Measurand...

Shape Advantage

Measurand
ShapeAccelArray (SAA)
Specifications
including a discussion of what they mean

DISCLAIMER: Measurand reserves the right to make changes

to any product or technology herein to improve reliability, function,
or design. Measurand does not assume any liability arising out
of the application or use of the product.

3/7/2010

Measurand...Shape Advantage

Introduction
SAA is an array of rigid segments separated by special
joints. MEMS gravity sensors in the segments measure
tilt along three axes. When SAA is near-vertical, rotational
transforms are used to calculate the 3D shape of the array.
2D shape is measured when the array, or some of its
segments, are near-horizontal. In any pose, 3D vibration can
be sensed at selected locations along the array.

3/7/2010

Measurand...Shape Advantage

Accuracy, Repeatability, and Resolution

Accuracy and repeatability are often confused. When measuring
soil movement, we normally seek good repeatability, because we
want to see how much the soil moved relative to a starting
shape. It is rare to be concerned with the exact shape of a
borehole before it deforms. We just want to see how much it did
deform after day 1. For that, we need good repeatability.
Repeatability tells us how close we can come to the same
reading each time we read the same thing.
Accuracy is a different matter. If we state that the accuracy of an
inclinometer is 0.01% of full-scale, and full-scale is 50 degrees,
then it can be used as a tilt meter accurate to 0.005 degrees = 20
arc-seconds. So if we place the instrument in a borehole that is
tilted 1 degree, we will know that angle to the nearest 20 arcseconds. Manufacturers of in-place inclinometers do not
normally specify accuracy. They specify repeatability and
resolution.
Resolution is different from accuracy and repeatability.
Resolution is an indication of the smallest change in a reading
that can be displayed. It does not mean that we can repeatedly
get results to the resolution limit. The resolution limit of digital
data is often determined by the number of bits carrying the
information. Measurand uses 32 bits.
3/7/2010

Measurand...Shape Advantage

Repeatability
It is fair to note that manual inclinometers, if they are run up and down
casing in opposed ways, can be corrected to achieve improved accuracy.
However, in-place inclinometers cannot be corrected in this fashion.
Neither can SAAs. However, both can be very repeatable. Thus, in this
document we focus on repeatability, because it is what is most relevant to
monitoring soil or structure movements.

In this section we show effects of

some of the factors influencing repeatability:
Segment length
Number of segments
Bandwidth
Multi-sample averaging
Overall borehole tilt

3/7/2010

Measurand...Shape Advantage

The measurement of 2D or 3D shape of an

SAA is based on measurement of the static tilt
of each segment by MEMS sensitive to the gravity
field.

The local position in each axis of one end of a

segment of length L vs. the other end (x in this example)
is known from the tilt according to
x = Lsin()

Segment
of length L

Gravity

3/7/2010

In 3D mode, SAA software uses rotational transforms

to solve for the 3D shape, including azimuth of each
segment, using high-speed numerical methods. In 2D
mode (required if the SAA is near-horizontal), other
triaxial algorithms are used. In either case, the repeatability
of the results is determined by calibration factors and
the signal/noise level of the sensors. Analog and
digital techniques are used to optimize the repeatability.

Measurand...Shape Advantage

Errors in the angular measurement ,

become errors x in the positional measurement
x, according to:
x = L(sin( + ) - sin());
where L is the length of one segment.

Segment of length L

3/7/2010

Measurand...Shape Advantage

MEMS gravity sensors in a gravity field measure

tilt angle according to

v =C g sin();
where v is the output signal (usually a voltage),
C is a calibration constant, and g is the
acceleration of gravity.
Noise in MEMS sensors is gaussian, and
does not change with tilt. It is the main source
of error in a well-calibrated system. We can
express the effect of a noise voltage dv on angle
as:

v vs. for
one full
rotation

3/7/2010

= asin((v + dv)/Cg) - asin(v/Cg);

This relationship is shown graphically in the
next slide.

Measurand...Shape Advantage

Effect of angle on Segment Tilt Repeatability (3D Software Mode)

Noise in MEMS accelerometers

does not change with angle, but
tilt angle is an inverse trigonometric
function of accelerometer output.
Thus, the effect of noise increases
with angular deviation from vertical,
leading to significant degradation
beyond 60 deg in 3D mode.

3/7/2010

At 60 degrees
from vertical,
effect of noise is
34% greater

Measurand...Shape Advantage

SAAs use noise-reduction methods in hardware and software, including

limitation of bandwidth of the sensors and averaging. Field data are
typically averaged 1000 times to obtain accurate tilts.
Bandwidth (BW) is reduced from typically 2.5 kHz to 50 Hz at the analog
level, which reduces the standard deviation of the noise according to
= sqrt(1/BW);
(a factor of 7 in the above case).
Averaging further reduces according to
= sqrt(1/n);
where n is the number of samples averaged (an additional factor
of 32 in the above case).
3/7/2010

Measurand...Shape Advantage

xf = x

10
xf = x

Far
end

The far-end position error xf of an

SAA due to a single tilt error at
any segment is
x

xf = x;
The effect of is the same on xf,
regardless of location of along the
array of segments.
This is a consequence of
gravity-sensing, which makes each
tilt measurement independent of the
state of the other segments.

