ABSU Journal of Environment, Science and Technology, Vol.

3:000-000, 2013
www.absujest.com
Ugwuorah et al, 2012
ABSU JEST 2:170-183, 2012

Correlative Studies between Air and Rainwater Qualities in Crude oil

Producing Community, Egbema, Rivers State, Nigeria
1

Ugwuorah, A.U.; 2Egbu, A.U; 3 Ogbonna, J.U. and 4Nwaugo, V.O

1

Dept of Urban and Regional Planning, College of Arts & Science, PH.
2
Dept of Urban and Regional Planning, Abia State University, Uturu
3
Dept of Geography and Planning, Abia State University, Uturu
4
Dept of Microbiology, Abia State University, Uturu

Abstract
The effects of gas flaring on air and rain water qualities were investigated in Egbema, Rivers State.
The air was observed to have NOx, COx, and methane (CH 4) significantly above FEPA standards
at Ebocha (Gas flaring centre) which affected the rain water quality in Egbema communities
(Ebocha, Okwuzi, Mgbede and Aggah). The SOx was observed to be quite low. Higher
concentrations of the gases were observed in the dry and early rainy seasons. Rain water from
Ebocha had significantly higher concentrations of the parameters TDS, TSS, Hardness,
conductivity. Higher NO3, SO4 and acidity were also observed at Ebocha which also affected the
rain water quality. Rain water samples from Okwuzi, Mgbede and Aggah were not significantly
different from each other (P = 0.05). Rainwater at Ebocha and the other sampling stations
remained acidic all the year round. Similarly, the metallic ions had higher concentration at Ebocha
than Okwuzi, Mgbede and Aggah. The most prominent were Pb, Fe and Mn, which were either
above FEPA standards or at the upper limits. There was significant seasonal effect (P=0.05) on the
rainwater quality as higher concentrations of contaminants were observed during the occasional
rains of the dry season and early rainy season rainwater samples. Lowest values were observed
during the mid rainy season. High fungal and total heterotrophic bacterial counts were observed in
the rainwater while coliforms were the lowest. Higher microbial counts were observed during the
early rainy season and lowest counts occurred in mid rainy season. Values from the control rain
water samples at Ekpe Aggah were significantly low (P = 0.05). These observations were attributed
to the gas flaring activities at Ebocha, Egbema.
Key words; Gas flaring, rainwater, air quality, acid rain, metals, microorganisms.
Corresponding author; VO Nwaugo; vonwaugo @yahoo.com; 2348063494654

Introduction
The impact of flaring of
petroleum associated gas by most oil
producing companies has been
described by several researchers as
inimical to the environment (Ojeh,
2012; Ikhajiagbe et al., 2012; Eugen
et al., 2003). In Nigeria, the Niger
Delta area, the hub of oil production
in Nigeria, suffer this effect more than
any other region. Gas flaring has been
carried out in this area since the
inception of oil production in Nigeria
and has continued to date, though the
Government has severally assured the
citizenry of its stoppage.
Gas flaring has been reported by
some authors to drastically after the
air quality in the affected areas (Ojeh,
2013; Obia et al., 2011; Nwachi and
Uzazobama, 2011).

Consequent on the alteration of

the air quality, the rain water
obtained in the gas flared area is
also adversely affected (AbdusSalam et al., 2010; Nwankwo and
Ogagarue, 2011). The importance
of rain water in most rural
communities in Nigeria as in other
developing countries can not be
over emphasized. This is because
such water serves the domestic
purposes of such communities as
potable water sources are near
absent or very insufficient in such
places (Nwaugo et al., 2009; 2011).
The formation of acid rain in
Niger Delta area of Nigeria has
been extensively linked to this gas
flaring effect (Attah, 2012; Obia et
al., 2012). The acid rain formation
has been attributed to the formation
of acidic oxides induced by the
heat generated. Atmospheric water
like the rains or dews, dissolve

