearing stratum by means of end
bearing. These are called end bearing piles or point
bearing piles.
-Material
Piles are usually driven in groups to provide foundation

for structures.
Pile group may be subjected to vertical loads, horizontal
loads or a combination of these two.
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
When the piles are installed in soft soils such that the
load is transferred through friction along the length of
piles, they are called friction piles.
Piles are also used to resist horizontal loads as in the
case of foundations for retaining walls, bridge
abutments and wharves. These piles are called laterally
loaded piles.
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Background
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Type of Piles
In case of large lateral loads, piles are driven at an angle

and hence termed batter piles. These are found to serve
better than vertical piles.
-Material
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Background
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Type of Piles
Piles may be required to increase the stability of tall

structures, where the foundations are subjected to
large eccentric loads, inclined loads and moments.
Short piles are sometimes used for compacting loose

sand deposits which get densified by the vibrations set
upon driving. Such piles are known as compaction piles.
-Material
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
They are also used to avoid damage due to the

possible scouring of the soil immediately below the
foundation.
Piles are sometimes used to resist uplift loads and are

thus in tension. They are called tension piles.
Piles can also be used to provide anchorage against
horizontal pull as in the case of anchored bulkheads and
are termed as anchor piles.
Types of Pile
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Types of Piles: Piles have been classified using different

criteria. Some of these are:
Type of Piles
-Material
-Installation Mode
Types of Pile
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
d) Mode of load transfer

- Bearing, friction, tension, etc
Type of Piles
a) Material of construction
- Timber pile , steel pile , concrete pile, and composite
piles.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
-Material
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
b) Cross-section
- Circular, square, hexagonal, I-section, H-section,
pipe, etc
e) Method of forming
- precast, prestressed, cast-in-situ, etc.
f) Method of installation
- driven, bored, vibrated, jetted, etc.
c) Shape
- Cylindrical, tapered, underreamed, etc
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Installation Effect
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Type of Piles
It has been realised that perhaps the best way of

classifying the piles is on the basis of the effect of
installation of the pile on the soil. Based on this two
classes are there:
-Material
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Displacement piles
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Type of Piles
-Material
Displacement piles:
if during the installation of pile, a large volume of soil is
displaced laterally and upwards.
In a loose sand, such a pile densifies the sand up to a

distance of about 3.5 times the diameter of the pile
measured from centre of pile.
-Installation Mode
Compression leads to an increase in its angle of

shearing resistance within zone of influence.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
In clays, large displacement piles remold the soil to a

distance of about twice the diameter of pile.
Non-displacement piles:
their installation does not lead to any displacement of
soil at all.
Displacement piles
Displacement piles
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Type of Piles
-Material
-Installation Mode
There are some piles like the rolled-steel section piles,

screw piles, open-ended hollow section piles etc. which
are classified as small displacement piles as on account
of their small cross-section, they produce small
displacement of soil.
References
Background
Type of Piles
-Material
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3.0. GROUP ACTION
These are preferred when ground displacements and

disturbance are to be minimized.
During driving, very high pore water pressures are set

up around the pile and soil regains its initial strength
only after a period of time, when the excess pore water
pressures are dissipated.
These are preferred for use in loose to medium sands
and not in dense sand or clay.
Driven and cast-in-situ, driven precast or prestressed
concrete piles, timber piles, etc. are examples of large
displacement piles.
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Non-displacement piles
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
A void is formed in the soil by boring or excavation and

is then filed with concrete.
Type of Piles
-Material
-Installation Mode
References
Type of Piles
The sides of the void can be unsupported or supported

either permanently by casing or temporarily by casing
or drilling mud.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Length of these piles can easily be varied at site.
Background
-Material
It is possible to install very long piles with very large

diameters. Construction of enlarged ends up to about
three times pile diameter, is possible in clays.
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Example: bored cast-in-situ and bored precast piles.
This results in a substantial increase in point bearing

capacity owing to larger bearing area.
The construction process enables inspection of the
excavated soil and its comparison with soil exploration
data.
There is no ground heave in case of such piles. These

can be installed without noise and vibration.
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Type of Piles
During the installation of piles, the soil on the sides of

the borehole softens due to contact with wet concrete
or due to water used in the borehole to facilitate
boring. This results into
-Material
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
References
Type of Piles
-Material
- Loosening of soil, if it is clay type

- Loss in shear strength and reduced pile bearing
capacity, if it happens to be sand or gravel.
Bulb ends can not be made in granular soils.
Background
-Installation Mode
It is essential that concrete is placed as soon as

possible after the boring is done to minimize the
softening of soil.

3.0. GROUP ACTION
- There is difficulty of concreting under water and

likelihood of waisting or necking of concrete in
squeezing ground.
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Material of construction
Timber piles
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
General characteristics of piles classified on the basis of

material of construction:
References
Background
Type of Piles
References
Background
Type of Piles
Timber Piles
Steel Piles
Concrete Piles
-Construction Material
-Installation Mode
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Steel piles
Steel piles
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Type of Piles
These are small displacement piles.

Heave and ground displacement are minimal.
1.0. INTRODUCTION
The allowable load on these piles varies from 100 to 250

kN per pile.
Steel piles can be used to carry heavy loads.
References
Background
Type of Piles
Splicing of these is also easy.
It may be a rolled section, a pipe or any fabricated shape.
-Installation Mode
-Installation Mode

3.0. GROUP ACTION
An untreated pile above water table is likely to be eaten

away by insects, borers, termites, etc. and hence
chemical treatment is desirable.
These require heavy equipment for driving.

The pipe piles are made of seamless or welded pipes and
are usually filled with concrete.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
These are likely to be affected by corrosive action and

hence needed painting or encasement in concrete to
resist corrosion.
Commonly adopted length: up to 40 m.
Allowable load up to 1800 kN.
These pipes may be driven close-ended with a driving

point or open ended.
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Mode of Installation
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Type of Piles
Concrete piles: These are considered more or less

permanent. Based on mode of forming and mode of
installation usually divided into two categories:
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Usually these are prismatic or circular in section.
Background
Type of Piles
May be uniform diameter or tapered.
Driven precast concrete piles
-Installation Mode
-Installation Mode

3.0. GROUP ACTION
Cast-in-situ concrete piles
Usually casted at a central casting yard, cured and

transported to construction site.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
As a precast concrete pile is usually in a state of

compression, no reinforcement is required from load
bearing considerations.
However, piles are reinforced to take care of handling
stresses.
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Solid sections of 0.2 m to 0.3 m side are usually used.
Background
Type of Piles
Background
Precast, hollow cylindrical sections are also used where

large stiffness and higher bearing capacity is required.
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
References
Type of Piles
Shorter piles can carry loads up to 600 kN, whereas, the

capacity of longer piles can, in some cases, be as large
as 2000 kN.
If the pile at the site proves to be too long, chopping off

the extra length is difficult and is likely to damage the
pile.
Handling and driving requires heavy equipment.
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Heave and disturbance of surrounding soil may

cause difficulties.
also
Splicing is difficult.
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1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
This pile is formed by making a hole in the ground and

filing it with concrete.
Type of Piles
3.0. GROUP ACTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
This casing may be gradually withdrawn, in that case it

is termed as uncased pile.
Type of Piles
The hole may be formed by drilling as in caissons: bored

cast-in-situ.
-Installation Mode
Uncased piles can be uniform diameter or may be

provided with a enlarge end or a pedestal.
-Installation Mode
Usually it is formed by driving a metallic shell or a casing

into the ground: driven cast-in-situ.

