'.

' ....'

'.'

',-

,<:

::',

Useful Properties of'Ffoids

This LJp~to-dateseries will provide practica! design technlques for piping;
it should prove valuable to all engineers involved in the design, construction,
operation and maintenance of plants in the chemical process industries.

ROBERT KERN, Hoffmann - La Roche Inc.

./

It is important to recognizethat pipirig often accounts

for as much as one-third of the total plant cost, and that
energy cost (among others) is directly related to the
design of the piping and hydraulic systems.
>'.
The objectives of this series wiU be to: .
Give the simplest proven methods f ~.t;sign for
obtaining accurate solutions to piping problbns. in the
minimum number ofsteps.
Provide basic design information and essentialdata.
Show the design connections between piping and
equipment in hydraulic systems. .. ..
....
Explain, as required, the fundamental relaiionships
of Euler, Bernoulli and Darcy to applied hydraulics.
Furthermore, specic references \VilIbe ril~de todesign
data if not shown within these artiles. These artides,
the accompanying data and i"e,ferenceswiU. be.lls-eful to
engineers just now entering this field as wdl to those who
design piping and components as pll;rLof a larger job
responsibility in process plants.
....
_
We will review the basic concepts of fluid properties
this first installment. The definitions, nomenclature,
and design data covered hefe will be used throughout.
this series. Only Newtonian fluids will be considered.
J.

Densities: Liquid
The density of a liquid is the weight of a unit volume
at tht},;~temperatureduring measurement, and is usually
expressed in lb/ft" [5aj. For example, the density ofwater
is P60w = 62.37 lb/ft3 at 60P,
Pressure has no practical effect on liquid density. However, increasing temperatures will cause liquids to expando
Process flowrates '.\ be given at a basic =F: temperature, coupled with an expansion actorat pointswhere
the temperature changes in a pipe system. This expansion
factor is: E = P60/ P, where P is the density at flowing
ternperature. Hence, the volurne flowrate, Q in gpm, at
temperature wilI be: Q = Q60E where Q60 is volume
flowrate at 60F.
58

DECEMBER 23, 1974/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING.,

....

---

....:.-.

,.\

....
/1

ds for Piping Design

Piping-design calculations should be made at flowing
temperatures. In addition, alternative conditions (for
example, at a cold startup) should also be investigated.
Specific volume, V, is the reciprocal of density, V =
l/p, ft3/lb.
Specific gravity at standard temperature relates the
density of any liquid at 60F to that of water at 60F:

cal value of z can be obtained from Fig. 1 by calculating

reduced pressure and reduced temperature.
Example l-What is the compressibility factor of
carbon dioxide at 450 psia and 300F?
From Table 1, we frnd that the critical pressure, Pe' and

(1)

A relation more often used gives the specific gravity

of the liquid at flowing temperature, S, from:

s = P/P60w

(2) .

where p is the density of liquid at flowing temperature.

If S > 1, the liquid is heavier than water at 60F; and
if S < 1, the liquid is lighter than water.
Densities:

Vapor 'and Gas

A convenient equation for calculating vapor or gas

densities is derived from the well-known gas law:
PV
RTz, where P is absolute pressure, lb/ft2; V is
specific volume, ft3/lb; T is temperature, R; R is the
universal gas constant, (ft)(lb)/(lb)CR); and z is a correction factor accounting for the nonideal behavior of
a gas (usually, z = 1). Since R = 1,544/M, where Mis
the molecular weight; P = 144P', where P' is the absolute pressure, psia; and V
1/ p, ft3/lb, the gas law can
be rewritten as:

= P = RTz =

144P'
1,544T/M

(3)

From Eq. (3), we can now find an expression for gas

density, p, as:
MP'
P = ---,

1O.72Tz

(4)

lb/ft"

As Eq. (4) shows, gas densities depend on pressure and

temperature. Hence, for purposes of calculation, a pipeline is separated into segments over which the pressure
and temperature are essentially constant. By using this
procedure, calculations for pipe size and pressure drop
can be made for each segment over the length of the
pipeline.
Specific volume is the reciprocal of density, V
l/p,
ft3/lb. At high temperatures and pressures, gases do not
follow closely the ideal gas law, and z :j:. 1. The numeri-

l.
e
n

rt
.e

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/DECEMBER 23, 1974

__lIl __

59

CE REFRESHER

...

COMPRESSIBILlTV factors

for actual gases in relation

to critical

critical temperature, ~, of carbon dioxide are 1,073 psia

and 548R, respectively. We then calculate reduced pressure PR = P/ Pe = 450/1,073 = 0.42, and reduced temperature TR = T/Te = 760/548 = 1.39. Using Fig. 1, we
find that z = 0.95 for these values.
Specific gravity of a vapor or gas, S60g, relates the
density of the gas at 60F and 1 atm (14.7 psia), P60g'
to the density of air, P60a' under the 'same conditions:

:\

s _ P60g
60g -

Mg
Paoa - Ma
_

(5)

Eq. (5) also shows that specific gravity of a gas can be

obtained by dividing the molecular weight of the gas,
Mg, by the molecular weight of air, Ma.
For determining the specific gravity of a gas, So' at
the fiowing temperature and pressure, the relation is:
(6)

where Pg is the density of the gas at fiowing ternperature

and pressure.
The density of air, P60a' is 0.0764 lb/ft" and the molecular weight, Ma, is 28.97. Densi tes and specific gravities
of vapors and gases are listed in handbooks [2,4,5a).

Densities: Liquid-Vapor Mixtures

If a liquid-vapor mixture occupies 1 ft3 of volume, the
weight of vapor, w", in the mixture, divided by the
volume it occupies, Vv, gives its density: Pv == W/Vv'
60

conditions

for temperature

and pressure-Fig.

IIIIUlIIUlHUIIIIIIIIIIII1II1IIUllllUJIIIIIU1IUIlIIIIUlUUIUntlllll1JIIIUUlUIlIU1HIIIUlII!!IUUIUIltIlUlIIHlUllIlIlIlIlIllntl!!I!IUlllfltll1lllllllllll1

Properties of Selected Gases and Vapors- Table I

Gasor Vapor
Acetylene
Air
Ammonia
Benzene
Carbondioxide
Carbonmonoxide
Chlorine
Ethane
Ethyl alcohol
Ethyl chloride
Ethylene
Hydrogen
Methane
Methyl alcohol
Methyl chloride
Natural gas':'
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Propane
Propylene
Water vapor

Critical
Critical
Sp~~ilicHeal
Molecular Ili!ijo al 60F. Pressure.Pe' Temperature.T,.
oH
Weight .:~= c/c"
Psia
26.04
28.97
17.03
78.11
44.01
28.01
7091
30.07
46.07
64.52
28.05
2.02
16.04
32.04
50.49
18.82
28.02
32.00
44.09
42.08
18.02

1.24
1.40
1.31
1.12
1.30
1.40
1.36
1.19
1.13
1.19
1.24
1.41
1.31
1.20
1.20
1.27
1.40
1.40
1.13
1.15
1.33

905
547
1.657
714
1,073
510
1,119
708
927
764
742
188
673
1,157
968
675
492
730
617
668
3,208

557
239
731
1,013
548
242
751
550
930
829
510
60
344
924
750
379
228
278
666
658
1,166

r;

~.
(

~
r
ti'

~..'.
t

~.
f

,"

f:

"':Approxirnate values based on average compositon.

Source: "Engineering Data Book-1957," 7th ed., Natural Gasoline Supply Men's
Assn.

i~.

llUIIIHlIlllllUtlllltttlltllHIUtlUHlI!lJIllltllllUUllIltlUullllllllllfmltltltllflllUlltltlflllIItllIlIllUllllflltllfllllllllll!lItr1flllllWIWlllllllltull1ll

~.,

DECEMBER 23, 1974/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

~... ..
:..:
....~_.:.

PHASE equilibria between liquid

and vapor for a material undergoing
heating or cooling in a closed system-Fig.2

IUJ11HltUl

Similarly, for the liquid part: p

W/V. The mixture
densitywill be: Pl+v = Wi+v/V+v' Since VZ+v = V + Vv,
the mixture density becomes:

ible I

Pl+v

lb/ft"

l+v

(W/p)+ (WirY

(7)

In Eq. (7), W can represent the weight of fluid, weight

fowrate, or percentage of each component in the mixture.
Example 2-Find the mixture density for a flow of
water, W = 495 lb/h. and of steam, W" = 5 lh/h, if the
components are well mixed and flowing concurrcntly in
a pipeline. The flowing fluid has a pressure of 110 psia
and temperature of 344F.
By substituting into Eq. (4), we find that steam density
is:
18(l1O)
= 0.23 Ib/ft3
10.72(344 + 460)1

From a water properties table [5a], we find that the

density of water at 344F is 55.56 lb/It."
By substituting the appropriate values into Eq. (7), we
find that the mixture density is:
8

Pl+v

500
(495/55.56) + (5/0.23)

16.32 lb/ft"

11111111111111111

This example shows that even a small amount (about

1%)ofvaporization greatly reduces liquid density. Hence,
in designing flow systems, we must be aware that:

:RING

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/DECEMBER 23, 1974

I Men's

i';

)!_:-" 1.

1. With a very small arnount of vaporization, the decreased density significantly reduces the static head backpressure in a vertical pipe.
2. With a constant weight flowrate and a small amount
of vaporization, the volume of flow greatly increases. In
turn, this increases pipe resistance significantly. Such a
condition is common in condensate Iines.

Thermodynamic Properties
In routine calculations for piping and component sizing, thermodynamics is hardly involved. However, it is
useful to recognize when physical change takes place in
the flowing fluid. For example, if a liquid fiows near its
boiling point, even a little vaporization (usually due to
pressure reduction) can increase piping and component
resistances.
In order to understand the meanings of the terms
subcooled and saturated as applied to a liquid, and the
terms saturated and superheated as applied to a vapor,
we will use the temperature-volume relations that are
shown in Fig. 2.
.
When a liquid is heated at constant pressure, its temperalure increases and its volume expands, (See line
segment from a to b in Fig. 2.) On reaching the boiling
ternperature, the liquid becomes saturated. The liquid
below the boiling point is called subcooled. More heat
will gradually vaporize the liquid while its pressure and
tem perature remain constant but its volume increases
61

CE REFRESHER

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11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111

Typical Sections of Steam Tables- Table 11

------

Typical Liquid Velocities in Steel

Pipelines- Table 111

Saturated steamandsaturated water ------

Pressure
Absolute.P'.
Psia

Prsssure

Temperature.