Ugwuorah et al, 2012

these acidic oxides in the air and

brings such acidic rains to the earth
surface. Such acidic oxides include
NOx (nitrogen oxide, nitrous
oxide, nitrogen dioxide), and
similar oxides of carbon (C) and
sulphur (S) including hydrogen
sulphide (H2S). Methane (CH4) is
also released into the air due to
incomplete combustion of the gas
involved (Ojeh, 2011; Nwankwo
and Ogagarue, 20011; Attah,
2012). The formation of these
oxides is due to the high
temperature generated during the
flaring which induces the reaction
of Sulphur, Carbon and Nitrogen
with atmospheric oxygen.
The effect of gas flaring on
rainwater quality has been explained
in Nigeria but the direct correlation
between air quality and rain water
quality remains untouched. In
addition, information on the actual
quality of rain water in the
upper/northern areas of Niger Delta
remains very scanty. This study was
therefore designed to bridge this gap
especially as the study area is a major
player in the oil, industry in Nigeria
and gas flaring has continued in the
area unabated since the 1960s till
date.
Materials and Methods
- Study area
The study area is Egbema,
Rivers State, Nigeria, which lies at the
northern apex of the State. Ebocha Oil
Centre is owned and operated by
Nigeria Agip Oil Company (NAOC)
limited. Ebocha is locaed at 05o28N
and 06o41E in a rural/semi urban
setting where rainwater plays
important role as one of the three
major domestic water sources for the
people living the said area. The other
two sources are borehole (ground
water) and surface water (rivers,
streams and ponds)

ABSU JEST 2:170-183, 2012

Egbema has two major

seasons dry and rainy seasons.
However, occasional rains are often
observed during the dry season.
Air Sampling Analysis
Air quality determination was
done in-situ using hand held
environmental sensor meters. These
meters were electronic equipment for
measurement
of
the
various
parameters powered by batterers. The
ones used were those produced by
environmental sensors company, Roca
Roton, England. The meters were
switched on at the various sampling
points and allowed to stabilize within
10 - 20 minutes before taking the
reading. Three readings were taken at
each sampling point and the mean
recorded as the value. Parameters
measured were, CO2, NOx, SOx, CO
and CH4 (methane). Spare batteries
were always taken along for use in
case of battery failure as this could
affect the readings. Readings were
taken at five sampling points, Ebocha
(the gas flaring area), Okwuzi,
Mgbede and Aggah which are human
settlements which are 3-4 km from
Ebocha. Air samples were equally
assessed at Ekpe Aggah, 20-25km
away from Ebocha but within the
same climatic zone with the other
settlements.
Rain Water Sampling
Clean catch rain water was
collected in a metal free sterile plastic
container placed on a wooden stool
(1.5m above ground). No structural
obstruction was allowed to touch the
collected water during and after the
rains. Sampling was done at 3 spots at
each sampling point and the collected
water pooled together to give one
composite sample.
Sampling of air and rainwater
was done during four different periods
of the year. These were dry season,
early rainy season, mid rainy season

Ugwuorah et al, 2012

and late rainy season (Early dry

season).
Analysis of Rain Water Quality
Some
physico-chemical
parameters of the water samples were
determined in-situ. These include pH,
temperature, total dissolved solid
(TDS), turbidity and conductivity
which were done using HANA model
1910 and HANA model HI 9F35
multipurpose testers. The total
hardness, PO4, SO4, NO3 and total
suspended solids were determined
using the methods of UNEP (2004).
The concentrations of the
metallic ions were determined using
various
techniques
including
titrimetric, flame photometric and
atomic absorption spectrophotometric
methods as outlined in UNEP (2004).
Determination of the microbial
loads was done by the culture
techniques as outlined in Nwaugo et
al.,
(2009).
The
groups
of
microorganisms whose counts were
determined were total heterotrophic
bacteria (THBC), total coliforms
(TCC) and total fungal counts (TFC).
Nutrient agar was used for THBC,
McConkey Agar for TCC and
Saboround Dextrose Agar for TFC.
Results
During the dry season, all the
determined air quality parameters
were above the FEPA standards. At
Ebocha, Okwuzi, Mgbede and Aggah
only SOx was below FEPA standard.
All parameters had higher values at
Ebocha than other sampling points.
Values of the control station (Ekpe
Aggah) were all below the FEPA
limits (Fig 1). Fig 2 showed slight
decrease in all the parameters after the
early rains, yet all the parameter were
above FEPA limits at Ebocha. Again,
values of CO, NOx and CO2 were
only marginally above FEPA units at
Okwuzi, Mgbede and Aggah during
the early rains. SOx values were
below FEPA limits in Mgbede,