3.0. GROUP ACTION
If during the process of concreting the hole, the casing is

left in position, then it is termed as cased pile.
Advantages of driven cast-in-situ piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
They can be driven to a predetermined set.
Background
Type of Piles
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Pile lengths are easily adjustable.
Disadvantages of driven cast-in-situ piles
Type of Piles
An enlarged base can be formed which will help in

generating much higher end bearing capacity in a granular
bearing stratum.
Reinforcement is not needed to take care of handling or
driving stresses.
Heave of adjoining ground surface which could affect

the services or structures nearby.
-Installation Mode
Lifting of previously driven piles where the

penetration of the pile toes into the bearing stratum
has not been sufficient.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Possible damage to uncased piles by necking or

waisting due to lateral forces when the concrete is
green.
Piles can be driven with a closed end so as to exclude the

effects of ground water.
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1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Type of Piles
Concrete can not be inspected after completion.

Concrete may be weakened if artesian flow pipes up
the shaft of piles when the tube is withdrawn.
-Installation Mode

1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Maximum pile length + 25 30m

Allowable loads = + 1500kN.
Type of Piles
Can not be driven where headroom is limited.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Limitation in length because of the lifting force

required to withdraw casing.
Advantages of bored cast-in-situ piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Type of Piles
Very little displacement and no risk of ground heave.

Length can be readily varied.
-Installation Mode
Advantages of bored cast-in-situ piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Type of Piles
Soil can be inspected and checked with soil

investigation data.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
End enlargements of up to 2 or 3 shaft diameters are

possible in clays or soft rocks.
-Installation Mode
Can be installed without much noise and vibration and

with limited head room.

3.0. GROUP ACTION
Piles can be installed very great length and very large

diameters.
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Disadvantages of bored cast-in-situ piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Type of Piles
Boring methods may loosen sandy or gravelly soils.

Concreting under water will pose problems
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Type of Piles
Concrete can not be subsequently inspected.
-Installation Mode
Susceptible to waisting or necking in squeezing ground.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Underreamed piles
References
Background
Under pressure, the blades open up and due to rotation

action, the soil is cut and falls in the bucket.
Type of Piles
An underreamer is then lowered in the cleaned hole.
Stages in construction of a single

underreamed pile
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Type of Piles
When the bucket is full, underreamer is pulled out and

cleaned.
-Installation Mode
-Installation Mode

3.0. GROUP ACTION
It is constructed by making a hole in the ground by

means of hand-operated auger.
Underreamed is pressed down and rotated.
Enlarged bases can not be formed in granular soils.
1.0. INTRODUCTION
An underreamed pile is a special type of bored pile

which is provided with a bulb/pedestal at the end.
-Installation Mode

3.0. GROUP ACTION
Underreamed piles
Underreamer is lowered again and the process is

repeated.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
After the enlarged end is formed, the reinforcement

cage is lowered and concreting is done.
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Underreamed piles
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Usual size of piles : 150 to 200 mm shaft diameter.
Background
Type of Piles
-Installation Mode
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Usual length of piles : 3 to 4 m
Underreamed piles
Type of Piles
These are considered useful in expansive soils where

the use of shallow spread footings is ruled out due to
excessive shrinkage and swelling behavior of such soils.
Diameter of underreamed portion : 2 to 3 times the

shaft diameter.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
When the number of bulbs is increased from one to

two, the carrying capacity of the pile increases by
about 50%
These are considered useful in expansive soils where

the use of shallow spread footings is ruled out due to
excessive shrinkage and swelling behavior of such soils.
Pile driving rig
Bore hole preparation
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
References
Background
Background
Type of Piles
Type of Piles
-Installation Mode
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3.0. GROUP ACTION
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Lowering of reinforcement cage in bore

hole
Reinforcement kept in position
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
References
Background
Background
Type of Piles
Type of Piles
-Installation Mode
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Welding in reinforcement cage
Reinforcement cages
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
References
Background
Background
Type of Piles
Type of Piles
-Installation Mode
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3.0. GROUP ACTION
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Completed pile
Group of piles
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
References
Background
Background
Type of Piles
Type of Piles
-Installation Mode
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Chipping off piles from top using drilling
Group of piles (how it looks above the

group)
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
References
Background
Background
Type of Piles
Type of Piles
-Installation Mode
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3.0. GROUP ACTION
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Group of piles (how it looks above the

ground)
Pile load capacity in compression
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
References
Background
Static Pile load
Type of Piles
Load Test
Cyclic Pile Load test
General requirements for satisfactory behavior of pile

foundations are adequate safety against shear failure and
permissible settlement.
Pile Driving Formulae
Correlation N-Spt
-Installation Mode
3.0. GROUP ACTION
The load capacity of the pile can be estimated by several

methods which may be grouped into several categories.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Methods for determination of pile load

capacity in compression
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
Load Test
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
1. Static Pile Load Formulae

1. Static pile load formulae

2. Pile Load test
3. Pile driving formulae
4. Correlation with penetration data
Static Pile load

- Sand
-Clay
- When a compressive load (Q) is applied at the top of

pile, the pile tend to move vertically downward
relative to the surrounding soil.
-Examples
Load Test
- This will cause shear stresses to develop between soil

and surface of shaft.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
- As a result, applied load is distributed as friction load

along a certain length of pile measured from the top.
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1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
As the load at top is increased, the friction load

distribution will extend more and more towards the tip of
pile, till at a certain load level, the entire length of pile is
involved in generating the frictional resistance.
Load Test

Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
This is ultimate skin friction resistance of the pile, Qf

Correlation N-Spt
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3.0. GROUP ACTION

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
The maximum load which the pile can support through

combined resistance of skin friction and point bearing is
known as ultimate load capacity, Qu of the pile
Qu = Qpu + Qf
Load Test
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
This load, known as point load, goes on increasing till the

soil at the base of pile fails by punching shear failure.
The load in bearing at this stage is the ultimate point
load, Qpu

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
- Sand
The relative proportion of loads carried by point load and

skin friction depend on the shear strength and elasticity of
soil.
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
If Qpu >> Qf,

the pile may be called a point bearing pile
It is only when the load at the top of pile exceed Qf that

the load in excess of Qf begins to be transferred to soil at
the base of the pile.

Correlation N-Spt
Vertical movement of pile required to mobilize full skin

friction resistance is much smaller than that required to
mobilize full point bearing resistance.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
If Qf >>Qpu,
the pile is called as a friction pile
15
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1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
In clay and for driven piles in sand, the vertical movement

required to fully mobilize the base resistance is about 10
to 20% of the base diameter.
-Examples
Load Test
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION

1.0. INTRODUCTION
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
This usually implies that when piles are designed to carry

a working load equal to 1/3 to of the ultimate load, the
chances are that the shaft resistance is fully mobilized at
this working load.
It has been observed that
Static Pile load
a) When the ultimate skin friction resistance is mobilized,

only a fraction of the ultimate point load is mobilized.
Load Test
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
b) When the ultimate point load is mobilized, the skin

friction resistance has decreased to a lower value than
its peak.
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
The general equation for unit point bearing resistance,

qpu for a c - soil may be written in the form

Static Pile load
- Sand
- Sand
-Clay
-Clay
-Examples
-Examples
Load Test
Load Test

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Where,
B = width of diameter of pile
= effective overburden pressure at the tip of pile

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Nc , Nq , NY
C
L
= bearing capacity factors

= unit cohesion
= length of embedment of pile
= effective unit weight of soil
In the deep foundation, the term 0.5BN is quite small

compared to Nq and hence is usually neglected
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1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
- Sand
The equation for qpu for a c- soil is thus reduces to

qpu = cNc + Nq
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Static Pile load

- Sand
-Clay
For a granular soil, c = c = 0; thus

qpu = Nq

Correlation N-Spt
-Examples
Load Test
For a clay soil, c = cu and u = 0; thus

qpu = cubNc

Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION

3.0. GROUP ACTION

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Thus, the ultimate load capacity, Qu can be expressed in

the form
Load Test

Static Pile load
- Sand
For piles in granular soil, the design is based on an

effective stress analysis.

