Sexual arousal

Turn-on redirects here. For other uses, see Turn On.

This article is about sexual arousal in humans. For sexual
arousal in other species, see Animal sexual behaviour.
Aroused redirects here. For the 2013 documentary
lm, see Aroused (lm). For other uses, see Arousal.
Sexual arousal (also sexual excitement) is the arousal

physiological changes that accompany it. Given sucient

sexual stimulation, sexual arousal in humans reaches its
climax during an orgasm. It may also be pursued for its
own sake, even in the absence of an orgasm.

1 Terminology
There are several informalities, terms and phrases to describe sexual arousal including horny,[1] turned on, randy,
steamy, and lustful.[2] Things that precipitate human sexual arousal are called erotic stimuli, colloquially known
as turn-ons.

2 Erotic stimuli
Main articles: Sexual stimulation and Erogenous zone
Depending on the situation, a person can be sexually
aroused by a variety of factors, both physical and mental.
A person may be sexually aroused by another person or by
particular aspects of that person, or by a non-human object. The welcome physical stimulation of an erogenous
zone or acts of foreplay can result in arousal, especially if
it is accompanied with the anticipation of imminent sexual activity. Sexual arousal may be assisted by a romantic
setting, music or other soothing situation. The potential
stimuli for sexual arousal vary from person to person, and
from one time to another, as does the level of arousal.
Stimuli can be classied according to the sense involved:
somatosensory (touch), visual, and olfactory (scent). Auditory stimuli are also possible, though they are generally
considered secondary in role to the other three. Erotic
stimuli which can result in sexual arousal can include conversation, reading, lms or images or a smell or setting,
any of which can generate erotic thoughts and memories
in a person. Given the right context, these may lead to
the person desiring physical contact, including kissing,
cuddling, and petting of an erogenous zone. This may in
turn make the person desire direct sexual stimulation of
the breasts, nipples, buttocks and/or genitals, and further
sexual activity.

Martin van Male's print Francion 15

of sexual desire, during or in anticipation of sexual activity. A number of physiological responses occur in the
body and mind as preparation for sex and continue during it. Genital responses are not the only changes, but
noticeable and necessary for consensual and comfortable
intercourse. Male arousal will lead to an erection and in
female arousal, the bodys response is engorged sexual
tissues such as nipples, vulva, clitoris, vaginal walls and
vaginal lubrication. Mental stimuli and physical stimuli Erotic stimuli may originate from a source unrelated to
such as touch, and the internal uctuation of hormones, the object of subsequent sexual interest. For example,
can inuence sexual arousal.
many people may nd nudity, erotica or pornography sexSexual arousal has several stages and may not lead to any ually arousing,[3] which may generate a general sexual inactual sexual activity, beyond a mental arousal and the terest which is satised with sexual activity. When sexual
1

PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE

arousal is achieved by or dependent on the use of objects, death, childbirth, ones parents, friends, family, contemit is referred to as sexual fetishism, or in some instances porary society, the human race in general, and particua paraphilia.
larly ones place in the world play a substantive role in
There is a common belief that women need more time to determining how a person will respond in any given sexachieve arousal. However, recent scientic research has ual situation.
shown that there is no considerable dierence for the time
men and women require to become fully aroused. Scientists from McGill University Health Centre in Montreal,
Canada used the method of thermal imaging to record
baseline temperature change in genital area to dene the
time necessary for sexual arousal. Researchers studied
the time required for an individual to reach the peak of
sexual arousal while watching sexually explicit movies
or pictures and came to the conclusion that on average
women and men took almost the same time for sexual
arousal around 10 minutes.[4] The time needed for
foreplay is very individualistic and varies from one time
to the next depending on many circumstances.[4]

On the other hand, a person may be hypersexual, which

is a desire to engage in sexual activities considered abnormally high in relation to normal development or culture, or suering from a persistent genital arousal disorder, which is a spontaneous, persistent, and uncontrollable arousal, and the physiological changes associated
with arousal.