Gago.P,
Psig

1,

Heal 01Ihe
Liquiil.
Blu/Lb

110,0
111.0
112,0
124,0
125,0
126,0
127,0

95,3
96,3
97,3
109,3
110,3
111.3
112,3

334.79
335.46
336,12
343.74
344,35
344,95
345,55

305,8
306.5
307,2 '
315,2
315,8
316.4
317,1

Lalent Heat01
Evaporalion.
Blu/Lb
883,1
882,5
882,0
875,8
875,3
874,8
874,3

Superhealedsteam
PressurB Pressure Saturated
Absolute.P'. GagB.P. Temperatura.
Psig
Psia
t. F

TotalTemperature. F
500

---

600

---

700

---

800

---

11

400,0

385,3

444,60

1.2841 1.4763 1.6499 1.8151

h. 1,245,1 1,307.4 1,363.4 1,417,0

420,0

405,3

449.40

11 1,2148 1.4007 1.5676 1.7258

h. 1,242.4 1,305,8 1,362,3 1,416,2

440,0

425,3

454,03

i7 1.1517 1.3319 1.4926 1.6445

h. 1,239.7 1.304,2 1,361.1 1,415,3

NominalPipeSizes.In.

2 or less

31010

lOto 20

Liquid andLine

Velocily. FI/S

Velocity.FI/S

Velocity.Ft/S

1 lo 2
2103
4109
4 lo 9
3 lo 4

3106
4 lo 7
8 lo 14
8 lo 14

2104
3105
51012
5 lo 12
3 lo 5
3 lo 5

1.,5to 2,'5
2.,5 lo 3.5
4109
3 lo 4

2104
3105
51012
3 lo 5

3106
4 lo 7
8 lo 15

"

1.5103
0.4 lo 0.75
3 lo 5
1.5 lo 3

Water
Pump suctlon
Pump discharge (long)
Discharge leads (shorl)
Boiler leed
ralns
Sloped sewer
HydrocarbonIiquids
(Normal viscositiesl
Pump sucton
Discharge header (long)
Discharge leads (short)
Drains
Viscousoils
Pump sucton,
Medium vscoslty
Tar and fuel os
Discharge (short)
Drains

4107

.:

2.5105
0.5 lo 1
4106

Vis specilic volume, ft3/lb; and h, is total heat 01 stei!m, Btu/jb.

11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111

1IIIIIIIUUlllltllltlllUlllUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII11lI1I1I11II1II11ll11ll11llltllllllllllltllllllUIIIUUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

(Line b to e in Fig. 2). During this stage, both liquid

and vapor phases are present. After sufficient heat absorption, all of the liquid vaporizes (Point e). At this
point, the vapor is saturated. Further heating (Line c-d)
will cause both the temperature and the volume of vapor
to increase. Vapor aboye the saturation temperature is
superheated.
At a higher constant pressure, the boiling temperature
will be higher, and less heat will be required to vaporize
the liquido At the critical point (see Fig, 2), the densities
of liquid and vapor become identical. Just below the
critical temperature, the substance is considered liquid;
just aboye, it is considered vapor.
The quantity of heat needed to vaporize a unit weight
of saturated liquid at constant pressure. (Line b-e in
Fig, 2) is called the latent heat (usually expressed in
Btujlb).
Thermodynamic properties for various substances have
be en established and are available. Part of a typical page
is shown in Table Il, for saturated steam [1,5b [,

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Flashing Llquid

Typical Velocities in Gas and Vapor

Lines- Table IV
Saluraled Sleamor
Saluraled Vapor
Nominal
PipeSize.
In.
2 or less
3 lo 4
6
8 lo 10
121014
16 lo 18
20

SuperhealedSteam,
SuperhealedVapor. or Gas

LowPressure

MediumPressure

HighPressurB

Velocily. Ft/S

Velocily.FI/S

Velocily.Ft/S

40 lo 80
45 lo 90
50 lo 120
80 lo 160
100 lo 190
110 lo 210
120 lo 220

30 lo 60
35 lo 70
45 lo 90
65 lo 125
80 lo 145
90 lo 160
100 lo 170

45 lo
50 lo
60 lo
65 lo
70 lo
75 lo
80 lo

100
110
120
125
130
135
140

Note: Within the above veloeities and line-size ranges. (a) large lines can have
higher veloeities than smaller ones. and (b) snort lines, and leads from headers,
can have higher velocities than long lines ano headers.

EquipmenlLines
Reboiler, downcomer (Iiquid) .
Reboiler, riser (liquid and vapor)
Overhead condenser . .
Two-phase flow . , ..

Velocity.FI/S
.3107
35 lo 45
.2510100
35 lo 75

150 lo 350
Inlel, gas turbine , ..
0.5v/,
Relief valve, discharge .
V'
Relief valve, entry p0101al slencer . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e
* Obtatn sonie or crttcat velocity,

Ve' from:
v, = 68 v'k(P' / p), tt/s k trom Table 1.

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"

1111111

111111111111

111111111111

25

~~

O
O

1 have

.aders.

VISCOSITY conversion obtained conveniently by reading horizontally across the chart-Fig. 3

y. FIIS

IIIIIIUIIIIII\I1I

Example 3-Let us consider that condensed water is

flowing at arate W 500 lb/h at 125 psia and 344F.
When pipe resistance reduces the pressure to 110 psia,
how much water will flash to steam?
From Table 11,we find that the heat content of 1 lb
ofwater is 315.8 Btu at 125 psia, and 305.8 Btu at 110 psia.
The difference is 10.0 Btu/Ib, or a total of 10.0 X
500 = 5,000 Btu released when a pressure reduction of
15 psi (125 - 110) occurs. This amount of heat will
vaporize sorne of the liquido
We must now find the latent heat of water at the
flowing conditions. From Table Il, the latent heat at
110 psia is 883.1 Btu/Ib, and at 125 psia is 875.3 Btu/lb.

ERING

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/DECEMBER 23, 1974

07
045
0100
075
0200
:0250
to 320
to 350
l.5v/

ve'"

The average of the two values is 879.2 Btu/lb. The

amount of heat released during the pressure reduction,
divided by the average latent heat, will yield the amount
of liquid vaporized: 5,000/879.2 = 5.69 lb/h. Therefore,
the quantities in two-phase flow will be: Wv = 5.69 lb/h
saturated steam, and W =,500 - 5.69 = 494.31 lb/h
saturated water.

Specific Heat
The quantity of heat absorbed by a unit weight of
substance while its temperature is raised 1 is termed the
specifc heat. Customary units are in Btu/(lb)(OF). Spe63

CE REFRESHER

...

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Maximum Velocities To Prevent Erosion

Or Oorrosion of Pipe Wall- Table V
Maximum Velocity.
Ft/S
Liquid in carbon-steet pipe
Phenolicwater'
Concentratedsulfuric acid
Coolinq-tower water
Salt water
Calcium chloride brine
Caustic soda C> 5% by volume)
Aqueous amine (mono- or diethanolamine)
Wet phenolic vapor
Liquid in plastic or rubber-llned pipe

3
4
12
6
4
10
60
10

11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111

cific heat can be measured at constant volume, cv' and

at constant pressure, cp' At constant pressure, cp ::::: 6.h/ tlt,
where 6.h is the number of Btu absorbed by 1 lb of
substance over a temperature span of MF.
At adiabatic gas ftow (no heat exchange between the
gas and its environment), the ideal-gas law becomes
pi/k = RT, where k = c/cv' For various gases, the
range of k is from 1.2 to 1.4, with few exceptions. In
isothermal (constant temperature) flow, k
1. The
quantity k is called the specific heat ratio or adiabatic
exponent. Data for cp' Cv and k are available in engineering handbooks [2,3,4,5c].

Fluid in Motlon
Velocity-A fluid moving in a pipeline has a parabolic
velocity-distribution profile (see Fig. 4a). The average
velocity is calculated at a given cross-section and steady
flowrate: v
q!.4, ft/s, where q is volume fiowrate in
ft3/S, and A is cross-sectional are a of the pipe in ft.2
For liquid-fiow calculations:

v = 0.408(QjtJ2)

(8)

For vapor-fiow or gas-fiow calculations:

v = 0.0509 Wj(d2p)

(9)

where v is velocity, ft/s; Q is volume flowrate, gpmo; W

is weight fiowrate, lb/h; d is internal diame ter .of pipe,
in; and p is gas density at fiowing temperature and pressure, lb/ft. 3
The relationship between volume flowrate (Q, gpm)
and weight fiowrate (w, Ib/h) is:
(Qpj7.48)60 = W = 8Qp
Q = 0.125(Wjp)

Since specific gravity, S, is p/ P6ow' we find that

W = 500QS. In the case of water close to 60F,
W 500Q, lb/h, with Pi;ow = 62.37 lb/ft."
The initial pipe diameter can be estimated by choosing
a reasonable velocity for a specific type of pipeline. Thus,
for liquid lines:

d2 = 0.408( Qjv), in.2

(lO)

and for vapor lines and gas lines:

d2 = 0.509Wj(vp), in."