Correlation N-Spt
Qu = qpu Ab + fs As
One of the first step in designing a single pile is to relate

qpu and fs to basic soil strength parameters.
-Clay
-Examples
Correlation N-Spt
The general equation for the ultimate skin friction

resistance, Qf may be written in the form
Qf = fs As
Where,
fs = unit skin resistance and
As = surface area of the pile in contact with the soil.
-Examples
Load Test
where Ab = sectional area of pile at its base.
where cub = undrained shear strength of clay at the base

of pile tip
1.0. INTRODUCTION
The ultimate point load, Qpu can be expressed in the

form
Qpu = qpu Ab
3.0. GROUP ACTION
In clays, it is common to use a total stress analysis in

which the load capacity is related to the undrained shear
strength, cu
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Piles in granular soils (sand & gravel)
Bearing capacity factor for

circular deep foundations
(after Kezdi, 1975)
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Driven piles:
using the effective stress analysis, one can assume
c = 0 for a granular soil. The ultimate load capacity of a
single pile, driven into a granular soil, is obtained by
Load Test
Static Pile load

- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
Qu = qpu Ab + fs As

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION

Correlation N-Spt
Point bearing: In a granular soil, qpu = Nq
Relationship
between Nq and '
3.0. GROUP ACTION
(Poulos & Davis, 1980)

1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
Static Pile load
- Sand
- Sand
-Clay
-Clay
-Examples
For driven piles in sand, a value of

= (1 + 40)/2 may be taken, where 1 is the in-situ
value of angle of shearing resistance.
-Examples
Load Test
Load Test
Correlation N-Spt
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Thus, with known pile dimensions and soil

properties, the ultimate load capacity, Qpu can be
determined.
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1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
It appears that the unit point resistance increase in direct

proportion to the embedded length of the pile. However,
several field observations indicate that these values
increase only up to a limited depth, beyond which these
values remain constant. This depth is called critical depth.

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION

Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
This phenomenon is primarily attributed to the arching

action in the granular soil.
The critical depth depends on the angle of shearing

resistance of the soil and the width ( or diameter) of the
pile.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Its value may vary from about 15D in loose to medium

sands to 20D in dense sands, where D is the diameter or
width of the pile.
The critical depth concept is not applicable to piles
embedded in clay strata where arching action is absent
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
The maximum recommended value of unit point

resistance qps be limited to 11,000 kN/m in normal
silica sand and 5,000 kN/m for calcareous sand.

Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
Load Test
Correlation N-Spt
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Code recommends that in working out pile capacities

using static formula for piles longer than 15 to 20 pile
diameters, maximum effective overburden pressure
should correspond to pile lengths equal to 15 to 20
diameters.
A factor of safety of 2.5 on the ultimate load capacity is
recommended for computing the safe load.
When piles are driven to refusal into a very dense
stratum or rock, the safe load on pile will be governed
by the strength of piles as a structural member than the
ultimate load capacity
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Skin friction
Skin friction
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
The ultimate skin friction resistance, Qf is obtained from

Qf = fs As after determining the unit skin friction, fs.
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION

Static Pile load
- Sand
The unit skin friction acting at any depth is equal to the

soil pressure acting normal to the pile surface at that
depth multiplied by the coefficient of friction between
the soil and pile material (tan).
-Clay
The soil pressure acting normal to pile surface, h is

horizontal and is related to effective vertical overburden
pressure, by the equation h = K
-Examples
Load Test
where , K is lateral earth pressure coefficient.

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Thus, fs = h tan = K tan

= angle of friction between pile and the soil.
Ultimate skin friction resistance, Qf is given by
Qf = fs(avg) As
Skin friction
1.0. INTRODUCTION
or,
Values of K and for piles driven into

sand (Broms, 1966)
Qf = K av tan As
Static Pile load

- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
3.0. GROUP ACTION

Static Pile load
where,
av = average effective overburden pressure over the
embedded length of pile

Correlation N-Spt
1.0. INTRODUCTION
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
Pile
material
Steel
Concrete
Timber
20
0.75
0.67
Code recommends a value of equal to .
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Values of K
Loose
Dense
Sand
sand
0.5
1.0
1.0
2.0
1.5
4.0
20
12/4/2013
Skin friction
Bored cast-in-situ piles
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Although, it is clear from the expression for unit skin

friction resistance, fs that it increases continuously with
depth, in reality it does so only up to the critical depth
which varies from 15 to 20 times the pile diameter.
Load Test
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION

Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
Below the critical depth, the value of average effective

overburden pressure and hence the value of fs remains
constant.
The load carrying capacity of a bored cast-in-situ pile will

be much smaller than that of a driven pile in sand.

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
The procedure used for a driven pile can be used for

bored piles also but the in-situ angle of shearing
resistance of the soil is reduced by 3, to account for the
loosening of sand due to drilling of hole
The maximum value of fs should be limited to 100 kN/m

for straight sided piles in normal silica sands and 20 kN/m
in calcareous sands.

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
The lateral earth pressure coefficient K for a bored pile

can be calculated approximately from expression :
K = 1 sin.
1.0. INTRODUCTION
The value of K generally varies from 0.3 to 0.75, with a

median value of 0.5.
Load Test
-Examples
Load Test

Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
In general, bored piles have a unit point bearing

resistance which is one-half to one-third of the value in
driven piles.
-Examples
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION

Correlation N-Spt
can be taken as equal to for bored piles excavated in

dry soil and a reduced value of if a slurry has been
used during excavation.
Bored cast-in-situ piles with an enlarged bulb at the base

show a unit point resistance about 1.5 to 2 times that of
a pile without the bulb.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
21
12/4/2013
Driven cast-in-situ piles

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
For a driven cast-in-situ pile, the load carrying capacity is

calculated in the same manners as for a driven pile, if the
steel tube that is driven is left in place.
1.0. INTRODUCTION
If the steel tube is retracted while the concrete is being

poured, the calculation of skin friction resistance
depends on the amount of compaction imparted to the
concrete
Load Test
-Examples
Load Test
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION

Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
If the concrete is not compacted, loose soil condition

may be assumed and if the concrete is compacted well,
medium dense, soil condition may be assumed in
computation.
Where the bulb is formed at the end by compacting the
concrete, the increased area due to the formation of
bulb shall be taken into account in working out the point
bearing resistance.
Allowable load on piles
Piles in clay
1.0. INTRODUCTION
The allowable load on piles, Qa is obtained from the

ultimate load, Qu from the relation, Qa = Qu / F, where F
is the factor of safety.
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Usually a factor of safety of is adopted.
Load Test

Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test

Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Correlation N-Spt
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Piles in cohesive soils, barring underreamed piles of

large diameter, generally carry most of the load by virtue
of the skin friction resistance developed on the pile
shaft.
The bearing capacity is usually calculated using the local
stress approach, using undrained shear strength cu (u =
0).
22
12/4/2013
Piles in clay
Piles in clay
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
The ultimate load capacity of the pile is estimated from

equation:

Static Pile load
- Sand
- Sand
-Clay
-Clay
Qu= qpu Ab + fs As
-Examples
Load Test
-Examples
Load Test
In clays, qpu = cub Nc and fs = ca = cu; thus

Correlation N-Spt
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Qu= cub Nc Ab + cu As
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
The value of depends on the undrained shear strength

of the soil.
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
Piles in clay
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
- Sand
Smaller the undrained strength, softer the consistency of

soil and greater the tendency for the soil to adhere to
the pile. For this case, tends to get close to 1.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
cu = undrained cohesion in the embedded length of pile.