4 Physiological response

Sexual arousal causes various physical responses, most

Unlike many other animals, humans do not have a mating signicantly in the sex organs (genital organs). Sexual
season, and both sexes are potentially capable of sexual arousal for a man is usually indicated by the swelling and
erection of the penis when blood lls the corpus cavarousal throughout the year.
ernosum. This is usually the most prominent and reliable sign of sexual arousal in males. In a woman, sexual arousal leads to increased blood ow to the clitoris
3 Disorders
and vulva, as well as vaginal transudation - the seeping
of moisture through the vaginal walls which serves as
See also: Sexual arousal disorder, Hypoactive sexual lubrication.
desire disorder and Female sexual arousal disorder
Sexual arousal for most people is a positive experience
and an aspect of their sexuality, and is often sought. A
person can normally control how they will respond to
arousal. They will normally know what things or situations are potentially stimulating, and may at their leisure
decide to either create or avoid these situations. Similarly,
a persons sexual partner will normally also know his or
her partners erotic stimuli and turn-os. Some people
feel embarrassed by sexual arousal and some are sexually
inhibited. Some people do not feel aroused on every occasion that they are exposed to erotic stimuli, nor act in
a sexual way on every arousal. A person can take an active part in a sexual activity without sexual arousal. These
situations are considered normal, but depend on the maturity, age, culture and other factors inuencing the person.
However, when a person fails to be aroused in a situation that would normally produce arousal and the lack of
arousal is persistent, it may be due to a sexual arousal
disorder or hypoactive sexual desire disorder. There are
many reasons why a person fails to be aroused, including a mental disorder, such as depression, drug use, or a
medical or physical condition. The lack of sexual arousal
may be due to a general lack of sexual desire or due to
a lack of sexual desire for the current partner. A person may always have had no or low sexual desire or the
lack of desire may have been acquired during the persons
life. There are also complex philosophical and psychological issues surrounding sexuality. Attitudes towards life,

4.1 Female physiological response

The beginnings of sexual arousal in a womans body is
usually marked by vaginal lubrication (wetness), swelling
and engorgement of the external genitals, and internal enlargement of the vagina.[5] There have been studies to nd
the degree of correlation between these physiological responses and the womans subjective sensation of being
sexually aroused: the ndings usually are that in some
cases there is a high correlation, while in others, it is surprisingly low.[6]
Further stimulation can lead to further vaginal wetness
and further engorgement and swelling of the clitoris and
the labia, along with increased redness or darkening of
the skin in these areas. Further changes to the internal organs also occur including to the internal shape of
the vagina and to the position of the uterus within the
pelvis.[5] Other changes include an increase in heart rate
as well as in blood pressure, feeling hot and ushed and
perhaps experiencing tremors.[7] A sex ush may extend
over the chest and upper body.
If sexual stimulation continues, then sexual arousal may
peak into orgasm. After orgasm, some women do
not want any further stimulation and the sexual arousal
quickly dissipates. Suggestions have been published for
continuing the sexual excitement and moving from one
orgasm into further stimulation and maintaining or regaining a state of sexual arousal that can lead to second

3
and subsequent orgasms.[8] Some women have experi- and, as the genitals become further engorged with blood,
enced such multiple orgasms quite spontaneously.
their color deepens and the testicles can grow up to 50%
While young women may become sexually aroused quite larger. As the testicles continue to rise, a feeling of
easily, and reach orgasm relatively quickly with the right warmth may develop around them and the perineum.
stimulation in the right circumstances, there are phys- With further sexual stimulation, the heart rate increases,
[10]
iological and psychological changes to womens sexual blood pressure rises and breathing becomes quicker.
regions
arousal and responses as they age. Older women pro- The increase in blood ow in the genital and other[13]
sex
ush
sometimes,
in
some
men.
may
lead
to
a
duce less vaginal lubrication and studies have investigated
changes to degrees of satisfaction, frequency of sexual
activity, to desire, sexual thoughts and fantasies, sexual
arousal, beliefs about and attitudes to sex, pain, and the
ability to reach orgasm in women in their 40s and after
menopause. Other factors have also been studied including socio-demographic variables, health, psychological
variables, partner variables such as their partners health
or sexual problems, and lifestyle variables. It appears
that these other factors often have a greater impact on
womens sexual functioning than their menopausal status. It is therefore seen as important always to understand the context of womens lives when studying their
sexuality.[9]