FLOW patterns in a pipe containing water-Fig. 4

(11)

Table III gives practical velocities for 'liquid lines, and

Table IV for vapor lines. Values of d and d2 are tabulated
in pipe manufacturers' catalogs [5fl
To prevent corrosion or erosion of the internal pipe
wall, sorne chemicals should not exceed the maximum
velocities listed in Table V. Only a few examples are
listed in this table.
Viscosity-Viscosity is the measure of how easily the
liquid or gas fiows. It is a measure of the internal resistance of ftuids. With increasing temperatures, liquid viscosity decreases and gas viscosity increases.
For measuring viscosity, many English and metric units
have been developed. In this series, centipoise, cp, will
be used. A convenient conversion scale between the variDECEMBER 23, 1974/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

64

,l$

.ata

$ ... 649;;.44

ous units of viscosity is shown in Fig. 3. Elaborate instruments are required for measuring absolute viscosity such
as cp. Kinematic viscosity is simple to measure. The
relation between kinematic and absolute is:
v

== !l/S

(12)

where v is viscosity in centistokes; f1. is viscosity in cp;

and S is specific gravity. Note that 1 Stoke has dimensions of crn-/s.
The viscosity of water at 68F is 1 cp. If data are not
available, the following viscosities can be used: f1. = 1 cp
for liquids similar to water, 0.1 cp for liquid-vapor mixtures, and 0.01 cp for gases or vapors [5d].

Re~nolds Number and Friction Factors

Experiments and observations made in glass pipes have
. shown that several types of flow exist in a fluid stream;
these depend on the velocity of the stream. Such flows
can be observed by injecting fine colored streams into
the main body of the liquido At low velocities, (he
colorcd streams retain their sharpness, and flow is laminar
(Fig. 4a). As fluid velocity increases, the fine streams
begin to break up, and flow is now in a transition or
critical zone (Fig. 4b). With a further increase in the flow
velocity beyond the critical zone, flow becomes turbulcnt
(Fig.4c).
For estimating the type of flow in a pipeline, the
Reynolds number, NRe, is used. The Reynolds number

RElATIVE roughness and friction factor chart-Fig. 5

iJ .

.t

g
s,

O)

1)

Id
~d
pe
ro
rre

.he

st/isrits
vill
ariFRICTION factors for any type of commercial pipe under any condition of fluid flow-Fig. 6
ING
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/DECEMBER 23,1974

65

CE REFRESHER

...

is a dimensionless combination ofpipe diameter, velocity,

density and viscosity. NRe = DUP/!Le' where !Le is the
absolute viscosity in lbm/(ft-s)(ft2).
Practical formulas for calculating NRe are:
NRe

= 50.6(Q/)(p/Jl) = 6.31 W/dJl

(13)

where Q is volume flow, gpm; W is weight flow, lb/h;

d is internal diameter of pipe, in.; pis density, lb/fta and
!L is viscosity, cp.
Resistance to fluid motion depends on the type of flow
in the pipeline and on the roughness of the pipe wall.
Relative roughness is / D where is the absolute roughness (i.e., the depth of the unevenness of the internal pipe
wall), and D is the internal diameter of the pipe. Both
and D should be measured with the same dimensional
unit. Values for relative roughness can be obtained from
Fig. 5, for various pipe diameters and materials.
The friction factor depends on the type of flow in the
pipeline and the roughness of the pipe wall. It can be
obtained from Fig. 6, for various flow conditions.
In the laminar zone, where NRe < 2,000, the friction
factor depends on the Reynolds number only. Hence,
f 64/ NRe In the critical zone, where 2,000 .;;;;NRe .;;;;
4,000, the friction factor is unpredictable. Friction factors
for this zone are given in Fig. 4b.
If the NRe ranges from 4,000 to the dashed line in
Fig. 6, the flow is in the transitional turbulent zone. Here
the friction factor varies with the Reynolds numbcr. The
zone to the right of the dashed line is totally turbulent,
and the friction factor remains constant with increasing
Reynolds number.
Because glass and plastic materials have smooth pipe
walls, the friction factors for them are independent of
relative roughness or pipe diameter. Hence, there is only
one line for these materials in Fig. 6.
For any given type of pipe material (for example,
steel), a diagram of the Reynolds number vs. friction
factor can be drawn [5e]. In this case, constant pipediameter lines will replace the constant relative-roughness lines of Fig. 6.
For steel pipes, the border line between transitional
and total turbulence can be estimated. This is done by
multiplying the nominal pipe size (in.) by 106 to get the
borderline NRe Friction factors in {he totally turbulent
zone are listed in Table VI.
Example 4-Let us find the friction factor for a 4-in
steel pipe. The estimated Reynolds number is then
4 X 106 for total turbulence. And from Table VI, the
friction factor is 1= 0.0165 for a 4-in pipe. If
NRe < 4 X 106, the friction factor must be obtained from
Fig. 5 and 6.
Friction factors obtained directly from tables and
diagrams are used in calculations where the pipe material
is new, and where the fiuids (for example, light hydrocarbons) do not deteriorate the pipe wall. For fluids that
corrode the pipe wall, form deposits, or cause scaling or
erosion, the friction factor should be increased by a safety
factor. For steam condensa te, cooling water, salt water,
the safety factor can be 1.25 to 1.5, depending on the
size and the expected 'life of the installation.
The dimensional properties of pipe are published by

66

IlIIU!UIlUII111IUl1lt1lllllnU!IIltJIIl1ll1lUI1I1IlIlI1IlUIIUllllllllllllllmltlIlIIlIUIIIIII1I1l1l1ll1ll1111IlIlIIlUlIllllU1JlI1!IUHIIUI1IIIIIIIIIIIIIIUUIllII

Friction Factors for Total Turbulence- Table VI

(In new commercial steel pipes)
Nominal
Pipe Size.
In.

Friction
Factor

W,

2
3
4
5
6
8

Friction
Factor,

Nominal
Pipe Size,
In.

0.0205
0.0195
0.0178
0.0165
0.016
0.0152
0.0142

10
12
14
16
18
20
24

0.0136
0.0132
0.0125
0.0122
0.012
0.0118
0.0116

11l1I1lJllllIIIlHUllllllllllllllUlllIlIIlllIlIlIllltlltlllllllJlll1HltlIIIIIIIIIIIUUlIIIIIIIIIIItlIIIllIlIIlIlIUll!IIJIUI!I!llIlmlllllllJlllllllllllllmIIlIlIlIlHII

manufacturers [51]. For steel pipes, these are based on

the recommendations of the American National Standards r nstitute.
The next article in this series will appear in the Jan. 6,
1975, issue and and will deal with the basics for sizing
piping and components. Practical formulas will be given
for liquid-line and vapor-Iine sizing for which the density
of the fluid in the line is constant.

Acknowledgements
The charts and illustrations in this article have been
kindly supplicd by, and used with the permission of:
American Petroleum Institute, Fig. 1; Dow Chemical
Co., Fig. 3; Crane Co., Fig. 4; Crane CO. from data
extracted from Friction Factors for Pipe Flow by L. F.
Moody with the permission of the publisher, ASME,
Fig. 5 and 6. #

References
1. Keenan, J. H., Keyes, F. O., HiIl, P. O. and Moore, J. O., "Steam
Tables," Wiley, New York, 1969.
2. Gallant, R. W., "Physieal Properties of Hydroearbons," VoL 1 and
VoL 2, Oulf Publishing Co., Houston, 1968 and 1971.
3. "A.P.!. Teehnieal Data Book: Petroleum Refining," American Perroleum lnstitute, Washington. D.C.
4. Perry, R. H. and Chilton, C. H., "Chernical Engineers' Handbook,"
5th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1973.
5. "Flow of Fluids," Teehnieal Paper No. 410, (a) p. A-6, physieal properues of water; p. A-7, density of various liquids; p. A-8, physieal
properues of gases; p. A-ID, weight density of air; (b) pp. A-12 to
A-19, thermodynamie properties ofsteam; (e) p. A-8, physieal properties 01" gases; p. A-9, specific heat ratios for steam; (d) p. A-2, viseosity
of steam; p. A-3, viseosity of water and petroleum produets; p. A-4,
viseosity of various liquids; p. A-5, viseosity of gases and vapors;
pp. B-3 to B-5, viseosity equivalents; (e) p. A-25, frietion factor vs,
Reynolds number diagram for steel pipes; (f) pp. B-16 to B-19, steel
pipe data. (Crane Co., Chieago, Il, 60632.)

Meet the Author

Robert Kern is a senior design enqneer in the corporate engineering
department 01 Hoffmann - La Roche
Inc . Nutley, NJ 07110. He is a speeialist in hydraulic-systems designo
plant layout, piping design and
economy. He is tne author of a
number 01artcles in these lields, and
has taught several courses lor the
design 01 process piping. plant layout, graphic piping and Ilow systems, both in the U.S. and South
America. Previously, he was assoeiated with M. W. Kellogg Co. in
England and the U.S. Mr. Kern has
an M.S. in mechancal engineering
from the Technical University of
Budapes!.

DECEMBER 23, 1974/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

CE Refresher

Developing the baste relations for fluid flow

;!eads to practical formulas for finding pipe
.j~size.Here are useful techniques for liquids or
o~~asesin pipelinesundersteady-flowcon\ns.,

I
.1

.~

~How lo Compute Pipe Size

1ft

ROBERT KERN, Hoffman - La Roche Inc."

Methods for sizing piping and piping components rely

on units of measurement that are customarily found in
manufacturers' literature and in handbooks,
A
In order to use these data, we must first understand
,;. the basic relations of fluid flow in piping systems. As we
develop these relations, we will also apply them to practical formulas for sizing the components of such systems
when handling liquids and vapors.

balanced with an equal reaction force on the pipe wall.