In clay soils, the contribution of point bearing is small
compared to that of shaft skin friction resistance.
Hence, an accurate determination of adhesion factor
becomes very important.
where,
cub = undrained cohesion at the base of pile
Nc = bearing capacity factor for a deep foundation
(usually is equal to 9).
Piles in clay
= adhesion factor, for a single pile, the contact is

between pile and soil; hence the adhesion factor is
used.
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
Correlation N-Spt
For very stiff clays, can be as low as 0.3.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Even though the adhesion factor is smaller in stiff or

overconsolidated clay, the overall skin friction resistance
is higher in stiff clay because of its much larger shear
strength.
23
12/4/2013
Piles in clay
Piles in clay
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
When a pile is driven into a soft clay stratum, the soil

gets remolded and loses some of its shear strength.
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Static Pile load

- Sand
However, with passage of time, most of the strength so

lost is regained due to reconsolidation of clay.

Correlation N-Spt
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
From experience, it is recommended that at least 30 days

should elapse after the driving of pile before it is loaded
so that pile shaft develops its full frictional resistance.
In actual projects, the temporary loss in shear strength

does not affect the pile capacity because it usually takes
several months after driving for the piles to be loaded.
Pile load tests in soft clays should be conducted at least 30
days after the piles are driven.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Piles in clay
Values of reduction factor,
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
To determine skin friction capacity of bored and cast-insitu piles, Tomlinson recommended an average value of
= 0.45 in firm to stiff clays with an upper limiting value of
1 kg/cm for unit skin friction resistance.
Load Test
Consistency
value
N value
Static Pile load

- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Bored
piles
Driven
cast-insitu piles
Load Test
In fissured clays, = 0.3 may be taken.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION

Correlation N-Spt
The recommended values of for different consistencies

of clay have been summarized in table in subsequent
slide.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Soft to very
soft
<4
0.7
1.0
Medium
48
0.5
0.7
Stiff
8 15
0.4
0.4
Stiff to hard
> 15
0.3
0.3
24
12/4/2013
Example 1
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
Code recommends that for working out the safe load, a

minimum factor of safety 2.5 should be used.
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
3.0. GROUP ACTION

Static Pile load
- Sand
Static load formula may be used only as a guide for load

capacity estimates.

Correlation N-Spt
1.0. INTRODUCTION
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
A 12 m long, 300 mm diameter pile is driven in a uniform

deposit of sand ( = 40). The water table is at a great
depth and is not likely to rise. The average dry unit weight
of sand is 18 kN/m. using Nq = 137, calculate the safe load
capacity of pile with a factor of safety of 2.5.
More reliance is to be placed on load test on piles.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Example 1
Example 1
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
For concrete piles, adopt = = 30 and K = 2.0 for

dense sand.
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Static Pile load
The ultimate pile load capacity is given by

Qu = qpu Ab + fs As
- Sand
For L /D = 15, the critical depth of the pile

= 15 x 0.3 = 4.5 m

Correlation N-Spt
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
qpu = Nq
fs(av) = (av) K tan
Limiting vertical effective stress at 4.5 m

= 18 x 4.5 = 81 kN/m
From 4.5 m to 12.0 m, unit point bearing resistance and
skin friction remain constant at = 81 kN/m
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Skin friction resistance over length 4.5 m:

av = 81/2 = 40.5 kN/m
fs(av) = av x 2 x tan 30 = 46.8 kN/m
Skin friction resistance = 46.8 x x 0.3 x 4.5
= 198 kN
25
12/4/2013
Example 1
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
Skin friction resistance over the remaining length

av = 81 kN/m
fs(av) = 81 x 2 x tan 30 = 93.5 kN/m
-Examples
Load Test
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
Skin friction resistance = 93.5 x x 0.3 x 7.5

= 661 kN
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Example 2
Load Test
A 450 mm wide, square in section concrete pile, 15 m long,

is driven in a deep deposit of uniform clay. Laboratory
unconfined compression tests on undisturbed samples
indicate an average qu value of 75 kN/m. calculate the
ultimate load capacity of the pile.

Correlation N-Spt
Qf = 198 + 661 = 859 kN

qpu = Nq = 81 x 137 = 11097 kN/m
Qpu = 11097 x x (0.3) /4 = 784 kN
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Qu = Qpu + Qf = 784 + 859 = 1643 kN

Qa = Qu / 2.5 = 1643 / 2.5 = 651 kN
Example 2
Example 2
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
For an unconfined compressive strength = 75 kN/m2,

the undrained cohesion value (Cu) = 75/2 = 37.5 kN/m2
- Sand
-Clay
-Examples
- Sand
For Cu = 37.5 kN/m2, = 0.8
Substituting the data in equation
Static Pile load
-Clay
-Examples
Load Test
Load Test
Correlation N-Spt
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Qu= cub Nc Ab + cu As
Qu = (37.5 x 9 x 0.45 x 0.45) + (0.8 x 37.5 x 4 x 0.45 x 15)
= 68 + 810
= 878 kN
26
12/4/2013
2.Load test on piles
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
Pile load test is the only direct method for determining

the allowable load on piles.
Pile Load Test

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION

Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
It is considered to be the most reliable of all the

approaches, primarily due to the fact that it is an in-situ
test.

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
These are very useful for cohesionless soils.
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
Where specific information about the subsoil strata and

past experience is lacking, for a sizeable work involving
more than 200 piles, there should be a minimum of two
initial tests.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Routine test is carried out as a check on working piles

and to assess the displacement corresponding to the
working load.

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
Correlation N-Spt
For routine test, the minimum number of tests should

be half percent of the piles used. These can vary up to
2% depending upon the nature of soil strata and
importance of the structure.
A test pile is a pile which is used only in a load test and
does not carry the load of superstructure.
Two categories of tests on piles, namely initial test and

routine test are usually carried out.
Initial test should be carried out on test piles to estimate
the allowable load, or to predict the settlement at a
working load.
In case of cohesive soils, the data from pile load test

should be used with caution on account of disturbance
due to pile driving, development of pore pressure and
inadequate time allowed for consolidation settlement.
Generally, vertical load test (compression) is carried out

to establish load-settlement relationship under
compression and determine allowable load on pile.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
The min. test load on such piles should be twice the

safe load (calculated from static formula) or the load at
which the total settlement attains a value of 10% of
pile diameter in case of a single pile and 40 mm in case
of a pile group.
A working pile is a pile which is driven or cast-in-situ
along with other piles to carry load from the
superstructure.
The test load on such piles should be up to 1.5 times
the safe load or up to the load at which total settlement
attains a value of 12 mm for a single pile and 40 mm for
a group of piles, whichever is earlier.
27
12/4/2013

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
Test shall be carried out by applying a series of vertical

downward loads on a RCC cap over the pile.
Pile Load Test

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
The load shall preferably be applied by means of a

remote controlled hydraulic jack taking action against a
loaded platform.