Near
(reference)
end
x
3/7/2010

Measurand...Shape Advantage

11

xf = xi;

x4

x3

x2

x1

3/7/2010

The far-end position error xf of an

SAA due to multiple segment errors
xi is their arithmetic sum:
xf = xi;
Because the main errors are from
non-correlated Gaussian noise
residuals, errors tend to be equally
divided between positive and negative,
so their sum tends to be small.

Measurand...Shape Advantage

xf = xi;
4

12

xf ' = xi;
8

x4

Because the errors are predominantly

Gaussian, and approximately equal
in magnitude, the far-end error is a function
of the number of segments, according to:
xf = x sqrt(n);

x3

x2

where n is the number of segments and

x represents a constant magnitude of
non-correlated error at each segment. In
statistical terminology
f = sqrt(n);

x1

3/7/2010

where is the standard deviation

of gaussian error at each segment and f
is the standard deviation of the resulting
gaussian error at the far end.

Measurand...Shape Advantage

xf = xi;

13

xf ' = xi ';
For otherwise-identical segment errors,
the far-end position error xf varies
somewhat depending on the overall
tilt angle of the borehole.
This is a consequence of the relation
= asin((v + dv)/Cg) - asin(v/Cg);
developed earlier in this section.

In the following slide, we apply the derived

effects of overall borehole tilt and number of
segments on repeatability, and relate the
variations to an array length for which we
have ample field data showing long-term
repeatability of 1.5mm for near-vertical SAAs.
This allows extrapolating the 1.5mm figure
to estimate repeatability at other lengths and
tilts.
3/7/2010

Measurand...Shape Advantage

Effect of length and angle on Repeatability (305 mm Segments)

Long-term (2 yrs) field

data from multiple
SAAs show this
value to be 1.5 mm

3/7/2010

14

Measurand...Shape Advantage

Repeatability and resolution of a single segment

A back-calculation from the field-derived repeatability of a full array (1.5 mm/ 32 m; see
previous pages) leads to a very conservative value of repeatability for one segment. The
1.5 mm figure is based on 104 segments, so one segment would have a variation at the
end of
1.5/sqrt(104) = 0.15 mm.
On a 305mm (12) segment, this is equivalent to
(0.15/305)*180/pi = 0.029 degrees = 104 arc-seconds.
The above figure is very conservative. It includes effects of slight settling of the array in
the casing, and tiny soil movements even in the stable soil where the figure of 1.5
mm/32 m was obtained.
If the SAA is grouted-in, then the above figure improves by a factor of six, to become
Repeatability = 17, which we state more conservatively as 20 arc-seconds.
This figure is similar to repeatability of in-place inclinometers (see for example
http://www.slopeindicator.com/pdf/mems-serial-ipi-datasheet.pdf ).
Resolution, or the smallest increment that can be discerned with our 32-bit data stream,
is at least ten times better than repeatability, or
3/7/2010
Resolution = 2 arc-seconds.

15

Measurand...Shape Advantage

16

Specifications

The following pages are specifications for SAA.

They apply to SAAF and SAAR, unless otherwise noted.
Be sure to use the lengths to calculate exact borehole depth as shown earlier. It is always best
to check with Measurand before drilling in case any length specifications might have changed.

3/7/2010

Measurand...Shape Advantage

17

Specifications (SAAF or SAAR)

Size, configuration:
May be used in vertical or horizontal modes.
Measures 3D shape within 60 degrees of vertical as x, y, z displacements, and tilt angles.
Near-horizontal shapes are measured as 2D projections in a vertical plane.
Measures x,y, and z accelerations in each segment.
Diameter: clears 25mm (1") in axial extension; joints expand to 27mm (1.049") in axial compression
Standard Length of segments (short): 305mm (12 inches) (Joint center - Joint center).
Standard Length of segments (long): 500mm (19.7 inches) (Joint center - Joint center).
Standard length of non-sensorized Far anchor segment: No longer used (0 cm).
Standard length of non-sensorized Near anchor and cable turn: 46cm (18").
Sensorized Length (SAAF): increments of 8 segments to total of 320' (limited by pressure withstand for water).
Sensorized Length (SAAR): increments of 8 segments to total of 24 segments (limited by number of internal wires).
Total Length: See "SAA Lengths" in this document (to allow for parts beyond Sensorized Length).
Temperature is measured in each octet (sub-array).
Mechanical:
Maximum joint angle: 45 degrees.
To activate auto-fitting joints, maintain: >=10 kgf (22 lbs) per joint.
Maximum axial compressive force while in 27mm (1.049") casing: 45 kgf (100 lbs).
Maximum axial compressive force on joints not in casing & not bent: 22 kgf (50 lbs).
Maximum axial extension force: 320 kgf (700 lbs).
Maximum S curve for hand extraction of 305mm-segment SAA from 27 mm (1.049") casing: 50mm in 60cm (2" in 2').
Casing: 27mm (1.049") ID PVC electrical conduit.
Specific gravity: 1.6 +/- 15%.
Weight: 0.5kg/m (0.34lbs/ft.).
Environmental:
Waterproof to 980 kPa (100 m or 320 foot water column on lowest segment).
Operating and storage temperature: -20 to 70 oC (-40 to 85 oC optional).
Power:
Array: 12VDC @ <20mA/octet.
3/7/2010