If forces acting in the direction of flow are positive, and
those acting against the flow are negative:
"i,F

= FI

- F2

E':l = P dA

- (p

+ dp)dA

p dA dl sin

<X

(1)

The difference in height between the end-points of

Direction of flow - _ ~

Euler's Derivation

dm __

Fig. la shows a reducing elbow in which an ideal fluid

/ .. flows, (Ideal fluids have no internal or external resis,[ance.) Let us investigate the forces acting on a partial
.mass, dm, of this ideal fluid, using the consistent units
of English measurement, The pressure in the elbow is p.
The partial mass of fluid is enlarged in Fig. lb to show
its dimensions and the forces acting on it. The length
of the part al volume is di, and the area at both ends
is dA.
The forces acting on this partial mass are F1, F2 and
__: F3' Parallelto its direction of motion, Fl = P dA; and as
l, this mass flows, one surface meets a somewhat higher
"'pressure, (p + dp), and F2 (p + dp) dA. The weight
cornponent, acting against the direction of flow, F., =
.....W sin IX = P dl dA sin IX. (In an actual fluid, there s a
force, F., which is the fiuid's resistan ce acting against the
direction of flow. For an ideal fluid, F., = O.)
Perpendicularly to the X-axis, the forces due to pressure, which act on the surface of the part al mass, cancel
each other, i.e., L:Fy = O. The weight component of dm
(i.e., W cos IX), perpendicular to the direction of flow, is

<_

Pressure, p -_

b. Differential
Quantity
Enlarged

"To meet your author, see Chem. Eng., Dec. 23, 1974, p. 66.

CHEMICAl ENGINEERING/ JANUARV 6, 1975

dz

FORCES acting on differential mass in fluid-Fig.

....~.

1
115

CE REFRESHER

...

Point, .1

/p
144/p

/2g

V1

a. Horizontal Pipe

DISTRIBUTION of fluid energy in a pipeline-Fig. 2

length, dl, is dz

= dl sin a, and
'iF

/>,

==

144/p

Eq. (1) reduces to:

-dp dA - pdA dz

(2)

The resultant force acting on a body in the direction

of motion is proportional to mass times acceleration:
"2,F adm; mass equals weight divided by the gravitational constant: dm = W/g; and acceleration is the velocity difference, du, over a time span, dt: a = du/ dt. Consequently, :,F (W/ g)(du/dt). Since the weight.of fluid
is its volume multiplied by density:

b. Piping Turns Upward

:,F== dA d/(p/g)(dv/dt)

(3)

Setting Eq. (2) and (3) equal to each other yields:

-dp dA - p dA dz = (p/g)dA dv(dl/dt)

(4)

where dl/dt is velocity. After multiplying both sides of

Eq. (4) by -l/p dA, we get:
(l/p) dp

+ (l/g)

v dv

+ dz == O

(5)

Eq. (5) is the general and fundamental differential

relationship of fluid fow as developed by Euler.
For piping-design purposes, Eq. (5) is solved in two
basic ways:
1. Where density can be considered constant in the
whole length of the pipeline. This is true with all liquid
lines, and those gas lines where pressure losses are small
relative to line pressure. We will show how to size such
pipelines later in this article.
2. Where density cannot be considered constant. This
ls the case of expanding gas and vapor flow, where ihe
pressure differential is sizable between two points of the
pipeline. We will discuss such systems in a later article.

Bernoulli's Equation
Integrating Eq. (5) between reference points 1 and 2
of Fig' la for fluids where (he density can be considered
constant yields Bernoulli's equation:
2

(lIp)J

dp+(l/g)J
I

(I/p)(pz - PI)

vdv+
1

+ (v~ -

vD/2g

J dz==O
I

+ (z2 -Zl) = O

(6)

where the first, second and third expressions of Eq. (6)

represent the pressure-head, velocity-head and statichead differences, respectively. Eq. (6) is used for investi116

c. Piping Turns Downward

PIPE elevation affects energy distribution-Fig. 3

gating energy distributions or calculating pressure differentials between any two points in a pipeline.
Fig. 2 graphically iIlustrates Bernoulli's energy distribution in a slanted pipeline, with two additional factors
included: (1) there is a head loss, hL, due to friction
because we are now dealing with an actual fluid, and
(2) in a pipeline with constant diameter, velocity usually
does not change, i.e., uI = u2 The first factor changes
the righthand side of Eq. (6), and the second eliminates
the component for the velocity-head difference. * Eq. (6)
now becomes:
(7)

What is the signicance of Eq. (7) from a piping

designer's standpoirit? Head loss, hL, is consumed at the :
expense of pressure-head or static-head difference. The
static-head difference can be positive or negative. For a
negative static-head difference, the prssure-head difference must be greater than h_ + (Z2 - Zl)'
In practical design work, Eq. (7) can rarely be fulflled
as it stands, for two reasons:
1. To obtain a reasonable movement of flu-id in a
pipeline, the lefthand side of the equation must be
greater than the resistance to flow.
* Do

not use up ve!ocity head tor pipe reslstance,

.W

JANUARY 6, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

2. Commercial pipes are manufactured in increments

of size (i.e., pipe diameter). Consequently, the caJculated
resistances for each size are also in increments for the
same ow conditions. So, from a practical standpoint,
Eq. (7) becomes:
(8)

In design work, we caJculate separately the lefthand

and righthand side of Eq. (8). The sum of the left side
must be positive and greater than the total resistance of
a pipeline.
Resistance should be calculated for all alternative flow
conditions. The flow direction is always from a higher
pressure point to a lower one. If piping turns upward
in the direction of ow, the static head reduces the pressure: Z2
Z1' Ifpiping turns downward in the direction
offlow, the static head adds pressure to the fluid: Z1
Z2'
This is illustrated in Fig. 3. Pressure due to the static
head of a gas is usually small and can be neglected in
calculations.
/~ The excess energy not used up for pipe resistance
'avides a safety margin and is finally lost at the end
of a pipeline. In general:

>

1. .

>

D.P.

==

D.Pp

:=:

D.Pr

1~

+ D.P,

where !:"Pa is the available pressure drop, !:"Pp isthe

pressure drop due to resistances of the pipe system, and
D.Px is the excess pressure drop.
Flow of fluids through equipment and components in
a pipe system also introduces additional resistan ces that
have to be overcome by !:"Pa. To account for these
resistances, the overall !:"P distribution can be:
D.p.

+ D.Pc + D.Pq + D.Px

where !:"Pr is pressure drop due to pipe resistance, D.Pc

is pressure drop due to resistances in pipe components,
and D.Pq is pressure drop due to resistances in equipment.

Sizing t.tquld Unes

Let us apply Eq. (6) to an example: A large container
'",filled with liquido Near the bottom of the container,
-,
__
j orfice is drilled or a piece of pipe is attached, as
shown in Fig. 4. Velocity at the bottom opening is v2.
Because of the large difference in area between the
bottom opening and the container's cross-section, the
liquid leve! moves down very slowly, and its velocity, v1,
can be considered approximately zero. Pressure is
asmospheric at the liquid surface and at the bottom outlet
and, consequently, P2 - P1 == O.For convenience, we will
represent the elevation difference between the liquid
sarface and the bottom opening as hL == Z1 - Z2' Taking
these factors into account, the Bernoulli relation, Eq. (6),
reduces to:
(9)

When in motion, all actual fluids have internal resistance due to viscosity and friction between the fluid and
the pipe wall and equipment parts. To take this into
account, we will correct Eq. (9) by introducing a resistance coefficient, K, and letting v == v2:
hL = Kv2/2g
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/JANUARY 6,1975

(10)

FLOWof liquid through pipe or orifice-Fig. 4

Eq. (lO) is the Darcy equation and is the basic equation

used for sizing piping and components. The velocity
expression in Eq. (lO) is: v = C(2gh) 1/2, where e =
(1/K)1I2.
Flow coefficients for piping and pipe components are
obtained from experimental data. For restrictions such
as orifices, the constant C is used; for control valves, the
usual constant is Cv. When sizing pipes, the flow coefficient, K, is proportional to the friction factor,j, and pipe
length, L, and is inversely proportional to the pipe
diameter, D:
K==fL/D

(11)

In the previous article (Chem. Eng., Dec. 23, 1974,

p. 65), we showed that the friction factor is a function of
the Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the
pipe wall.

Practical Formulas
We will now show how to derive sizing formulas in
the convenient units used by designers, manufacturers
and handbooks, by converting the previous relations
from the consistent units of the English system of measurement.
We will begin by converting Eq. (10) to pressure drop,
!:"P, in psi:
'
D.P == (h}p)/I44

(12)

To get pressure drop, !:"P, in psi for pipelines, we combine Eq. (10) and (11):
M = (fL/D)(v2/2g)(p/144)

(13)

If we want to express pipe diameter in inches, and

117

i
~

','

li1

1
....

CE REFRESHER

IIllHtll1\!1111111111111ll1Jl1Irmm!l1UIftUUluWrttUIIIIUIIIIIIIIHllwiUllllllnUII1l1!J1JJUnIIHIlIlItIIllJIIIIIllI11llllll1llnnUlIllltlll1ll1ll1l1U!I\\1l

velocity.as a volumetric flowrate, Q, gpm, we substitute

D
d/l2; ard v = 0.408(Q/d2) into Eq. (13). These
Silbstitutib_hS,nOwyield:

Resistances of Elbows, Tees

and Bends- Table I
(Resistance in equivalent pipe length, ft)
90 Elbows"
-

..

'.

Nominal
90 Bends"
Pipe
Shorl
long
Size.
Radius.
Radius
In
R= 10 R = 1.50 R=50 R= 100

(14)

wh,ere f.P is pressure drop, psi; f is friction factor; L is

pipe lerrgth; ft; p is density lb/ft"; Q is volumetric flowrate, gpm; and d is pipe diameter, in. Note that density
and volumetric flowrate must be expressed at the flowing
temperature.
If we want to .express the pressure drop as the customary loss per 100 ft of pipe, we substitute L
100 [t
in Eq. (14), and get:

Tee
Flow
Through. Flow
Branch Through

.zt.. _L_

1Y2

4.5

2.5

5.25

3.5

11

3.5

2V,

3.5

13

7.5

7.5

16

10.5

5.5

10

20

15

10

8.5

15

30

10

21

14

11

20

40

14

10

24

16

14

25

50

16

12

16

30

60

21

32

21

14

33

22

19

33

65

22

16

39

26

21

38

75

26

18

44

29

24

42

86 .,

29

20

48

32

27

50

100

32

24

57

38

32

60

120

38

D.PlOO = O.0216fp(Q2/d5),

psi/lOO ft

(15)

Eq. (15) can be expressed in terms of specific gravity,

S, by substituting p == 62.37S:

/J.P100 == l.35fS(Q2/d5),

psi/lOO ft

(16)

[Note that in establishing Eq. (16) the density of water,

62.37 lb/ft", is at 60F. Hence, the specific gravity, S, in
Eq. (16) must be the density of the liquid at flowing
temperature compared to the density of water at 60F.]
Eq. (15) and (16) are the most convenient for calculating unit losses in Jiquid lines. Values of d5 are listed in
manufacturers' catalogs .
Example l-What is the pressure drop per 100 ft in
a 6-in Schedule 40 (I.D. == 6.065 in, d5 = 8,206 in") line
for kerosene? Liquid conditions are: flowrate, Q60
900 gpm; density, P60 = 51 lb/ft"; and temperature,
t = 321F.