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
Pile Load Test
Correlation N-Spt
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3.0. GROUP ACTION
28
12/4/2013

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
The test load shall be applied in increments of about

20% of the assumed safe load.
Pile Load Test

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
The allowable load on a single pile shall be lesser of the

following:
Pile Load Test
Settlement shall be recorded with at least three dial

gauges of sensitivity 0.02 mm.

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Each stage of loading shall be maintained till the rate of

movement of pile top is not more than 0.1 mm per
hour.
- Two-thirds the final load at which the total

settlement attains a value of 12 mm, unless it is
specified that a total settlement different from 12
mm is permissible in a given case on the basis of
the nature and type of structure. In the latter case,
the allowable load shall correspond to the actual
permissible total settlement.
- Fifty percent of the final load at which the total
settlement equals to 10% of the pile diameter in
case of uniform diameter piles and 7.5% of bulb
diameter in case of underreamed piles.

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
The allowable load on a group of piles shall be lesser of

the following:
Pile Load Test

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3.Cyclic pile load test

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
- Final load at which the total settlement attains a

value of 25 mm, unless a total settlement different
form 25 mm is specified in a given case on the basis
of the nature and type of structure.

The vertical cyclic pile load test is specially carried out

when it is required to separate the pile load into skin
friction and point bearing on single pile of uniform
diameter.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
It is generally limited to initial tests only.

The test set-up is similar to the one for initial test.
- Two-thirds the final load at which total settlement

attains a value of 40 mm.
The procedure for routine test should be same as for an
initial test with maximum loading and settlement
requirements as mentioned earlier.
The load increment shall be applied in increments of

about 20% of the estimated safe load.
Loading and unloading should be carried out
alternately at each stage and the elastic rebound in the
pile should be measured by at least three dial gauges
of 0.02 mm sensitivity.
29
12/4/2013

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
The loading shall be continued up to two and a half

times the safe load or until the total settlement of pile
top equals 10% of stem diameter, whichever is earlier.

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
When a pile is loaded by an axial load Q at ground

level, initially the applied load will be distributed as
friction load within certain length L1 of the pile
measured from its top.
The frictional load attains a maximum value at a certain

load level and will not further increase upon increase in
Q. Point load still keeps on increasing till the soil at the
base fails in local shear.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
It is only after the full length of pile develops frictional

resistance at a certain stage of loading, that a part of
load is transferred to the soil at base as point load.
Van Veele (1957) postulated that the point load Qp

increases linearly with the elastic compression of the
soil at the base. It is this principle that is used in
separating the frictional load from the point load.
The total settlement (S) of a pile obtained from a pile

load test comprises of two components, namely,
elastic settlement, (Se ) and plastic settlement, (Sp).
With the increase in load at the top after this stage,

both the frictional as well as point loads increase.

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
The elastic settlement, (Se) is due to elastic recovery of

pile material and elastic recovery of soil at base of pile
is Sc.

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
S = Se + Sp

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
The load transferred to base will compress the soil at

base of pile. Hence for Q > Qs
Pile Load Test

Q = Qf + Qp
In cyclic loading procedure of pile load test, it is easy

to obtain elastic and plastic settlement at every stage
of loading.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
The total settlement of pile, S at any load level Q can be

written as
S = l + Sb
Where,
l = compression of pile &
Sb = compression of soil at base
Typical load settlement plot
from cyclic pile load test
30
12/4/2013

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Sb can be written as:
Static Pile load

Sb = Sc + Sb
Pile Load Test
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
Where,
Sc = elastic compression of soil at base
Sb = plastic compression of soil at base

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION

Correlation N-Spt
Sb is one component of the total plastic settlement Sp,

the other component being the plastic settlement of
pile material.
S = l + Sc + Sb
Therefore,
or,
Se + Sp = l + Sc + Sb
Sc = (Sp Sb) + Se - l
Then, Sc = Se l
Static Pile load

Pile Load Test
If it is assumed that plastic settlement of pile material is

negligible or Sp = Sb.
S = Se + Sp

1.0. INTRODUCTION
From cyclic load test data, Sp and Se are obtained.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Thus, total settlement of the pile,
Further,
The elastic compression at soil at base Sc can be

computed if Sp, Sb, Se and l are known.

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
Since Se is known, Sc can be determined if l is

computed.
Correlation N-Spt
Pile Load Test

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
l cannot be determined from the above mentioned

expression till the frictional load Qf is known.
An indirect approach is obtained to determined Qp and
Qf. The involved steps are as follows:
3.0. GROUP ACTION
l is given by the expression:

l = (Q Qf/2)L / AE
Where ,
Q = load on the pile
Qf = Frictional load
L = length of the pile
A = Average cross section area of pile
E = modulus of elasticity of pile material
1. Assuming that there is no compression in the pile

(i.e., l = 0) plot a graph between total elastic
recovery at pile head, Sc and the load on pile top
Q as shown by curve I in subsequent figure.
Sc = Se
2. Draw a straight line parallel to straight portion of
Curve I to divide the load into two parts and
obtain the approximate values of point resistance,
Qp and skin friction resistance, Qp.
31
12/4/2013

1.0. INTRODUCTION
3. Using the approximate value of skin friction Qf for

different load levels, compute corresponding
elastic compression l of the pile.

Static Pile load
Pile Load Test

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
4. Obtain the corresponding values of elastic

compression of soil at base of pile.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
The process may be repeated till reasonably accurate

values of Qp and Qf are obtained.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
It has been seen that third trail give sufficiently accurate

values for all practical purposes.
To obtain the safe pile capacity, a factor of safety of 2 on
the ultimate skin friction resistance and 2.5 on the ultimate
point bearing resistance can be applied.
5. Plot a new curve II using these new values of Se

against corresponding loads Q.
6. Draw a new straight line parallel to straight portion
of curve II.
7. Repeat the step 3 and 4 to obtain new values of Se
and then step 5 to obtain a new curve III.
Example 3
Example 3
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
The following data refers to a cyclic pile loadtest carried

out on a 300 mm diameter, 10m long pile. Plot the load
settlement curve and estimate the allowable load of the
pile .