ABSU JEST 2:170-183, 2012

Okwuzi, Aggah and the control (Ekpe

Aggah) (Fig 2) during the early rainy
season.
By the mid rainy season,
Ebocha still had values above FEPA
standard though lower than the earlier
values (P = 0.05). Except NOx, all the
other parameters decreased in values
below the FEPA limits. NOx remained
above FEPA limits in all sampling
stations except in the control (Fig 3).
Values obtained by the late
rainy period showed slight increase
but there were no significant
differences statistically (P = 0.05)
between the mid rainy season and late
rainy season values. Only NOx
remained marginally above FEPA
limits in Okwuzi, Mgbede and Aggah
(Fig 4).
The
physico-chemical
properties of the rain water samples
showed that only pH and NO3 were
significantly above
FEPA/WHO
(2007) standard as pH values of all
stations except control had acidic pH
(5.2-5.7) with NO3 having a range of
18.2 26.2mg/L. Ebocha had the
most acidic pH and highest NOx
content.
All
other
parameters
examined had highest values in
Ebocha rainwater while there was no
statistical
difference
between
rainwater values from Okwuzi,
Mgbede and Aggah. Values from
Ekpe Aggah were significantly lower
(P = 0.05) (Table 1).
Table 2 shows a similar trend
with Table 1 but with slightly lower
values in all parameters. However,
values obtained in Table 3 were
significantly lower than those in Table
1 (P=0.05) with the rains seriously on.
Values of NOx and pH remained quite
significant (P = 0.05). Observations in
Table 4 (late rains) showed very close
similarly with Table 3 (mid rainy
season) with no significant difference
though the values slightly increased.

Ugwuorah et al, 2012

Fig 5 showed significant

differences between the control on
one hand and the other sampling
stations, on the others (P = 0.05).
Highest metallic ion concentrations
were obtained in the Ebocha rainwater
samples. The most significant values
were those of Pb, Fe and Mn. The
other metals had values lower than
WHO (2007) limits. While highest
concentrations were at Ebocha, no
differences were observed between
Okwuzi, Mgbede and Aggah (P = 0.05)
(Fig 5).

The same trends were

observed in Figs 6, 7 and 8 though
values obtained in Figs 7 and 8 were
significantly lower than those of Figs
5 and 6 (P = 0.05). Again, no metal
had values close to the WHO limits in

Fig 1; Air quality during the dry season

ABSU JEST 2:170-183, 2012

Figs 7 and 8. Some metals Cd and Cr

were absent from rainwater samples
of the mid rainy and late rainy
periods. Cr and Cd only showed
traces in earlier periods.
Results of the microbiological
analysis showed that TFC were the
highest followed by the THBC with
TCC being the least in all the periods
of sampling and at all sampling
stations. However, counts observed at
the early rains were higher than those
of the dry season while those from the
mid rainy season were the least.
Again, values obtained by the late
rainy were marginally higher than
those form the mid rain period though
the differences were not significant
(p=0.05).

Ugwuorah et al, 2012

Fig 2; Air quality during the early rainy season

Fig 3; Air quality during the mid rainy season

ABSU JEST 2:170-183, 2012

Ugwuorah et al, 2012

ABSU JEST 2:170-183, 2012

Fig 4; Air quality during the late rainy season

Fig 5; Physicochemical properties of the rain water. (dry season)

Fig 6; Physicochemical properties of the rain water. (early rainy season)

Ugwuorah et al, 2012

ABSU JEST 2:170-183, 2012

Fig 7; Physicochemical properties of the rain water. (mid rainy season)

Ugwuorah et al, 2012

ABSU JEST 2:170-183, 2012

Fig 8; Physicochemical properties of the rain water. (late rainy season)

Fig. 9; Metallic ion concentrations in the rainwater (dry season)

Ugwuorah et al, 2012

ABSU JEST 2:170-183, 2012

Fig. 10; Metallic ion concentrations in the rainwater (early rainy season)

Fig. 11; Metallic ion concentrations in the rainwater (mid rainy season)

Ugwuorah et al, 2012

ABSU JEST 2:170-183, 2012

Fig. 12; Metallic ion concentrations in the rainwater (late rainy season)