,:,For 45 etbows and bends, estimate 50% of tabulated values.

For 180 o returns, doubte the tabulated values.
11l1111ll1l11l1l11ll\l1ll11llllllll1U\\lllJllJl!H\lmrfllllllrmlUtnlll!U/l1I1U/fUltlUI/IIIIHIWllunUIWIlUIUJIlIWIIIlU!!lUIlIIIllI11IIlIlUlI!\l\l11l11tl

IIlllltllIII1t11UlIIIIlIllIIlIl1l1l11IUU!lIIlIlUmllItlIlIlUUIl111111f1l1ll11ll1ll1lrmUUlUlIUlllfUIWltumtrlUUflllumWUtttlIHIIWWIIJUIIIJIlIlIIIlUII\\\\IItIItIlIIlUIHIIIII111IIUUIIII111!t\1lIU1I111111l1l11l11llIIllUIIIUJIIItl1ll11UIImUIlIlIlI11I1l11I1UllllllllllllllllltllI11111IIllfIUlllmllllllllllllfl!lrmlUlUlllmllU

Resistancesto Flow Ior Various Types of Valves- Table "

(Resistance in equivalent pipe length, ft)

Nominal
Pipe
Size.
In

Globe,* Fully pan,

Bevel or Plug Seat
Gale.
Fully

pan

I
~o

Swing

~o

ThreeWay Cock'

Check

Ball

StralghtThrough
Cock.'

SlraightThrough
Flows

Flow
Through
Branch

Butterny.
Fully Open
6

1Y,

1.75

46

23

18

17

20

2.5

20

2.25

60

30

24

22

25

3.5

7.5

24

2V,

2.75

70

38

30

27

30

30

10

3.5

90

45

38

35

38

12

36

12

15

48

15

70

23

4.5

120

60

48

45

50

6.5

175

88

72

65

75

10

'22

230

120

95

90

100

13

30

95

27

10

12

280

150

130

120

130

16

38

120

35

6.5

12

14

320

170

145

140

150

19

40

14

15

380

190

160

150

170

20

45

16

17

420

220

180

170

190

22

50

18

18

480

250

205

180

210

, 24

58

20

20

530

290

240

200

240

27

64

24

32

630

330

270

250

290

33

78

"For partially closed globe valves, multiply tabulated values by 3 for three-quarters open. by 12 for one-halt open, and by 70 for one-quarter open.
1 With port area open. Part afea = pipe area.
2 Port area equals 80% of pipe area.
1I!1lUlllIII1I1U1lll1IUlIlIllUlllllllllll1l1llllllllllJlllllllll\UlllllIIllllBllJ\lIl1l1l1!l!I!I1rllllImuurmUllmlUlltWrW""/11IIUlWIIIUUUlllrWl/IlIllJltltlllIlllllllllIIIIIllIUIIIIIIII1I11111111U1lJ1J1!lIlnUlllIllnuIIIIIIIIIIIIUI\I!llIlmIUIIIIllIIIIIJlIlIUUIlIlIllItIIIIIl!!tIlUH1I!1!11IJIIIIIHIIIIIIIHIlJIIIIIIIIIIIIUUlIIII

118

.,dANUARY6, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

t
(
t
l

Ji
e

e
e

First, sorne data preparation

summarized as:

is necessary, which is

IJIIIIUllIIIIIUl1l1lIIUUllII1!llllUltUIII11tI1UllUlrllHllll1U1UUUllllllrlllUllltIIUllUUIIIIIII1UIIll/1I1U11111J111111111J11l1tl1l1ll1ll1l1l1l1ll11l1l11U1111

of Eccentric and Concentric

Reducers, And of Sud den Changes in
Une Size- Table 111

Reststances

Specific gravity at 60'F: Sso == 51/62.37 == 0.82

Specific gravity at 321'F: S32l == 0.72 from Ref. 5a, Part 1.*
Density at 321'F: p == 62.37(0.72) == 44.9Ib/ft3
Expansion factor: E == Sso/S == 0.82/0.72 == 1.14
Flowrate at 321'F: Q == Q60/E == 900(1.14) == 1,026 gpm
Viscosity: p. == 0.3 cp from Ref. 5d, Part 1.*

We now calculate the Reynolds number at the owing

conditions:

(Resistince in equivalent pipe length, ft)

--'-.

t:,PlOO

1'4

V,

0.6

0.5

V,

1.2

0.7

:y,

0.6

0.6

Y<

1.6

1.0

1.2

0.9

2.2

1.3

1V,

1.3

1.3

1Yz

3.8

2.4

2.7

2.3

3.2

12

15

8
9.5

1Y,

== 1.92 psi/lOO ft
4

Sizing Gas and Vapor Lines

To size gas or vapor lines, we must convert Eq. (1'4)
and (15) to a weight fiowrate by substituting
0.125(W/p) into them. This conversion yields:

t:,p == 0.OO000336L(j /p)(W2/d5)

and for L

(17)

100 ft, Eq. (17) becomes:

_r

d1E:]d'

NE. == 1.281 X 106

t:,p 100 == 1.35(0.0154)(0.72)(1,026)2/8,206

L_
d,--dz

d,

The friction factor for this NRe is found from Fig. 5

and 6 of Part 1* of series, and hence, / = 0.0154. (Flow
falls in the transitional turbulent zone.) Substituting the
appropriate values into Eq. (16) yields:

dz-d,
L_

d,

NE. == 50.6(p/p.)(Q/d)
NE. == 50.6(44.9/0.3)(1,026/6.065)

_r

Nominal
szes,
In

14

(18)

where /:"P is pressure drop, psi, and /:,.PIOO is pressure

drop, psi/lOO ft.
Eq. (17) and (18) gve acceptable results, provdng
that (l) the average gas density of fiow is used:
P (PI + p2)/2, where PI is the density at the beginning
point and P2 is the density at the terminating point in
the pipe segrnent under investigation, and (2)
(PI - P2) ~ OAPI because energy losses due to accelerat~o'\aJ.ddensity variations can be neglected up to this

19

12

14

12

MIDO

== 0.OO0336(j/p)(WZ/d5)

10

dl8dz

12

10

14

t. '"

With longer pipelines where the total pressure drop

is greater than 40% of the upstream pressure, computations are done by considerng that the lne is divided into
segments, so that the pressure loss in each segment is
less than 40% of the upstream pressure. Densities, of
course, will be different in each segment.
If PI - P2 ~ 0.IP2, average values of p need not be
calculated. Either the downstream or upstream density
can.be used.
Example 2-What is the pressure drop per 100 ft in
a 4-n Schedule 40 (LD. = 4.026 in, d5 = 1,058 in") gas
line for rnethane? Gas fiowrate, W = 10,750 lb/h; molecular weight, M
16; temperature, t = 172F; pressure, P = 127 psig; and viscosity, fl = 0.0145 cp.
To find the pressure drop, we must use Eq. (18); and
in order to solve this equation, we must determine gas
density at fiowing conditions, and the friction factor.
For density, we place the appropriate values in the

16

18

20

'part 101 this series appeared in Chem. Eng., Dec. 23,1974.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/JANUARY 6,1975

6.5
22

14

22

14

10

15

13

12

27

17

10

23

17

12

15

15

14

10

30

19

12

23

19

14

15

15

16

12

30

23

14

21

23

16

13

13

18
24

18
20

I
S

I
~

I
;;1

6.5

"

'5

25

25

12

12

"

Note: Add these equivalent lengths to the equivalent en9th 01 the smaller
pipe and its components.
JllIlllIUIIIIUIIUUUlIlllIllUllllllUlllHlIllJUUllllllurwllllt/JlUIIHUUIIIIlIlIllI1I1UllrUIIl1I11UrmltlllU1UIIIIJUllllIIIUltlllltlllllll1ll1llUlllIllll

119

CE REFRESHER

.
"

IIII11UUIHmmlum!UuuwrUIlmfWIUlIIlIIll/ImUIIIIUIWIUUlUllHwrUIIIIUI//WllmJJ!nUIIIIIIIm!!mlllllm~i~'\I1hj!U!tltllll\ll1f11

vE7;dt

Resistances of Horizontal and

Inlets and Outlels- Table IV

(Resislance in equlvalentpipe lenqth, ff)

Resistance
Coellicient

K= 1.0

- __J

Nominal
Pipe Size,
In

--L

-r

j_

---,

___./

y,

1<

1.5

J!!f

K == 0.5

K= 0.78

0.23

-r- --r=:

\.__

L.__

0.5

2.5

1.5

0.75

1'

1Y2

5.5

3.5

1.75

4.5

2.25

15

12

7.5

3.75

20

16

10

36

29

18

48

38

24

12

10

62

49

31

15

12

78

60

39

19

14

88

70

44

22

16

100

78

50

25

18

120

95

60

30

20

136

107

68

34

24

170

135

85

42

_._

is computed. If the ()xerall pressure loss "is close to and

less than the availab~~ pressure differencebetween two
points in a pipeline, the selected size is accepted fOI the
given flow conditions.
In pipeline calculations, it is convenient to obtain pressure loss per 100 ft of pipe, I1PlOO' Multiplying 11'P100 by
the equivalent length of pipe and fittings (L, ft) between
two points yields the overall pressure loss:
/lP

(19)

/lP1oo(L/100), psi

The equivalent-pipe-Iength concept is the quickest and

most convenient method for calculating overall pressure
drop, Friction loss through a pipe component can be
converted to an equivalent pipe length if the pressure
drop between the piping ends is the same as between
the two ends of the piping cornponent. Sizes are assumed
to be identica!.
The equivalent length of fittings and valves, the exit
length and the entrance length can be quickly obtained
from Tables I to IV. These tables have been compiled
from a nomograph published by Crane Co.
Example 3-What is the overall pressure loss between
points 1 and 2 fOI a pipeline whose nominal size is 6 in,
as sketched here?