Static Pile load
From the data given, total settlement, net settlement and

elastic settlement for various loads have been computed
Pile Load Test

Correlation N-Spt
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
3.0. GROUP ACTION
32
12/4/2013
Example 3
1.0. INTRODUCTION
4. Pile Driving/ Dynamic Pile Formulae

2/3rd the loadcausing 12 mm settlement,
Static Pile load
Qa = 2 x 500/3 = 333.33 kN

3.0. GROUP ACTION

Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
Correlation N-Spt
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Pile Load Test

50% of load causing total settlement equal to 10% of

pile diameter, ex. A settlement of 30 mm.
These formulae are based on the laws governing the

impact of elastic bodies.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
The input energy of a hammer blow is equated to the

work done in overcoming the resistance of the ground
to the penetration of the pile.
Allowance is made for losses of energy due to elastic
contraction of pile, pile cap and subsoil and losses due
to inertia of pile.
Qa = 0.5 x 600 = 300 kN
This is simplest and the most popular of the dynamic

pile formulae.
The dynamic resistance of soil, Qu is assumed to be
ultimate pile load capacity.
4.1. Engineering news Formula
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Equating the energy input and work done.
Static Pile load

Pile Load Test
In metric units, the equation may be written as:
Static Pile load
QuS = WH, from which the allowable pile load, Qs is

expressed as:
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Pile Load Test

Correlation N-Spt
Qs = WH/ F(S+C)
Where,
W = weight of hammer falling through a height H.
S = real set per blow
C =empirical factor, allowing reduction in the
theoretical set, due to energy loss
F = factor of safety, usually taken as 6.
3.0. GROUP ACTION
i) Drop hammers: Qa = WH/6(S+2.5)

ii) Single acting steam hammers:
Qa = WH/ 6 (S+0.25)
Where,
Qa and W are expressed in kg;
H ( fall of hammer or length of piston stroke) in cm.
S is the final set in cm/blow,
(usually taken as average penetration for the last 5
blows of a drop hammer, or 20 blows of a steam
hammer).
The theoretical set, S = S + C
33
12/4/2013

1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
The allowable pile load is also expressed in another

form:
Pile Load Test
4.2. Modified Hiley Formula

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
Qa = 166.64 E/ (S+2.54)

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Where,
Qs = allowable pile load in kN
E = energy per blow in kilo joules (kJ)
S = average penetration in mm per blow for the
final 150 mm of driving
(minimum permissible value of S = 1.25 mm)
It is considered to be superior to the engineering news

Formula, as it takes into account various energy looses
during driving in a more realistic manner.
Equating the available energy with useful work done
and losses.
R = Wh / (S + C/2)
= Wh / (S+ (C1+C2+C3)/2)
Where,
R = ultimate driving resistance in tonnes. The safe load
is estimated by dividing the ultimate driving
resistance by a factor of safety of 2.5.
Due to advantage that pile capacity can be

conveniently worked out during driving and also due
to its simplicity. Engineering News Formula is
extensively used internationally.
W = weight of hammer in tonnes.
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
= efficiency of the blow that represents the ratio of

energy after impact to the striking energy of the
ram.

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION

Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
h = effective fall of hammer. It is equal to the height of

free fall of hammer in cm taken at its full value for
trigger operated drop hammers, 80% of the fall of
normally proportioned whinch-operated drop
hammers, and 90% of the stroke for single acting
hammers. In case of McKiernan-terry type of double
acting hammers, 90% of the markers rated energy
in tonnes centimeter per blow be used for W h. the
set should be taken corresponding to maximum
speed of hammer.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
S = the final set or penetration per blow in cm.

C = total elastic compression = C1 +C2+C3
C1 = temporary elastic compression of dolly and packing.
C2 = temporary elastic compression of pile.
C3 = temporary elastic compression of soil
The values of C1, C2 and C3 can be obtained by using the
equations below:
C1 = 1.77 R/A, where the driving is without dolly or helmet
and cushion about 2.5 cm thick
= 9.05 R/A, where the driving is with short dolly up to 60
cm long, helmet and cushion up to 7.5 cm thick.
34
12/4/2013
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
C2 = 0.657 RL/A
C3 = 3.55 R/A
Pile Load Test

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
When W < P e and pile is driven into penetrable ground.
Static Pile load

Pile Load Test
Where,
L = length of pile in meters

A = area of the pile in cm2

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
When W > P e and pile is driven into penetrable ground,

= (W+Pe2)/ (W+P)
Where , P = weight of pile, anvil, helmet and follower ( if

any) in tonnes.
e = coefficient of restitution of material under impact.

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
a) For steel ram of double- acting hammer striking on steel

anvil and driving reinforced concrete pile, e =0.5.
Pile Load Test

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
The value of in relation to e and to the ratio P/W has

been recommended.
Pile Load Test
b) For cast-iron ram of single acting or drop hammer

striking on head of reinforced concrete pile, e = 0.4.

Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
If the pile finds refusal in rock. 0.5 P should be

substituted for P in the above expression for .
c) For single or drop hammer striking a well- conditioned

driving cap and helmet with hard wood dolly while
driving reinforced concrete piles or directly on head of
timber pile, e = 0.25.
Static cone penetration test data and standard

penetration test data are often used to determine the
pile load capacity.
d) For a deteriorated condition of the head of pile or of

dolly, e = 0.
The static cone penetration test gives the variation of

cone resistance value at the tip of the cone, qc and the
skin friction resistance fc on the sleeve, with depth.
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4.3. Correlation with penetration test
A. Driven piles in sand
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
Standard penetration test yields the N values of the

subsoil strata at regular intervals of depth.
Pile Load Test


Static Pile load
The unit resistance of driven piles qpu can be taken

equal to the static cone resistance, qc
Pile Load Test
We shall be discussing three cases:
Correlation Penetration Test

3.0. GROUP ACTION

B. Bored and cast-in-situ piles in sand
C. Driven and cast-in-situ piles
3.0. GROUP ACTION
qc is to be taken as the average value of qc over a

distance of 3 pile diameter (3D) above and one pile
diameter (D) below the level of the pile tip.
For the pile to attain its full point bearing resistance, it
should be driven at least 5D inside the bearing stratum.
The unit point resistance of driven piles in sand
including H piles, can also be determined using N
values according to equation
qpu = 40N (L/D) kN/m2

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Where,
Static Pile load

Pile Load Test
3.0. GROUP ACTION

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
N = The standard penetration resistances observed in the

field for the bearing stratum without overburden
correction.
L = the length of the pile.
D = the width or diameter of the pile.
Pile Load Test

Skin friction resistance for the driven piles can also be

obtained with the help of penetration test data by
using Meyerhof (1956) correlations:

3.0. GROUP ACTION
For displacement piles, fs = qs(av) / 2 kN/m2

For H piles, fs = qs(av) / 4 kN/m2
Where, qc(av) = average cone penetration test in kg/cm2
over the length of the pile.
For driven piles, the value of qpu is usually limited to

400N kN/m2
36
12/4/2013
B. Bored and cast-in-situ piles in sand
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
In terms of N values,
For displacement piles, fs = 2 Nav kN/m2
For H piles, fs = Nav kN/m2

3.0. GROUP ACTION

Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
Point resistance and skin friction resistance of bored

piles in sand is considerably less than that of driven
piles.
Where,
Nav = average field value of N along the length
of the pile.

3.0. GROUP ACTION
A maximum value of fs = 100 kN/m2 for displacement

piles and 50 kN/m2 for H piles is taken.
For initial estimates, the unit point resistance qpu and

unit skin friction resistance fs of a bored cast-in-situ pile
in sand can be estimated by taking 1/3rd of qpu and half
of fs calculated from driven piles using SCPT and SPT
data.
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
If the steel tube driven into ground is left in place after

the concrete is placed, the value of qpu and fs can be
taken as those applicable for the driven piles.

3.0. GROUP ACTION

Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
To estimate point bearing resistance, the enlarged area

of the base is to be considered if a bulb is formed at
the base of pile by compacting the concrete.
If the steel tube is withdrawn while the concrete is being

poured, the skin friction resistance developed would
depend on the amount of compaction applied to the
concrete.