Microbial Analysis
Organism
THBC
TCC
TFC

Dry season cfu/100ml

Ebocha
Okwuzi
Mgbede
2.1 x 103
1.4 x 104
1.3 x 104
0.2 x 101
0.8 x 101
0.7 x 101
3
4
3.9 x 10
2.7 x 10
2.6 x 104

Organism
THBC
TCC
TFC

Early rainy season cfu/100ml

Ebocha
Okwuzi
Mgbede
3.3 x 103
2.4 x 104
2.4 x 104
1
1
0.4 x 10
1.1 x 10
1.3 x 101
3
4
2.1 x 10
3.1 x 10
3.4 x 104

Aggah
2.2 x 104
1.0 x 101
3.2 x 104

Ekpe
2.3x103
0.1x101
1.1x103

Organism
THBC
TCC
TFC

Mid rainy season cfu/100ml

Ebocha
Okwuzi
Mgbede
1.1 x 103
1.1 x 104
1.2 x 104
1
1
0.2 x 10
0.6 x 10
0.6 x 101
3
4
1.0 x 10
1.4 x 10
1.4 x 104

Aggah
1.2x 103
0.5 x 101
1.3 x 104

Ekpe
1.3x102
0.1x101
2.1x103

Organism
THBC
TCC
TFC

Aggah
Ekpe
1.4 x 104 1. 1.3x103
0.7 x 101
0.1x101
4
2.6 x 10
3.1x103

Late rainy season cfu/100ml

Ebocha Okwuzi Mgbede Aggah
1.1 x 102 1.3 x 104 1.4 x 103 1.2x 103
0.1 x 101 0.6 x 101 0.4 x 101 0.5 x 101
1.2 x 103 1.6 x 104 1.4 x 104 1.3 x 103

Ekpe
1.1x103
0.1x101
1.7x102

Ugwuorah et al, 2012

Discussion
The assessment of air quality in
Egbema
communities
(Ebocha,
Okwuzi, Mgbede and Aggah) showed
high percentage of NOx and COx
gases in the air in addition to high
methane (CH4) content. This agrees
with Nwaichi and Uzazobona (2011)
and Ojeh (2012) who also reported
high NOx in gas flaring areas of
Agbada 1 and 2 Flow stations and
Ebedei in Rivers and Delta States,
Nigeria respectively. The high C and
N contents of the natural air were
forced to combine with available
oxygen of the air by the great heat
generated by the gas flaring. Crude oil
from Ebocha has been known as
sweet oil because of its low content
(NAOC, 1998). This then follows that
less Sulphur will be in its associated
gas hence, will not be available for
reaction. In addition, the sulphur
content of normal air is low. This
accounts for the observed low SOx
content at Ebocha. This disagrees with
Nwaichi and Uzozobona (2011)
whose studies were in Agbada and
Eneka near Port Harcourt where S
could come from other industrial
sources but agrees with NAOC (1998)
that low SOx content exists in Ebocha
area.
Observations showed that the air
quality was affected by seasonal
changes as highest air pollutants were
observed during the dry season
followed by the early rainy period and
the least during the mid rainy period.
During the dry period, there was
accumulation of the pollutants in the
air but the early rains dissolved some
of these pollutants and brought them
down to earth. More rains of the mid
rainy season removed much of these
air pollutants thereby making the air
clean. However, the slight increase in
the contents observed by the late rains
buttressed the suggested accumulation
in the air. Less rain means more

ABSU JEST 2:170-183, 2012

accumulation of the pollutants in the

air.
Assessment of air quality in
Okwuzi showed a decrease in the
atmospheric pollutants compared to
Ebocha, the oil production spot but
still very much above the values from
the control station (Ekpe Aggah) and
FEPA standards. However, the
similarity of results from the
communities Okwuzi, Mgbede and
Aggah showed the similarity in
distances from Ebocha the source of
the pollution. The extension from
Ebocha to other Egbema communities
is based on wind action and agrees
with the observations of Tawari and
Abowei (2012) and Ojeh (2012).
Nwaichi and Uzazobona (2011) had
also reported that distance away from
the pollution source decreases its
effect. However, this is dependent on
weather conditions especially wind
speed and direction.
Assessment of rainwater quality
in this study showed that the water
was contaminated though some
parameters had values below FEPA
limits.
The
most
conspicuous
parameters were pH, NO3, CO2 and
PO4. The high NOx and COx content
of the air which were dissolved in the
rainwater caused the low pH values
observed, resulting in the recorded
acid rain. Several authors had stated
this observation. Olobaniyi and Efe,
(2008) working in Warri, Ubuoh
(2012) working in Akwa Ibom State,
and Abdus Salam et al., (2010)
working in Ilaje, Ondo State all in
Nigeria had reported the observation
of acid rain due to gas flaring. Eugen
et al., (2003) had earlier stated a
similar observation in Jiului valley
area, Romamia. Though it has been
stated by several authors that NOx,
SOx, COx and H2S are the main
causative agents of acid rain, the case
of Egbema could be attributed to