As sexual stimulation continues, the muscles of the pelvic

oor, the vas deferens (between the testicles and the
prostate), the seminal vesicles and the prostate gland itself may begin to contract in a way that forces sperm and
semen into the urethra inside the penis. This is the onset
of orgasm and it is likely, once this has started, that the
man will continue to ejaculate and orgasm fully, with or
without further stimulation.

Equally, if sexual stimulation stops before orgasm,

the physical eects of the stimulation, including the
vasocongestion, will subside in a short time. Repeated
or prolonged stimulation without orgasm and ejaculation
can lead to discomfort in the testes (corresponding to the
Reduced estrogen levels may be associated with increased slang term "blue balls.[14] )
vaginal dryness and less clitoral erection when aroused, After orgasm and ejaculation, men usually experience a
but are not directly related to other aspects of sexual inrefractory period characterised by loss of erection, a subterest or arousal. In older women, decreased pelvic mus- sidence in any sex ush, less interest in sex, and a feeling
cle tone may mean that it takes longer for arousal to lead
of relaxation that can be attributed to the neurohormones
to orgasm, may diminish the intensity of orgasms, and oxytocin and prolactin.[15] The intensity and duration of
then cause more rapid resolution. The uterus typically
the refractory period can be very short in a highly aroused
contracts during orgasm and, with advancing age, those young man in what he sees as a highly arousing situation,
contractions may actually become painful.[9]
perhaps without even a noticeable loss of erection. It can

4.2

Male physiological response

It is normal to correlate the erection of the penis with

male sexual arousal. Physical or psychological stimulation, or both, leads to vasodilation and the increased
blood ow engorges the three spongy areas that run along
the length of the penis (the two corpora cavernosa and
the corpus spongiosum). The penis grows enlarged and
rm, the skin of the scrotum is pulled tighter, and the
testes are pulled up against the body.[10] However the
relationship between erection and arousal is not one-toone. After their mid-forties, some men report that they
do not always have an erection when they are sexually
aroused.[11] Equally, a male erection can occur during
sleep (nocturnal penile tumescence) without conscious
sexual arousal or due to mechanical stimulation (e.g. rubbing against the bed sheet) alone. A young man or
one with a strong sexual drive may experience enough
sexual arousal for an erection to result from a passing
thought, or just the sight of a passerby. Once erect, his penis may gain enough stimulation from contact with the inside of his clothing to maintain and encourage it for some
time.[12]

be as long as a few hours or days in mid-life and older

men.[10]

5 Psychological response
See also: Libido
Psychological sexual arousal involves appraisal and evaluation of a stimulus, categorization of a stimulus as sexual,
and an aective response.[16] The combination of cognitive and physiological states elicits psychological sexual arousal.[16][17] Some suggest that psychological sexual arousal results from an interaction of cognitive and
experiential factors, such as aective state, previous experience, and current social context.[18]

5.1 Female

Research suggests that cognitive factors like sexual motivation, perceived gender role expectations, and sexual attitudes play important roles in womens self-reported levels of sexual arousal.[18] In her alternative model of sexAs sexual arousal and stimulation continues, it is likely ual response, Basson[19][20] suggests that womens need
that the glans or head of the erect penis will swell wider for intimacy prompts them to engage with sexual stimuli,

4
which leads to an experience of sexual desire and psychological sexual arousal. Psychological sexual arousal also
has an eect on physiological mechanisms; Goldey and
van Anders[21] showed that sexual cognitions impact hormone levels in women, such that sexual thoughts result in
a rapid increase in testosterone in women who were not
using hormonal contraception. In terms of brain activation, researchers have suggested that amygdala responses
are not solely determined by level of self-reported sexual arousal; Hamann and colleagues[22] found that women
self-reported higher sexual arousal than men, but experienced lower levels of amygdala responses.