3.0. GROUP ACTION
If proper compacting is done then the soil around gets

densified and driven pile conditions would govern the
computation of fs.
If no compaction is done, the soil around would be in a
loose condition and the value of fs applicable for bored
cast-in-situ piles can be adopted
37
12/4/2013

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
Pile Load Test
qc = static cone resistance, fs = local side friction

Type of soil
Local side friction, fs
Clay and peats
qc / 30 < fs < qc/10
Clays
qc / 25 < fs
Silty clays and silty sands
qc / 100 < fs < qc/25
Sands
qc / 100 < fs < qc/50
Coarse sands and gravels
Fs< qc/150

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Static Pile load
Pile Load Test

3.0. GROUP ACTION

For non-homogeneous soils, the ultimate point
bearing capacity, qpu may be calculated using the
following relationship:

3.0. GROUP ACTION
5. GROUP ACTION IN PILES
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Where,
Static Pile load

Pile Load Test
3.0. GROUP ACTION
qco = average static cone resistance over a depth of 2D

below the base level of pile.
Correlation N-Spt
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Ultimate Load Capacity

Spacing of Piles
Failure
Settlement
qc1 = minimum static cone resistance over the same 2D

below the pile tip
qc2 = average of minimum cone resistance values in the
diagram over a height of 8D above the base level of
pile.
Piles are always used in a group. This is to ensure that

the structural load from a member like a column or a
wall lies within the zone of influence of the foundation.
Examples
If a single driven pile is used as a foundation, one

cannot be certain that the pile would be located
centrally below the foundation element, as quite often
pile moves laterally during driving.
The resultant eccentricity of loading may result in the
development of bending stresses in the pile and
consequently the pile may fail structurally.
D = diameter of pile base or equivalent diameter for a

non-circular cross-section
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1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

3.0. GROUP ACTION
Spacing of Piles
Failure
Therefore, a minimum number of three piles is used

under a column in a piles is used under a column in a
triangular pattern, even if the load does not warrant
the use of three piles.
Settlement
Examples
The pile tops are connected together to the pile cap

which helps the pile group act as an integral unit.

3.0. GROUP ACTION
Spacing of Piles
The pile cap may either stand clearly above the ground
level or may rest on the soil, partially or fully buried
below ground level.
Failure
Settlement
When the number of piles required is more than three,

the piles are so arranged that they are symmetrical
with respect to the load.
Examples
When pile cap stand clearly above the ground level, the
pile group is called free standing pile group.
Piles under a wall are arranged on the either side of the

centre line of the wall in a staggered formation.
It referred to as piled foundation where the piles rest

on the soil.
The load is transferred to the piles in a group through a

reinforced slab or beam called the pile cap

1.0. INTRODUCTION
3.0. GROUP ACTION
Spacing of Piles
Failure
Under certain situation, as for example, when a fast

current of water scours away the soil support below the
pile cap, a piled foundation may be transformed into a
free standing pile group.
Free standing pile group may have to be used when it is

required to keep the pile cap away from direct contact
with an expansive soil.
Ultimate load capacity of pile groups

INTRODUCTION
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION

Spacing of Piles
Settlement
Failure
Examples
Settlement
In a piled foundation, the pile cap may, under certain

soil conditions, help transmit a part of the load to soil
on which it rests.
The ultimate load capacity of a pile group is not

necessarily equal to the sum of individual load
capacities of the piles in the group.
Examples
The ratio of the ultimate load capacity of the pile group,

Qug to the sum of individual load capacities of piles in
the group, is called the group efficiency, .
= Qug / n Qu
Where, n is the number of piles in group and Qu is
the load capacity of one pile.
When driving the piles in sand, it is advisable to begin at

the centre of a group and then proceed outwards to
avoid problems of ground tightening.
Bored piles can be placed in vertical position fairly

accurately and hence even one pile may be sufficient
where the loads are light.
Disturbance of soil during installation of piles and

overlap of stresses between adjacent piles may cause
the group capacity to be less than the sum of individual
capacities, i.e., < 1.
39
12/4/2013
Point bearing piles
Friction Piles
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION
GROUP ACTION
Spacing of Piles
Spacing of Piles
Failure
Failure
Settlement
Settlement
Examples
Examples
INTRODUCTION
Generally, for smaller spacing between piles, < 1.
INTRODUCTION
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION
GROUP ACTION

Spacing of Piles
For larger spacing, the effect of pile interaction

diminishes and approaches to unity.
Failure
Settlement
Examples

Spacing of Piles
Failure
In driven piles where the soil around the pile gets

densified, as in loose to medium sand, may be even
more than 1.
The pile group tends to behave like a block or like an
equivalent pile circumscribing all the pile in the group.
When driven piles are spaced closely in dense soils or

in soft clays, the soil between the piles tends to move
upwards and the piles to be lifted up.
Settlement
Examples
On the other hand, large spacing necessitate a bigger

pile cap, which is uneconomical.
Bored cast-in-situ piles permit smaller spacing,
because their installation in the ground does not
result in a densification of soil around piles.
The group efficiency, depends mainly on the spacing

between piles, type of soil in which the piles are
installed and the manner of pile installation, i.e., driven
or bored cast-in-situ.
40
12/4/2013
Spacing of Piles in Group

INTRODUCTION
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION
Code recommends a minimum spacing of 2.5 times the

shaft diameter for point bearing piles, 3 times the shaft
diameter for friction piles.
Spacing of Piles
Failure
Settlement
Examples
PILE LOAD CAPACITY

GROUP ACTION
Block failure normally occurs when piles are spaced less

than 2 to 3 pile diameter.

Spacing of Piles
Pile Failure
Settlement
Examples
INTRODUCTION
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION
Experimental evidence has indicated that a group of piles

may fail in one of the following two ways:
A. By block failure
Spacing of Piles
In loose sands or fill deposits, a minimum spacing of 2

times the shaft diameter is suggested.
A. Block Failure
INTRODUCTION
Pile Groups in Clay
Pile Failure
Settlement
Examples
B. Block Failure
INTRODUCTION
The ultimate load capacity of pile group by block failure,

Qug is given by
Qug = cub Nc Ab + Pb L cu
where,
PILE LOAD CAPACITY

GROUP ACTION
In block failure, the soil bound by perimeter of the pile

group and the embedded length of the pile acts as one
unit or block.
B. By individual pile failure
Spacing of Piles
Pile Failure
Settlement
Examples
cub = undrained strength of clay at base of pile group.

cu = average undrained strength of clay along length of
block.
Nc = bearing capacity factor, taken as 9.
Ab = cross-sectional area of block.
Pb = perimeter of the block.
L
= embedded length of the pile.
41
12/4/2013
B. Individual pile failure

INTRODUCTION
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION
Individual pile failure occurs for wider spacing,

approaches unity when pile spacing is about 8 times the
diameter.
The ultimate load capacity of the group is taken as the

smaller of two values as obtained above.
Spacing of Piles
Pile Failure
Settlement
Examples
The ultimate load capacity of pile group by individual pile

failure, Qug is given by
Qug = n Qu
where, Qu is the ultimate load capacity of individual
pile.
Pile groups in sand

INTRODUCTION
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION

Spacing of Piles
Value of for free standing pile groups in sand when the

piles are driven into the soil, is invariably greater than 1
for closer spacing and tends to approach unity when pile
spacing is increased to 5 to 6 times the pile diameter.
Pile Failure
Settlement
Examples
Pile groups in sand

INTRODUCTION
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION

Spacing of Piles
Pile Failure
However, in dense sand, can become less than 1.