Measurand...Shape Advantage

Specifications (continued)
Dynamic Acceleration (Vibration) Measurements:
Range: +/-2 G (+/- 1.7 G in some arrays).
3dB Bandwidth: 50 Hz (Subject to change; contact Measurand).
Noise floor of MEMS: 220 microG/root-Hz (110 in some arrays).
Data rates: See charts in this document.
Software:
Software enables acquisition from remote arrays, visualization of arrays in 3D,
changes to settings of arrays, and export of ASCII or Matlab data (x,y,z, angle, acceleration).
(See specific manuals).
Static Shape Measurements:
Angular range of sensors: +/-360 degrees (software selection required for 2D/3D modes).
Range of software 3D mode: +/- 60 deg. of vertical (SAARecorder alarm at +/- 60 deg.)
Range of 2D SAARecorder mode: 360 deg. in vertical plane. Rotations must be about Y axis.
Range of Horizontal mode in SAA3D: +/- 60 deg. of horizontal.
Long-term repeatability relative to starting shape: +/-1.5 mm for 32 m SAA (notes 1, 2)
Resolution: 2 arc-seconds (note 3).
Variation of repeatability with array length: see previous discussion.
Long-term repeatability of tilt/segment within 20 deg of vertical: 20 arc-seconds (note 3).
Azimuth error of joints: < +/- 0.25 deg.
Orthogonality within segments: +/- 0.1 deg.
(note 1: based on field measurements of vertical arrays for 1.5 years of operation, using averaging depth > 10^3).
(note 2: Specification is for vertical mode within +/-20 degrees of vertical. Vertical repeatability degrades with angular
deviation from vertical as shown in previous discussion.
(note 3: grouted in, averaging depth > 10^4.)

3/7/2010

18

Measurand...Shape Advantage

SAAF Data Rates using loggers

See information below about new AIA high-speed acquisition!

The next few pages describe data rates using the DL1 logger, which is no
longer being offered for new installations.
The Campbell Scientific CR1000 and CR800 loggers are about 4 5 times
slower than the DL1, which was a disadvantage. However, Measurand now
has AIA SAAFs that sample thousands of times within the array and
deliver a single response per sensor representing the average of the
samples. AIA means average in array. This reduces response time for an
average of 1000 from typically 30 minutes down to 2 minutes for a typical
array.

3/7/2010

19

Measurand...Shape Advantage

SAAF Data Rates using DL1

See previous page about new AIA high-speed acquisition
The DL1 logger communicates with SAAF at 38.4 kb/s.
Approximately 45 ms are required to obtain one sample of all data
from one octet (based on an interrogation of 100 samples taking 4.5 s).
n Octets require approximately n times the acquisition time of one octet.
Acquisition times are relatively long in the DL1, because many samples
are averaged to reduce noise in the readings (see previous pages). This
is not generally a problem, because the acquisition time allows for any
EQ sensor readings during the shape acquisition, so earthquakes can
still trigger the "vib" mode.

This relationship between array length and number of samples is shown

on the next page.

3/7/2010

20

Measurand...Shape Advantage

SAAF Data Rates using DL1

See previous page about new AIA high-speed acquisition

21
The crosses ("+")
appear every 8
segments, corresponding
to the "octets"
underlying array
construction.
"n" is the number of
samples averaged in the
DL1 to represent a single
frame of data stored in
DL1 memory. "n" may be
changed wirelessly in
wireless installations, or
directly in "DLS"
installations by changing
the "instruct" file.
n=1000 is the default. It
provides excellent
noise reduction and
reasonable "read-times".

3/7/2010

Times for arrays longer

than shown on the graph
may be found by linear
extrapolation.

Measurand...Shape Advantage

22

Effect of depth of averaging

("n" is the number of
samples averaged in the
DC to represent a single
frame of data stored in
DL1 memory.)
n=1000 is the default. It
provides excellent
noise reduction and
reasonable "read-times"
(see previous page).
If n is reduced or increased
from 1000, this graph
shows the relative effects on
noise reduction through
averaging. Since noise is
the predominant error source
for deformation readings,
an increase in noise of 50%
would increase deformation
error by 50%.

3/7/2010

See previous page about new AIA high-speed acquisition

Measurand...Shape Advantage

23

SAAR Data Rates using SAARecorder

Two to six 24-segment SAARs were used with a dual-core 2.2 GHz PC running SAARecorder
with a GeForce nVidia graphics card. Measurand SAAR Interface boxes were used.
SAAR microprocessors may be activated by a trigger pulse (fastest method : red)
or by the PC sending the binary address of the microprocessor (slower : blue).
The data rate is slowed by 3D calculations, which were ON in the left graph.
Serial rates were 38.4, 57.6, 115.2, and 230.4 kb/s.
3/7/2010