MODELS OF HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE

6.2 Singers model of sexual arousal

Singer presented a model of the process of sexual arousal

in 1984, in which she conceptualized human sexual response to be composed of three independent but generally
sequential components. The rst stage, aesthetic response,
is an emotional reaction to noticing an attractive face or
gure. This emotional reaction produces an increase in
attention toward the object of attraction, typically involving head and eye movements toward the attractive object.
The second stage, approach response, progresses from the
rst and involves bodily movements towards the object.
The nal genital response stage recognizes that with both
attention and closer proximity, physical reactions result in
genital tumescence. Singer also stated that there is an ar5.2 Male
ray of other autonomic responses, but acknowledges that
the research literature suggests that the genital response is
The relationship between sexual desire and arousal in the most reliable and convenient to measure in males.[29]
men is complex, with a wide range of factors increasing
or decreasing sexual arousal.[23] Physiological responses,
such as heart rate, blood pressure, and erection, are of- 6.3 Bassons sexual response cycle
ten discordant with self-reported subjective perceptions
of arousal.[24] This inconsistency suggests that psycho- In 2000, Rosemary Basson presented an alternative
logical, or cognitive aspects, also have a strong eect on model to the human sexual response cycle that is specic
sexual arousal. The cognitive aspects of sexual arousal in to womens sexual response.[30] She argues that gender
men are not completely known, but it does involve the ap- dierences in sex drive, sexual motivation, sexual conpraisal and evaluation of the stimulus, categorization of cordance, and capacity for orgasm underlie the need for
the stimulus as sexual, and an aective response.[25] Re- an alternative model of sexual response. While the husearch suggests that cognitive factors, such as sexual mo- man sexual response cycle begins with desire, followed
tivation, perceived gender role expectations, and sexual by arousal, orgasm, and nally resolution, Bassons[20] alattitudes, contribute to sex dierences observed in sub- ternative model is circular and begins with women feeling
jective sexual arousal. Specically, while watching visual a need for intimacy, which leads her to seek out and be restimuli, men are more inuenced by the sex of an actor ceptive to sexual stimuli; women then feel sexual arousal,
portrayed in the stimulus, and men typically prefer a stim- in addition to sexual desire. The cycle results in an enulus that allows objectication of the actor and projection hanced feeling of intimacy. Basson emphasizes the idea
of themselves into the scenario.[26][27] There are reported that a lack of spontaneous desire should not be taken as
dierences in brain activation to sexual stimuli, with men an indication of female sexual dysfunction; many women
showing higher levels of amygdala and hypothalamic re- experience sexual arousal and responsive desire simultasponses than women. This suggests the amygdala plays a neously when they are engaged in sexual activity.[30]
critical role in the processing of sexually arousing visual
stimuli in men.[22]

6.4 Toatess incentive-motivation model

Frederick Toates presented a model of sexual motivation,

6 Models of human sexual re- arousal, and behavior in 2009 that combines the principles of incentive-motivation theory and hierarchical consponse
trol of behavior. The basic incentive-motivation model
of sex suggests that incentive cues in the environment invade the nervous system, which results in sexual moti6.1 Human sexual response cycle
vation. Positive sexual experiences enhance motivation,
while negative experiences reduce it. Motivation and beMain article: Human sexual response cycle
haviour are organized hierarchically; each are controlled
by a combination direct (external stimuli) and indirect
During the late 1950s and early 1960s, William H. Mas- (internal cognitions) factors. Excitation and inhibition of
ters and Virginia E. Johnson conducted many important behavior act at various levels of this hierarchical strucstudies into human sexuality. In 1966, they released Hu- ture. For instance, an external stimulus may directly exman Sexual Response, detailing four stages of physiologi- cite sexual arousal and motivation below a conscious level
cal changes in humans during sexual stimulation: excite- of awareness, while an internal cognition can elicit the
ment, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.[28]
same eects indirectly, through the conscious represen-