An efficiency factor of 1 is commonly assumed in design.
In piled foundation, the pile cap resting on the soil can
mobilize additional support from the soil. For this
support to materialize, considerable downward
movement of pile cap is required and the restriction on
permissible settlement of the foundation may not allow
this.
If the piles overlie a compressible stratum, the stability of an

equivalent footing placed at the level of the tip of piles has to
be checked.
Settlement
Examples
The load capacity of the pile group will now be governed by

the shear strength and compressibility of weak soil and not by
group efficiency within the sand stratum.
The method of installation of bored cast-in-situ piles in sand
results in a general loosening of soil around the piles,
especially when the boring is to be done below the water
table.
Further, the cleaning of the bottom of the borehole before
concreting is always difficult.
As there is no compaction of soil around the soil, is never
more than unity.
42
12/4/2013
Settlement of pile group

INTRODUCTION
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION

Spacing of Piles
Pile Failure
The vertical movement that occurs at the level of pile cap is

largely due to the settlement of the soil supporting the pile.
Those has to be restricted to a value within permissible
settlement for the structure in question.
Settlement
Examples
Pile groups in clay

INTRODUCTION
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION

Spacing of Piles
Pile Failure
The settlement of a pile group in clay can not be

estimated form the data of a load test on a single pile
because the time effect, the effect of remolding of soil
due to pile driving and the scale effect are quite different
for the single test pile and the group of piles.
Settlement
Settlement of pile group is more than the settlement of a

single pile even when the load on the single pile and the
load on each pile of the pile group are the same.
Examples
The widely used approach for calculating the settlement

of a pile group in clay is the equivalent raft approach.
In this method, the pile group is assumed to act as a
single and large raft is assumed to be placed at some
arbitrary depth inside the soil.
This is because of the fact that the zone of influence of a pile

group is much deeper than that of a single pile.
In case of driven piles in sand, the larger thickness of soil
contributing to settlement is also more compressible than
the soil below a single pile which can be regarded as precompressed on account of pile driving.
Pile groups in clay

INTRODUCTION
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION
The piles are assumed to transfer the vertical load

acting on them, Q g to this depth and the settlement of
the raft is calculated.
Spacing of Piles
Pile Failure
Settlement
Examples
Pile groups in clay

INTRODUCTION
GROUP ACTION

Spacing of Piles
Settlement of the pile group is taken as the

settlement of this fictitious raft.
Depending on subsoil conditions, several assumptions
have been used to identify the location of equivalent
raft.
Assumptions for equivalent raft:
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Pile Failure
Settlement
Examples
1) For the displacement piles or friction piles in

homogenous clay, the common practice is to assume
the equivalent raft at a depth of 2/3rd of pile length
over an area enclosed by the piles at the depth.
The load Q g assumed to be transferred at this level, is
then assumed to spread out at 2 vertical and 1
horizontal distribution in order to work out the value
of stress increase at the mid-depth of clay stratum.
43
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Pile groups in clay

INTRODUCTION
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION

Spacing of Piles
Pile Failure
2) For bored piles or end bearing piles bearing on firm

stratum, the equivalent raft is assumed at the base of
the pile over an area enclosed by the piles at this
depth. A load spread of 2:1 is assumed from this
depth.
Settlement
Examples
PILE LOAD CAPACITY

GROUP ACTION
INTRODUCTION
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION

Spacing of Piles
3) This situation relates to piles driven into a firm or

strong stratum through an overlying clay stratum. If
the length of piles embedded in the strong stratum is
L, the load Q g is assumed to act at a depth equal to
2/3rd the length L below the top surface of the string
layer and spreading out at 2:1 slope.
Sg / Si is called the settlement ratio (for the same average

load Q per pile) and is expressed as
Examples
Pile groups in sand

INTRODUCTION
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Meyerhof (1959) expressed the settlement ratio for

square pile groups in sand in the form:
GROUP ACTION
Spacing of Piles
Spacing of Piles
Pile Failure
Pile Failure
Settlement
Settlement
Examples
Examples
It has been observed that settlement ratio can have a

maximum value of 16 which means that the settlement
of a pile group in sand can not be more than 16 times
that of an individual pile whatever be the width of the
pile group.
Skempton (1953) compared the settlements of a

number of pile groups, consisting of driven piles, with
the settlement of individual piles in sand, for the same
load per pile.
The settlement of a pile group, Sg is expressed as
multiple of the settlement of an individual pile, Si.
where, B = width of pile group in m.
For estimating the settlement of pile group in sand,

the common practice is to extrapolate this from the
settlement of an individual test pile measured in a
load test.
Pile Failure
Settlement
Pile groups in sand

INTRODUCTION
Pile groups in sand
where,
s = ratio of pile spacing to pile diameter.
r = number of rows in pile group.
44
12/4/2013
Allowable load on a pile group

INTRODUCTION
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
GROUP ACTION
The safe pile load capacity of a pile group under

vertical load is first determined on the basis of the
shear failure criterion as discussed earlier.
Spacing of Piles
Pile Failure
Settlement
Examples
The settlement of pile group under this load is then

computed.
The settlement should not exceed the permissible
settlement.
The allowable load on a group of piles is the smaller
of the values calculated on the basis shear failure
criterion and the settlement criterion.
45

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12/4/2013

FOUNDATION ENGINEERING (KAEA 4234)

In situations where the soil at shallow depths is poor, in

The manner in which soil resists stresses from shallow

Dr. Meldi Suhatril

The mechanisms that resist load applied to foundations

In view of increased depth, such foundations are called

2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY

Vertical uplift loads:

2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY

2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY

3.0. GROUP ACTION

3.0. GROUP ACTION

Pile foundations are an example of deep foundations

2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY

A pile is a relatively small diameter shaft, which is

Piles are useful in transferring loads through poor soil

Piles are usually driven in groups to provide foundation

In case of large lateral loads, piles are driven at an angle

Piles may be required to increase the stability of tall

Short piles are sometimes used for compacting loose

They are also used to avoid damage due to the

Piles are sometimes used to resist uplift loads and are

Types of Piles: Piles have been classified using different

d) Mode of load transfer

3.0. GROUP ACTION

It has been realised that perhaps the best way of

In a loose sand, such a pile densifies the sand up to a

Compression leads to an increase in its angle of

3.0. GROUP ACTION

In clays, large displacement piles remold the soil to a

There are some piles like the rolled-steel section piles,

2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY

2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY

3.0. GROUP ACTION

3.0. GROUP ACTION

These are preferred when ground displacements and

During driving, very high pore water pressures are set

A void is formed in the soil by boring or excavation and

The sides of the void can be unsupported or supported

3.0. GROUP ACTION

Length of these piles can easily be varied at site.

It is possible to install very long piles with very large

Example: bored cast-in-situ and bored precast piles.

This results in a substantial increase in point bearing

There is no ground heave in case of such piles. These

During the installation of piles, the soil on the sides of

- Loosening of soil, if it is clay type

Bulb ends can not be made in granular soils.

It is essential that concrete is placed as soon as

2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY

- There is difficulty of concreting under water and

General characteristics of piles classified on the basis of

3.0. GROUP ACTION

3.0. GROUP ACTION

These are small displacement piles.

The allowable load on these piles varies from 100 to 250

Steel piles can be used to carry heavy loads.

Splicing of these is also easy.

It may be a rolled section, a pipe or any fabricated shape.

2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY

An untreated pile above water table is likely to be eaten

2.0. PILE LOAD CAPACITY

These require heavy equipment for driving.