"

1t1l1l1l1!!111t1IIUnnUI1!UIIlIlI11IIIt1UlIlIlllIllllHlmlllll11fllJltllIIlUrUIIIUIIIl1l11!!lIlmIIfllllrUlHUWIlIlfIIlUUlWWUllUllli,Ullmrllllllflmr

Al! dimensions are in

p = MP' /IO.72Tz
P

16(127 + 14.7)
10.72(460 + 172)1

= 0.334 lb/ft

To establish the friction factor,f, we must determine

the Reynolds number:*

tt.

Use lonq-radius elbows.

following relation, * keeping in mind that pressure and

temperature are in absolute units:

By the methods outlined previously, we have found

that the pressure drop for the 100-foot length ofthe pipeline is I1P 100 = 1.92 psi.
From Table l, we determine the equivalent pipe length
fOI the 6-in long-radius elbow as 10 ft, and for fow
through a 6-in tee as 10 ft, Hence, for this piping system,
we get:

NRe = 6.31 W/d.t

NRe = (6.31)(10,750)/(4.026)(0.0145)
NRe = 1.162 X 106

For this value of the Reynolds number, we find that _

the friction factor* is: f 0.0166.
By substituting the appropriate values into Eq. (18),
we obtain:

t::.PlOO = 0.000336(0.0166/0.334)[(1O,750)2l1,058J
o

/lP100

= 1.82 psi/lOO ft

Overall Pressure Loss

Most piping problems are solved by trial and error.
A pipe size is selected, its resistance is calculated for a
given set of flow conditions, and the ovrall pressure loss
For the origin and development 01these retatons, see Par! 1 01 !his seri".s.
Chem. Eng.. Dec. 23. 1974, p. 58. In Par! 1. density is Eq. (4); Reynolds number
is Eq. (13); and Iric!ion factor is obtained from Fig. 5 and 6.

120

Actual length
6 long-radius elbows:
2 flow-through tees:
Equivalent pipe length

78 ft
6XIO=60ft
2 X 10 = 20 ft
158 ft

Using these data in Eq. (19), we find:

!lP

=::

1.92(158/100) = 3,04 psi

The conversion between equivalent pipe length and

the resistance coefficient, K, can be calculated from

K =fL/D.
There is no shortcut to graphic piping designo Pipe
configurations have to be drawn or sketched in considerabl detail so, that equivalent lengths of piping,
fittings and other components contributing to the resistance of fluid flow can be, accurately added.
The next article of this series will appear in the
Feb.3, 1975 issue, and will review measurement of fiow
with orifices and flow nozzles. #
.,' JANUARV 6, 1975/CHEMICAl

ENGINEERING

CHEIV

A properly chosen flow device must develop.Jhe

maximum differential pressure and be sized..fgr
the correct Reynolds number in arder t~~btain
an accurate reading of pipeline rate of

f\W.
,

easuring flow In ipes

ith
rie Si an
zzles
ROBERT KERN, Hoffmann - La Roche lnc.'

To measure flow accurately, the designer of flow systems must provide a pipe diameter of sufficient size and,
equally important, a suitable configuration for the piping.
We will closely examine these parameters in relation
to the sizing of orifices and flow nozzles in piping systems.
Furthermore, we will take a look at associated requirements to ensure:
.
11m Adequate straight-run of piping before and after the
flow device.
~ Economy of the piping layout.
fi!l Provision for orifice taps, straightening van es, and
separator chambers.
fll1l Accessibility to the flow device, and instruments
connected to it, when installed in the piping system.
The most common device for measuring flow is a thin
plate with a square-edged hole in the center, held between a pair of flanges. Usually, this orifice is a stainlesssteel plate, %-in thick (for lines 16 in, or larger, Y4-in
thick). Minimum orifice bore is usually % in. If required,
a small vent hole and.drain hole are drilled in the orifice
plate-slightly overlapping the internal pipe wall at the
top and bottom. A pair of jack screws, installed in the
flanges, force the flange faces apart for replacing the
orifice plateo Pressure taps through the flanges provide
the means fOI connecting the orifice pIate to indicating,
recording or transmitting instruments. The entire assembly is shown in Fig. 1.
If an orifice is placed in a pipeline, with fluid flowing
through it, the pressure will vary along th~ orifice piperun, as shown in fig. 2...Ft a selected.installation and
fluid, the pressure difference between the .irrletand outlet
meet your author, ser,ehem, Erig" Dec. 23,'1974, p. 66,

72

sides of the orifice varies in proportion to the flowrate.

This pressure variation is .sensed by a suitable instrument-the simplest of which is a U-tube manometer.

Piping and Orlce Sizing

We will review the fundamental relations for flow
through an orifice by using Darcy's equation, hL =
Kv2j2g, (Chem. Eng., Jan. 6,1975, p. 117) to express the
flow velocity as:
(1)

where 'VfiK= e, the orifice flow coefficient.

From Part 1 of this series (Chem. Eng., Dec. 23, 1974,
p. 64), we find the velocity-of-fiow formulas:
v = OA08( Q/d;)

(2)

v = 0.0509 W /(cPop)

By setting Eq. (1) and (2), and Eq. (1) and (3), equal
to each other, we find flowrate through the orifice proportional to:
Q

==

19,67Cd~Y

W = 157.66C;y;;;'i

(4)
(5)

where Q, gpm, or W, lb/h, is the flowrate capable of

passing through a given orifice bore (do' in.) with a pressure differential (expressed as the head of flowing fluid
between the inlet and outlet sides of the orifice), hL, ft.
To change Eq. (4) and (5) into a form usable for
selecting the orifice bore and metering range, or for sizing
pipe, the following changes are necessary:
1. Most orifice manometers (recording and transrnitting instruments) are calibrated to indicate the pressure
FEBRUARV 3, 1975/CHEMICAl

ENGINEERING

ORIFICE

mounts between pair 01 llanges-Fig.

PRESSURE distribution along orifice run-Fig. 2

ditTerential across the orfice as a head ofwater at 60 P,

in. Thus, h[o has to be replaced by h", in inches of water:
hLP = (h",/12)PGO",' or:
0

For any fluid:

(6)

For liquids:
hL = (h",/12)(l/S)

(7)

2. For pipe sizing, the orifice diameter must be replaced by the internal diameter of the pipe. This is accomplished by using the ratio of the orfice bore (do) to
that of the pipe inside diameter (d1), i.e, f3
do/d1, or
do = d1f3
Inserting these values for hI, and do into Eq, (4) and
(5) yields:

Q = 5.68fiZCdr(v'h::IVS)

(S)

(9)

=:

359.43jJ2Cdi';;;

Eq. (8) and (9) are convenient formulas for orifice

pipe sizing with any chosen f3 ratio. A practical range
is: f3 = 0.25 to 0.75.
(Instrument engineers multiply the righthand side of
Eq. (8) by S/Sao if manometer indication is required at
a standard 60 F Iiquid-fow condition. Also, they provide
a more detailed evaluation of the flow coefficient. These
refinements do not concern piping-design and associated
uid-fiow calculations.)
When using Eq. (9) for finding the weight ftow ofvapor
or gas, we assume that the density stays constant while
the gas is ftowing through a restriction. Strictly speaking,
this is not true, However, the reduction in density due
to a decrease in pressure can be neglected, especially if
CHEMICAl ENGINEERING/FEBFlUARV 3, 1975

the line pressure is high compared to the pressure differential across the orfice.
Values for the orifice flow coefficient, e, are established
by experiment and can be obtained from a chart such
as that in Fig, 1. Up to an NRo of 10,000, the flow coefficient changos greatly with varying Reynolds numbers and
flow capacities, This makes for inaccuracies in flow
measurcrncnts. Between an NRe of 10,000 to 100,000, the
flow coefficient decreases about 4% to 5% with increasing
Reynolds numbers. Above an NIIe = 100,000, lhe value
for e remains constant. For reasonable accuracy, pipe
sizes should be selected so that NR"
20,000 for Reynolds numbers calculated with the internal diameter of the
pipe.
In practical applications, f3 is usually 0.7 or a maximum
of 0.75. Thc corresponding flow coefficients for NIIe ~
100,000 are e = 0.692 or 0.722. With these values, the
capacity coefficients, f32e, and sizing formulas, Eq. (8)
and (9), become:

>

For

For

f3

f3

= 0.7, pe = 0.339,

and:

Q = 1.926di(Vh.'-;''S)

(lO)

W = 121.87diVh:P-

(11)

= 0.75, f32e = 0.406,

and:

Q = 2.31d~(Vh':;-/VS)

(12)

W = 145.93diVh:P

(13)

The term h", in Eg. (10) through (13) has two meanings. First, it is the head loss across the orfice. Expressing
it as a pressure differential: ts P == (h1O/12)(62.37/144),
or t,Po = 0.0361hw.
The permanent pressure loss of an orifice-flowmeter
instaIlation is less than the pressure ditTerential measured
73

CE REFRESHER

...