7.2

Females

tation of a sexual image. In the case of inhibition, sexual

behavior can be active or conscious (e.g., choosing not to
have sex) or it can be passive or unconscious (e.g., being unable to have sex due to fear). Toates emphasizes
the importance considering cognitive representations in
addition to external stimuli; he suggests that mental representations of incentives are interchangeable with excitatory external stimuli for eliciting sexual arousal and
motivation.[31]

Assessment of genital arousal

5
For centuries, the assumption was made
that the longing for sexual interaction was innate, and an inner drive model was used to
explain it. It has been suggested that this
model was much like a metaphor for a steam
boiler. Internal sexual steam would build
up until the pressure became so great that
the drive to release it was very strong. This
view also assumed that there was some adverse physical consequence of not releasing the
pressure.[37]:95
The psychohydraulic model of sexuality has been formulated most denitely in psychoanalysis:

See also: Psychophysiology

One way to study sexual arousal in women and men is
to conduct sexual psychophysiological research in a laboratory setting. This eld of research looks at physical
sexual responses in addition to mental and emotional experiences of sexual arousal.[32]

7.1

Experimental studies

Various hypotheses and theories have been propounded

in order to establish the biological bases for sexual arousal
in humans. Ivan Tarkhanov showed, in experiments on
cutting and articial emptying of the seminal vesicles,
that the latter played the crucial role in the generation of
sexual excitement in frogs. Proceeding from these experimental results, Tarkhanov put forward a hypothesis
that lling and evacuation of the seminal vesicles were
the main biological cause which led to sexual arousal
and its disappearance in mammals and humans.[33] Ever
since Tarkhanovs ndings demonstrated sexual arousal
in frogs to result from the state of seminal vesicles, the
attempted elucidation of their role in other animals sexual behaviour has been the object of experimental eort.
No generalisation has yet appeared, however. The study
performed by Beach & Wilson (University of California, Berkeley) in 1964 discovered that these glands do
not participate in the regulation of sexual arousal of male
rats in the similar manner.[34] Whether the regularity observed in frogs is applicable to humans remains unknown.
Unambiguous experimental evidence for the existence of
the Tarkhanov regularity in human sexual behaviour has
never been obtained.[35][36]
Another explanation of sexual arousal is oered by the
approach which Kazimierz Imieliski calls the psychohydraulic model of sexuality. This point of view
likens human sexuality to a steam boiler, with biological
processes or internal irritants creating sexual tension. If
the level of this tension reaches threshold, sexual arousal
occurs as the expression of necessity to let o steam.
Gary F. Kelly (Clarkson University) describes this model
as follows:

The instinct causes tensions within the central nervous system which spread out over the
whole being; it is urgent and irresistible in nature and constantly repeats itself. [...] An erection, for example, is pleasurable and painful
at the same time. With an increase of sexual excitation, the tension increases and becomes wholly unpleasurable. This condition
becomes so unbearable that the individual is
forced to seek release from these tensions and
liberation from the painful feelings. [...] The
pain of tension which accompanies the increase in the intensity of the instinctual drives
changes, with the discharge, into the pleasure
of relaxation.[38]:55, 56
After a certain time, the same process begins anew. Such
an approach assumes sexual arousal to be a spontaneous
desire that appears periodically like sensations of hunger
and thirst. Drawing a parallel between these sensations
and sexual excitation is widely accepted now: Everyone
must experience sexuality in some way to survive. [...] In
this sense sex is a necessity of life, just as air, food, and
warmth.[39]:190 And yet there is no empirical evidence in
support of such a parallel, Imieliski says. Sensations of
hunger and thirst occur due to certain states of physiological insuciency. The feeling of hunger results from the
lack of glucose, fats and amino acids in blood. The feeling of thirst occurs in response to reduction of the water
content of tissues. None of similar states of physiological
deciency responsible for the periodical appearance of
sexual arousal has been revealed in human sexuality.[40]

