Differentiation
2.1
Derivative
2.1.1
Instantaneous Speed
Derivative
()
dy
dy
0
=
(a)
=
f
(a).
dx x=a dx
2.1.3
Differentiable functions
2.1.4
Example
f 0(1) = lim
(ii) By doing the same calculation as above for a general x (instead of 1), we see that f 0(x) = 2x for every
x. Hence the function f (x) = x2 is differentiable.
4
2.1.5
Example
h
h
h
h0
h0
h0
f (h) f (0)
does not exist.
h0
h
Geometrical Meaning
f (b) f (a)
ba
a secant to the graph). As b tends to a (so Q approaches P ), the secant becomes the tangent, and
thus, geometrically, the derivative is just the slope of
the tangent to the graph.
Example
Rules of Differentiation
Remark
10
dy
dy
du
=
,
()
dx du u=u(x) dx
where
dy
d
= f0(x) = f (u(x)),
dx
dx
d
dy
dy
0
0
= f (u) =
f (u),
=
f
(u)|u=u(x) .
du
du
du u=u(x)
2.1.10
Example
11
(ii) We have
0
f
2x (x + 1) x2 1 x2 + 2x
(x) =
=
.
2
2
g
(x + 1)
(x + 1)
(iii) To compute (f g)0(x), we first note that f 0(x) =
2x and hence f 0(g(x)) = 2g(x) = 2(x + 1); also, we
have g 0(x) = 1. Thus, by the Chain Rule,
(f g)0(x) = f 0(g(x))g 0(x) = 2(x + 1) 1 = 2x + 2
(note that (f g)(x) = (x + 1)2 = x2 + 2x + 1).
(iv) To compute (g f )0(x), note that g 0(x) = 1 and
hence g 0(f (x)) = 1, and that f 0(x) = 2x. Thus,
(g f )0(x) = 1 2x = 2x
(note that (g f )(x) = x2 + 1).
11
12
2.2
2.2.1
dy
dt
.
dx
dt
y = u(t),
x = v(t).
Then
dy
=
dx
dy
dt
dx
dt
u0(t)
= 0 .
v (t)
12
13
2.2.2
Example
Implicit Differentiation
14
to x, and solve
2.2.4
dy
.
dx
Example
14
15
2.2.5
Find
Example
dy
if 2y = x2 + sin y.
dx
dy
dy
= 2x + cos y .
dx
dx
So
dy
dy
2x
(2 cos y) = 2x
=
.
dx
dx 2 cos y
2.2.6
Example
dy
.
dx
16
So
dy
= y(1 + ln x) = xx(1 + ln x).
dx
2.2.7
Higher order derivatives are obtained when we differentiate repeatedly. Let y = f (x), then the following
notation is used:
d
dx
dy
dx
dy
= 2 = f 00(x),
dx
d
dx
dy
dx2
d3y
= 3 = f 000(x).
dx
Example
16
17
Solution
1
f 0(x) = x1/2,
2
2.3
2.3.1
1
f 00(x) = x3/2,
4
3
f 000(x) = x5/2.
8
18
x in the domain.
Local (respectively, absolute) minimum and maximum values are called local (respectively, absolute)
extremes.
2.3.2
Example
(i) The function f (x) = (x 2)2 clearly has an absolute minimum value 0 at x = 2. Note that f is
differentiable at x = 2 and f 0(2) = 0.
18
19
on [0, 6].
20
2.3.4
Critical points
Example
Let
f (x) =
(x 1)2 if x 0,
(x + 1)2 if x < 0.
20
21
2.3.6
21
22
2.4
2.4.1
22
23
2.4.3
Example
3
1
> 0 for all x.
f 0(x) = 2x2+2x+2 = 2 (x + )2 +
2
4
(iii) Show that
ln(1 + x) < x for all x > 0.
Solution Let f (x) = ln(1 + x) x.
Then f 0(x) =
1
1+x
24
24
25
2.4.5
Example
Let
f (x) =
x2 4x + 9, x 3
6 x 3, x > 3
25
26
2.5
Concavity
Definition
26
27
2.5.2
Concavity Test
The graph of y = f (x) is concave down on any interval where y 00 < 0, and concave up on any interval
where y 00 > 0.
Notice that if y 00 < 0, then y 0 decreases as x increases,
and the tangent turns clockwise, so the graph is concave down. If y 00 > 0, then y 0 increases as x increases,
and the tangent turns anticlockwise, so the graph is
concave up.
2.5.3
Example
28
2.5.4
Points of Inflection
29
Examples.
(iii) y = x .
2
We have y 0 = 13 x 3 , and y 00 = 29 x 3 , x 6= 0.
The curve has an inflection point at x = 0 since
y 00 < 0, for x > 0, and y 00 > 0, for x < 0.
Note that y 0 does not exist at x = 0.
29
30
2.5.6
Example
31
Optimization Problems
To optimize something means to maximize or minimize some aspect of it. In the mathematical models
in which functions are used to describe the things
(variables) involved, we are usually required to find
the absolute maximum or minimum value of a continuous function over a closed interval.
31
32
2.6.1
Example.
33
We have volume
V = r2h = 1000,
and so h =
1000
.
r2
2000
,
r
r > 0.
2000
.
r2
Setting A0 = 0, we get r =
33
34
3
( 500
) .
4000
A = 4 + 3 > 0,
r
00
for r > 0.
3
Thus r = ( 500
) leads to minimum of A. This value
of r gives h = 2r.
Thus the dimensions of the can are r = 5.42cm and
h = 10.84cm.
2.7
Indeterminate Forms
35
LHospitals Rule
Suppose that
(1) f and g are differentiable in a neighborhood of
x0;
(2) f (x0) = g(x0) = 0;
(3) g 0(x) 6= 0 except possibly at x0.
Then
f (x)
f 0(x)
lim
= lim 0 .
xx0 g(x)
xx0 g (x)
In particular,
Suppose f (a) = g(a) = 0, f 0(a) and g 0(a) exist, and
35
36
g 0(a) 6= 0. Then
f (x) f 0(a)
lim
= 0 .
xa g(x)
g (a)
2.7.2
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Example.
3x sin x 3 cos x
lim
=
= 2.
x0
x
1
x=0
1
1
1
1 + x 1 2 (1 + x) 2
= .
=
lim
x0
x
1
2
x=0
1
x sin x 1 cos x
=
lim
=
.
3
2
x0
x
3x
6
x=0
1 cos x
sin x
lim
= lim
= 0.
x0 x + x2
x0 1 + 2x
sin x
cos x
lim
= lim
=.
x0 x2
x0 2x
36
37
2.7.3
Remark.
or
2.7.5
(i)
Example.
(of form
37
38
tan x
sec2 x
lim
= lim
= 1.
1 + tan x
sec2 x
x 2
x 2
(ii)
(of form
x 2x2
1 4x
4
2
lim
= lim
= lim
= .
x 3x2 + 5
x
x 6
6x
3
(iii)
(of form 0 )
1
x
= lim
= 1.
lim x cot x = lim
x0+ sec2 x
x0+
x0+ tan x
0
0
form before we
(of form )
lim (
x0
1
x sin x
1
) = lim
= 0.
x0 x sin x
sin x x
38
0
0
form before we