Ugwuorah et al, 2012

mainly NOx and Cox as SOx and H2S

were quite low in area.
The pH values obtained in the
rainwater showed acidic values all the
year round in Ebocha, Okwuzi,
Mgbede and Aggah as it ranged
between 5.2 - 6.0 with the control
having 6.5 6.9. This showed that the
communities around gas flaring
stations are not free from acid rain,
though the extent will decrease with
distance away from the flaring spot.
Observations showed that the greatest
effects were in the occasional rains in
the dry season and early rains of the
rainy season. This agrees with the
earlier assertion of accumulation in
the air of these acidic oxides whose
solutions caused the decreased pH
values (acidic pH). When the rains
were heavy at the mid rainy season,
most of these acidic oxides were
washed off the air resulting in
increased pH values and less acidic
rainwater values.
Assessment of the metallic ions
content of the rainwater indicated the
presence of metallic ions in the
rainwater especially in Ebocha during
the dry season and early rainy period.
The concentrations of these elements
decreased with distance away from
Ebocha, and increase in rainfall. The
high metallic contents in the air could
be attributed to high metal work going
on at Ebocha which caused the release
of metallic ion vapour and their
contamination of the air.
The
fabrication activities involving much
heat coupled with the flare activities
could cause this situation. The rains
will then bring down these metallic
ions vapour easily. Observations
showed that the metals with the
highest concentrations are those often
used in fabrication and welding works
Fe, Zn and Pb including Cu. The
others could be said to be
contaminants. Cr and Cd and even Pb
quickly settled out of the air with high

ABSU JEST 2:170-183, 2012

rainfall as observed in the rainy

periods of the study. Like the former
trend, Okwuzi, Mgbede and Aggah
had similar values below those of
Ebocha. The concentrations of the
metals from the control sampling
station (Ekpe Aggah) had the least
values. This observation further
explained the role of distance as a
significant factor in the concentration
of pollutants in both the air and
rainwater.
The microbiological analysis
showed a slightly different trend with
highest counts in the early rains,
though the least counts were in the
mid rainy season. In each case, the
TFC were more than the THBC while
TCC were the least. The rains during
the dry season were only occasional
rains that only drizzled without much
effect, hence could not wash down
much particulate matters in the airs.
The early rains of the rainy season
were heavier and lasted longed hence
brought down the particles in the air.
This is what happened in the mid
rainy period at all the sampling points.
The TFC was observed to be
having the highest counts because of
their nature (spore formers) whose
spores survive the harsh air conditions
(Schmidt, 2004, Bennett and Hunter,
2000). The TCC on the other hand are
not capable of surviving for long
under
harsh
environmental
conditions.. The harsh dry, acidic
rainy conditions in Ebocha could not
allow many microorganisms to
survive. However, with distance away
from Ebocha, the conditions became
milder and could then support more
microorganisms.
This
therefore
accounted for the less microbial
counts observed at Ebocha, which
increased at Okwuzi, Mgbede and
Aggah. Observations further showed
that when the rains became heavy,
these suspended particles in the air
with their attached organisms were

Ugwuorah et al, 2012

washed down, making the air to be

less contaminated microbiologically.
In conclusion, this study suggests
that
the
atmospheric/gaseous
contaminants in Egbema were mainly
NOx, COx, and CH4 which caused the
acid rain observed. It also showed that
the greatest effects were during the
dry and early rainy periods. In
addition, microbial contamination of
rainwater was mainly fungal with few
bacterial species. The total effects
decreased away from the source of
pollution Ebocha gas flaring area.
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