7.2 Females
See also: Vaginal photoplethysmograph
Sexual arousal in women is characterized by
vasocongestion of the genital tissues, including internal and external areas (e.g., vaginal walls, clitoris, and
labia). There are a variety of methods used to assess

10 HORMONES

genital sexual arousal in women. Vaginal photoplethysmography (VPG) can measure changes in vaginal blood
volume or phasic changes in vasocongestion associated
with each heartbeat. Clitoral photoplethysmography
functions in a similar way to VPG, but measures
changes in clitoral blood volume, rather than vaginal
vasocongestion. Thermography provides a direct measure of genital sexual arousal by measuring changes in
temperature associated with increased blood ow to the
external genital tissues. Similarly, labial thermistor clips
measure changes in temperature associated with genital
engorgement; this method directly measures changes in
temperature of the labia. More recently, laser doppler
imaging (LDI) has been used as a direct measure of
genital sexual arousal in women. LDI functions by
measuring supercial changes in blood ow in the vulvar
tissues.

their preferred category.[48] On the other hand, female

subjective responses are category-specic, because they
typically report their highest level of arousal to their preferred stimulus, although the reported dierence in levels
of arousal is typically much smaller than those in men.[49]
A possible explanation for the non-category specic genital arousal in women, which also accounts for their high
individual variation, is the preparation hypothesis. This
hypothesis suggests that, provided there is enough of an
increase in vaginal blood ow for vaginal lubrication to
occur in a sexual context, the magnitude of arousal need
not be consistent. That is, the hypothesis is that vaginal lubrication can take place as a protective mechanism
even in a non-preferred sexual situation, such as when sex
is non-consensual.[49]

9 Concordance
7.3

Males

See also: Penile plethysmograph and Thermography

(medical)
One of the responses involved with sexual behaviour in
males is penile erection; therefore, the volume (or circumference) change during penile erection is a convenient measure of sexual arousal, which was rst developed by Kurt Freund.[41] This measurement of blood ow
to the male genitals is known as penile plethysmography.
This is commonly measured using a strain gauge, a simple mercury strain gauge encompassed in a ring of rubber. The ring surrounds the penis, but does not constrict
or cause discomfort.[42] The measure has been found by
some to be a reliable and valid measurement of male
arousal.[43] More recently, thermography has been developed to measure the physiological measurements of sexual arousal. Studies have found temperature change specic to the genitals during sexual arousal, which supports
the validity of this measure.[44]

Category-specicity

Category-specicity refers to a person showing sexual arousal to the categories of people they prefer
to have sex with. Sexual arousal studies involving
category-specicity look at genital responses (physiological changes), as well as subjective responses (what people report their arousal levels to be). Category-specic
sexual arousal is more commonly found amongst men
than women.[45][46] Heterosexual men experience much
higher genital and subjective arousal to women than to
men. This pattern is reversed for homosexual men.[47]

Sexual arousal results in a combination of physiological

and psychological factors, like genital sexual response
and subjective experience of sexual arousal. The degree to which genital and subjective sexual response correspond is termed concordance. Research has shown
a reliable gender dierence in concordance of sexual
arousal, such that men have a higher level of concordance between genital and subjective sexual responding than women do.[50] Some researchers argue that
this gender dierence can be attributed to the type of
method used to assess genital responding in women.
There may be a dierence in womens ability to perceive internal versus external genital engorgement subjectively, as measured by vaginal photoplethysmography (VPG) and thermography respectively. Chivers and
colleagues[51] found that mens and womens concordance
was more similar when thermography was used as a
measure of genital sexual arousal than when VPG was
used. However, few studies using thermography have
been conducted and further research is required to determine whether the gender dierence in concordance is
a measurement artifact or a true phenomenon.