across the orifice plate. As the high-velocity jet from the

orifice impinges upon the slower downstream fluid, sorne
ofthe jet's kinetic energy converts back to pressure. Thus,
the downstream pressure becornes higher than the pressure existing at the orifice outlet. The amount of 6. Po
permanently lost is a function of the f3 ratio, and can
be obtained from Fig. 3. For example, at f3 = 0.7, the
permanent 105S is 52% of the orifice pressure differential.
Second, hw is the deflection of the manometer (or any
other differential-pressure device) taken al the flowing
condition of the fiuids. For good readings or reliable
operation, the selected instrument should have a scale
. or measuring range greater than the calculated defiection
at maximum fiow. At normal fiow, the defiection should
be roughly between one-third and two-thirds of the
.measuring range. Practical instrument calibrations range
from 20 to 400 in; the most common is 100 in.
A liquid near its boiling point when fiowing through
an orifice should have a minimum of pressure drop to
avoid vaporization. Sufficient positive liquid head up./-0\ stream of the orifice can overcome possible vaporization.
Liquid-vapor mixtures cannot be reliably measured with
differential-pressure producing restrictions,

Flow Capacities 01 Orlflces

",/

Often, pipe sizes are determined before orifice sizing

is done. Hence, adjustments have to be rnade in the
design in order to get reliable flow metering. As Eq. (8)
and (9) reveal, three adjustments to orifice flow capacities
can be made:
l. Increase Une Size-Increasing the line size for the
entire straight-run of orifice piping is the most expensive
adjustment. However, this is often necessary to accommodate large fiows. For piping up to l2-in dia., an increase of one pipe-size is usually made. For larger pipe
diameters, an increase of two pipe-sizcs is also possible.
Any increase in pipe diameter should be closely followed
with a check on the Reynolds number,
2. Change Manometer Range-Any change in manometer range is coupled with an altered pressure drop. The
change in pressure 105S must be accounted for in the
overall fiow-system designo If pressure differences are

100
~c
'>--

'>--

6'<

o 20
6'<
- 30
>
o
o
e 40

~-

C
do
di
g
hL
hm

6.Po

Q
S
S60

v
W

f3
f32C
fiP
P,;o
Pr;",

Flow coefficient for orificc or flow nozzle

Diametcr of orfice or flow nozzle, in
Inside diarneter of pipe, in
Gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/S2
Head loss in terrns of Ilowing fluid, ft
Manometer deflection, or head loss across orifice
[see text following Eq. (13)], in of water at 60F
Diflerential pressure across orifice or flow nozzle,
psi
Volume flowrate at flowing temperaturc, gpm
Specific gravity of liquid at flowing tempcrature
Specific gravity of liquid at 60F
Mean vclocity of fluid, ft/s
Weight flowrate, lb/h
Ratio of orifice (or flow nozzle) diameter to inside
diameter of pipe
Capacity coefficient for orifice or flow nozzle
Viscosity, cp
Fluid density at flowing condition, lb/ft"
Liquid density. at 60F, lb/ft"
Density of water at 60F, 62.37 lb/ft3
FU

available in a piping system, hw can be increased for

larger flow capacities. If the available pressure difference
is Iimitcd, an increase in pipe diameter and a decrease
in manometer deflection might be neccssary. In a pump
discharge, a manometer with a high dcflcction might not
be economical becausc of the high cost of utility power
to overcome the pcrrnanent pressure loss across thc orifice.
The formulas for estimating orifice deflections from Eq.
(8) and (9) are:

..,

-.;;;= 0.176Q

;; 50
ru
'"

e
w
e

ro

60

E
Q)

e,

70
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 ---0.5 0.6 0.7
Ratio of orifice diameter to nipediameter , i3 = do/d,

74

loss through orifices-Fig.

r
Eq.

On
sele

(14)

cak

[Ifinstrument defiection is calculated for a standard 60F

liquid-fiow calibration, hw is multiplied by (S60/S)2.]

ests
relz
6.P,

For vapor and gas f1ow:

FOI

= 0.00278 W/(dif32C

vp),

inH

(15)

DeJ

3. Change f3 Ratio-Any
change in the f3 ratio is
coupled with a corresponding value of the orifice flow
coefficient. An adjustment can be made (generally to
reduce capacity) by using capacity coefficients, {12C,
ranging from 0.04 to 0.4. If the ratio is less than 0.7, the
orifice pressure differential and the percentage of permanent pressure loss will increase for the same f1owrate.

ma

Examp~emustl"lItesProcedures

in 1
inle

Flo
B

indi

Let us design an orifice installation for 3-in Schedule

40 (di = 3.068 in, d1 = 9.413) pump-discharge lineoFlow
data are: Q = 160 gpm of kerosene, p == 50 lb /ft",
S = 0.8, !L = 1.3 cp, and {1 = 0.7. (PC = 0.339.
First, we evaluate the Rcynolds number by inserting
the appropriate values into:
Nac

PERMANENT pressure

VSi(d~f32C), inl/2

Q_

Sin
exc
ges

2.1:

For liquid flow:

.9

Q)

a:

Nomenclature

= 50.6(Q/d )(plf!-)
1

Na. = 50.6(160/3.068)(50/1.3)

==

101,500

FEBRUARV 3, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

adv
con
600/,
orif
defl
doe
sure
F
for
CHE

FLOW NOZZLE

mounts between flanqes=Fiq, 4

lines and shorter straight length can provide cost cornpensation.

Because of its width, a ftow nozzle is more difficult
to replace than the thin, fiat-plate orifice. To replace fiow
nozzles, the piping must be sprung well-apart where
ftanged and bent pipe sections are not provided.
Flow nozzles can handle liquids with high viscosities,
and fiuids with sorne entrained solids. They are suitable
for high-pressure and high-ternperature services, for saturated steam, and for high-velocity ftuid measurements.
Their application might be useful at existing installations
where pipe sizes are too small for square-edged orifices.
Flow-nozzle capacity and piping are sized in the same
way as the components of orifices by using Eq. (8), (9), (14)
and (15), as applicable.
The Reynolds number should be equal to or greater
than 50,000, a value usually attained without difficulty.
Flow coefficients are readily found from the diagram in
Fig. 4. The percentage of permanent pressure loss is
obtained from Fig. 3. For feasibility in manufacturing,
commercial sizes of ftow nozzles are Iimited, The follow-

Since the calculated Reynolds number is considerably in

excess of 20,000 (the minimum value previously suggested), we find the 3-in pipe size suitable. "_
Next, we compute the manometer deftection by using
Eq. (14) with the values for this problem:

y;;;= 0.176(1601 V.8i/(0.339)(9.413) = 7.9 in1/2

h;

== 62.4 in.

On the basis ofthis value for hw the mano meter range

selected is 100 in.
Since f3 = do/d1, we can compute do as 0.7(3.068), or
2.15 in. The differential pressure across the orifice is
calculated: 6.Po = 0.0361(62.4) = 2.25 psi. Finally, we
establish the permanent pressure loss by obtaining its
relation to 6.Po from Fig. 3. For f3
0.70, 52% of actual
6.Po is the loss. For this example, we now find t::"p for:

For a deftection of 62.4 in:

f:.P = 0.52(2.25) = 1.17 psi.

Defiection at assumed value of 100 in is:

b..P = (100/62)1.17 = 1.88 psi

Flow I\!ozzles as Measuring Devlces

Between line-size fianges, a ftow nozzle is held in place
in a manner similar to that for an orifice plate, as shown
in Fig. 4. A short cylindrical section, well rounded at the
inlet, provides the ftow restriction. Two taps lead to the
indicating, recording or transmitting instrument. The
advantage of a ftow nozzle is that its ftow coefficient (and,
consequently, flow capacity) for a given ratio is about
60% greater than that of the same size square-edged
orifice. For the same flowrate and similar manometer
deflection, the ftow nozzle requires a smaller f3 ratio than
do es an orifice plateo Consequently, the permanent pressure loss could be roughly the same for both devices.
Flow nozzles are more expensive than orifice pIates
for the same pipe size. Their larger capacities, smaller
CHEMICAl ENGINEERING/FEBRUARV 3, 1975

STRAIGHT-RUN needs for orfice pping-Fg. 5

75

CE REFRESHER .

Vena Contracta Taps:

M = 1 x pipedia, N varieswith do/d1

Radius Taps:
= 1 x pipedia, N

ComerTaps

r-2Y:.pipe(jj",.;,.!.""'----__;_-8

0.5 x pipedia

pipedia.,---------1

Une Taps
TAP TYPESthat can be installed in existing pipelines without special flanges-Fig. 6

ing average f3 ratios and capacity coefficients

be taken for ASME nozzles:

f32C can

{J 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.70 0.75

{J2C 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.38 0.46 0.55 0.67

Piping Design and Pipe COi1lfigUll'ation

For reliable, accurate and consistent fiow metering,
adequate straight-Iength of piping must be provided
before and after an orifice plate, or any other differential-pressure fiow-measuring element.
A straight pipe-run is more critical at the inlet side
of the orifice. The straight length increases with increasing f3 ratio (i.e., do/d1). The minimum straight length
before the orifice is affected by pipe configurations and
the location of valves and fittings, just before the runo
The straight-length requirements after the orfice also
increase with increasing f3 ratio. As a conservative dimension, use five times the pipe diameter for all f3 ratios,
as the minimum requirement. For orifices with fiange
taps, the minimum size for the orifice pipe diarneter
equals 2 in. For orifice runs smaller than 2 in, install
calibrated piping.
Recommendations for straight run of piping for various piping configurations have been given by many ex76

perimenters. The American Gas Assn. (AGA)-American

Soco of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Committee on
Orifice Coefficients [1] has published standard arrangements for fiow-meter piping. There are eight diagrams
called schedules-seven
are for orifices and one for
venturi meters. These show piping configurations and
required straight length of piping for orifices, fiow nozzles
and venturies.
The piping configurations of Fig. 5 are based on the
AGA-ASME schcdules for a do/d1 ratio of 0.7. Practical
orifice-piping arrangements usually fall into one of these
configurations. The dimensions shown in Fig. 5 are also
suitable for f3 ratios smaller than 0.7.