10 Hormones
See also: Sexual motivation and hormones

Several hormones aect sexual arousal, including

testosterone, cortisol, and estradiol. However, the specic roles of these hormones are not clear.[52] Testosterone is the most commonly studied hormone involved with sexuality. It plays a key role in sexual
arousal in males, with strong eects on central arousal
mechanisms.[52] The connection between testosterone
Studies have found that women have a non-category- and sexual arousal is more complex in females. Research
specic genital response pattern of sexual arousal, mean- has found testosterone levels increase as a result of sexual
ing their genital responses are only modestly related to cognitions in females that do not use hormonal contracep-

7
tion.[53] Also, women who participate in polyandrous relationships have higher levels of testosterone. However, it
is unclear whether higher levels of testosterone cause increased arousal and in turn multiple partners or whether
sexual activity with multiple partners cause the increase
in testosterone.[54] Inconsistent study results point to the
idea that while testosterone may play a role in the sexuality of some women, its eects can be obscured by
the co-existence of psychological or aective factors in
others.[52]

11

Other animals

Main article: Animal sexual behaviour

While human sexuality is well understood, scientists do

12 Evolutionary models
The eect of sexual response is thought to be a plastic positive reinforcement behavior modier associated
with the Baldwin eect. The display of secondary sex
characteristics in humans such as a penis-like enlarged
clitoris in females during arousal and gynecomastia in
males are thought to have once been objects of mate selection in human evolution because of the persistence of
the phenomenon of these features invoking sexual arousal
for potential mates in cross-cultural studies.[56] A dramatic example of this is the high rates of secondary
sex characteristic dimorphism in some Southeast Asia
human populations.[57] Similar evolutionary stimuli may
also have resulted in novel structures such as the pseudopenis of the female spotted hyena.[58]

13 See also
Aphrodisiac
Erectile tissue
Kinsey Reports
Nudity and sexuality
Orgasm control
Post-SSRI sexual dysfunction
Priapism
Sexology
Sexual frustration

Two birds that appear to be exhibiting aection

not completely grasp how other animals relate sexually.

However, current research studies suggest that many animals, like humans, enjoy sexual relations that are not
limited to reproduction. Dolphins and bonobos, for example, are both well known to use sex as a social tool
to strengthen and maintain bonds.[55] Ethologists have
long documented the exchanges of sex to promote group
cohesion in social animals. Cementing social bondage is
one of the most prominent theorized selective advantages
of group selection theory. Experts in the evolution of sex
such as John Maynard Smith advocate for the idea that
the exchange of sexual favors helps congeal and localize
the assortment of alleles in isolated population and therefore is potentially a very strong force in evolution. Maynard Smith has also written extensively on the seminal
uid swapping theory logistic application of the assortment of alleles as a more accurate synthetic depiction of
the HardyWeinberg principle in cases of severely interbreeding populations.

14 References
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[2] aroused synonym.. Synonyms.net. Retrieved 2012-0827.
[3] DeVita-Raeburn, Elizabeth. "Lust For The Long Haul".
Psychology Today. 2008-12-26
[4] Your introduction to foreplay. Archived from the original on 2007-06-18. Retrieved 2007-05-18.
[5] Soucasaux, Nelson (1990). The Female Sexual Response. Novas Perspectivas em Ginecologia. Retrieved
10 August 2010.
[6] Rellini, Alessandra H.; Katie M. McCall; Patrick K.
Randall; Cindy M. Meston (January 2005). The relationship between womens subjective and physiological sexual arousal. Psychophysiology 42 (1): 116
124. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2005.00259.x. PMID
15720587.

14

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15
15.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Sexual arousal Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_arousal?oldid=664505475 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Epopt, Eloquence,

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