Ecol1omy 01 Piping t.ayout

Short and simple piping is desirable-expecially
for
large-diameter piping with heavy wall thicknesses or for
expensive alloy piping. Occasionally, equipment locations, pipe connections, and predetermined distan ces can
also intluence orifice-piping dimensions. The minimum
straight-Iength requirements are only possible if the do/ d1
ratio is between 0.25 to 0.40. In these cases, the piping
designer should refer to the AGA-ASME schedules for
minimum dimensional requirements.
FEBRUARY3, 1975/CHEMiCAl ENGINEERING

Well-chosen
pipe configurations
can shorten orifice
pipe runs. Comparisons
for this can be appreciated
by
examining the details shown in Fig. 5. The natural con, figuration of the piping can also serve for inserting ftow
elements. For example, these are the verticallines around
a tower, lines in pipe racks, and lines approaching process
equipment for yard-piping headers. For smaller process
lines, fiow elernents can be placed in one of the vertical
legs of a U-type control-valve assembly.
For clean liquid, dry gas or air, horizontal piping is
preferred for the orifices or flow nozzles. For saturated
steam, wet gas or air, vertical downflow is preferred;
however, horizontal piping is usually also acceptable.
With clean liquid, dry gas, air and superheated
steam,
vertical upflow can also be considered. For liquids con-

taining suspended solids, the orifices or

should have large diameters, and piping
downflow arrangement. For good pipeline
centric orifices can be used in horizontal
thus providing a common low point for
orifico bore.

Gasfiow

,,---.....

I
I

Provide

cover
removal
space

..o

r__
I

eo
x

LL

'"

s:
1-

flow nozzles
should be in
drainage, ecslurry linesthe pipe and

t.ecatons tor Orice Taps

For measuring the differential pressure across an
orifice, a high-pressure (upflow) tap and a low-pressure
(downflow) tap are provided. Tap sizes range from % in
to % in, depending on nominal size and flange rating.
Taps can be in a horizontal position for liquids; and in
the case of horizontal pipe, in a vertical upward position
for vapors.
In most cases, taps are locatcd in the ow-rneter
anges, as shown in Fig. 1, for lines 2 in. and larger.
Flange taps are the least sensitive to viscosity changes.
Comer, vena-contracta, radius and line taps are shown
in Fig. 6. Comer taps connect to the comer of the inside
wall of an orifice plate, Thesc taps are used in orifice
flanges in lines smaller than 2 in. Vena-contracta taps are
located in the pipeline. The high-pressure point is located
one pipe diameter upstream, and the low-pressure point
is at the minimum pressure point. This varies with the
do/ d1 ratio. Dimensions can be obtained frorn the diagram in Fig. 6. Vena-contracta taps give the largest
manometer deflection. Radius taps are a close approximation of vena-contracta taps. Line taps are 2.5 pipe
diameters upstream (high-pressure point), and 8 pipe
diameters downstream (low-pressure point). Line taps
give the smallest deflection,
The advantage of vena contracta, radius and line taps
is that they can be installed in existing pipelines, and
the orfice plate can be placed between standard fianges.
Straight length of piping should be measured frorn the
taps. The usual tap size is % in.

Separa~o~Charnbers
Dirty liquids, moist or condensing gases and corrosive
fluids require that separation charnbers or driplegs be
installed between the orifice tap and the manometer or
pressure transmitter. These cham bers are closely
mounted to both orfice taps and instruments. Sedirnent
charnbers with drain valves collect solido suspended in

Liquid fiow

DlFFERENTiAl pressure cel! mounts nearby to minimize

length of interconnecting tubing,-Fig. 7

Iiquids, or moisture carried with noncondensing gases.

Air charnbers with vent valves, installed at high points,
collect air entrained in liquids. Condensing chambers are
used in steam service. Sealing chambers between orfice
tups and instruments separate corrosive chemicals from
contact with the instrument components.

Accessibiliiy lo tnstruments
The piping designer must consider access and space
requirement to orifce-tap valves and to instruments connected to ori fices.
The minimum elevation of orifice runs is approximately 2 to 2.5 ft aboye grade. Where heavy snow fall
is common at outdoor installations, a higher minirnum
elevation is chosen. The recornmended elevation for
piping with orifice anges is 7 ft aboye grade or platform
elevation. This is the case for orfice runs in pumpdischarge lines, and in exchanger inlet and outlet lines.
In pipe racks, straight runs are easily provided. Hence,
77

CE REFRESHER ..

For pressure transmitting, an often-used device is the

differential-pressure cel!. This instrument is mounted in
the proximity of the orifice anges (Fig. 7) in an accessible location.
Differential-pressure cells and manometers should be
located relative to orifice fianges so that interconnecting
tubing can be provided without a loop or pocket. A loop
must be vented, and a pocket can collect sedimento This
can affect trouble-free instrument operation.
A flow controller is also usually incorporated in an
instrument loop. This controller is often mounted on a
support at grade or platform elevation, and reasonably
close to the orifice and control valve. Space requirement
is about 2 ft square and 3.5 ft high. Transmitters and controllers should be accessible.

Straightening Vanes

STRAIGTENING

VANES shorten straight run-Fig. 8

orfice fianges in the pipng are arranged at the edge of

rack about 1.5 to 2 ft from supporting columns. If two
or three pairs of orfice flanges are grouped side by side
(or in two levels) in yard piping, the minimum horizontal
or vertical distance between orifice flanges shouid be
about 2 to 3 ft, Orifice flanges placed in the center of
pipe runs between pipe supports can be a source of pipe
vibration.
Where only metering flanges and taps are provided and
only occasional fiow indication is needed, access by portable ladder is suffcient.
Locally mounted indicating and measuring fiowmeters
are more frequently inspected, If necessary, permanent
platform and ladder access is provided. In this category
are instruments for measuring fiow in process feed lines,
product lines, and utility lines.
With automatic fiow control, there is permanent instrument wiring and tubing between the measuring element, transmitter, recorder, controller and the control
valve. These components should be closely arrangcd
where possible. Flange or line taps are permanently
open. Reasonable temporary access to these valves is
sufficient.
Locally mounted indicating, recording and transmitting instruments should be visible from the operating
aisle. The .inclined type of U'-tube mario meter offers a
more compact unit vertically, Dial-type indicators and
recorders, calibrated in fowrates, are also available.
These can be locally and remotely mounted.
78

The straight-length requirements enable the development of a symmetrical velocity pattern and steady flow
in the moving mass of fluid. Hence, when the fluid meets
the flow restriction, stable mcasuring conditions are
present. The same flow conditions may also be developed
with straightening vanes, which require a shorter straight
run (Fig. 8). Straightening vanes work well while they
are clean and new, and most important, if piping is
suitably designed and the vanes well positioned. Even
slight corrosion, erosion or deposits will hamper their
function, and hence measurements will be inaccurate.
If a straightening vane is preceded by an elbow, it
might defeat its own purpose. The distorted velocity
distribution developed in the elbow is captured in the
straightening vane and 0111y slightly corrected in the short
upstream orifice pipe-runo A distorted flow pattern will
result through the orifice, and a true value of pressure
difference wiU not likely exist. By replacing the elbow
with a tee (capped at one end), a more symmetrical
veIocity distribution can be obtained than by a straightening vane preceded by an elbow. Manufacturers of these
devices can recommend proper instalIation practices.
Location and dimensional details are given in the AGAASME schedules [1].
The next article in this series wilI appear in the Mar.
3, 1975 issue, and wilI take up additional ow-rneasurement techniques by means of venturi meters, flow
tubes, pitot tubes and rotatmeters. #

References
1. Sprenkle, R. E., Piping Arrangements for Acceptable Flow Meter
Accuracy, Trans. ASME, 67, 345 (1945).
2. Terrell, C. E. and Bcan, H. S., "AGA Gas Measurernent Manual,"
American Gas Assn., Arlington, Va., 1963.

Corrections: Part 1, Chem. Eng., Dec. 23, 1974

p. 64: Change seventh line to read:
PVk = constant, where 1<: = c,1e". For gases, the
p.64:
v = 0.0509 Wj(d2p)
p. 64:
d2 = 0.0509 W(vp), in."

(9)

(11)

p. 66: Change third line in first column to read:

absolute viscosity in lb,,/(ft-s).

FEBRUARY 3, 1975/CHEMICAl

ENGINEERING

e lE

RefiAesher

Proper installation of any tlowmeter in

fluid systems is essential in relation to
piping layout, streamline-flow conditions,
and accessibility to the device and its
associated instruments and connections.

1
1
, .~

'j'

ROBERT KERN, Hoffmann-La Roche lnc. *

For measuring flow in process lines, we must consider

a varety of metering devices, We then select a meter,
meter size and piping configuration to provide the mosl
accurate flow-metering for the job.
In Part 3 of this series (Chem. Eng" Feb, 3, 1975, p.
72), we examined orifices and flow nozzles as metering
elernents. We will now discuss and show how to apply
venturis, pitot tubes, flow tubes and rotameters.

Venturi Flow Meters

(

In principie, venturis work in ihe same way as orificesdo. However, the permanent pressure loss across the
venturi is very small; and in well-designed systems, venturis requre about one-half the straight length of pipe
than do orifice meters for the same aceuracy. For measuring the same flowrate, venturi meters often require a
smaller pipe size than do orifices. Also, venturis can
handle much higher capacity ranges (10 to 1; some even
20 to 1) than orifices (4 to 1).
From the standpoint of piping design, we must resolve
the following questions in order to apply venturis properly:
.
1. Can a calculated pipe size accommodate a venturi
meter? Both the pipe and venturi are sized with the same
flow data.
2. Is it possible to fit a venturi meter into a given pipe
configuration without additional pipe Iength and fittings?
The calculation procedures yield the diameters for the
inlet pipe and throat of the venturi. Manufacturers' catalogs give the overall length for a selected type and size
of venturi [1].

Commercial Venturi Meters

The venturi meter' (Fig. 1) consists of a short cylindrical
section having a high-pressure connection; an inlet cone;
CHEM1CAL ENG1NEERING/MARCH 3, 1975

a throat section having a low-pressure connection; and

an outlet cone. As fluid moves through the throat of the
vcnturi, ts velocity increases and pressurc dccreascs. The
resulting differential pressure is proportiorial to the flowrate and is used for ftow-metering.
The simplest venturi meter (Fig. la) finds use in hightemperature and high-pressure services. Cornpared with
other venturi meters, its cost is low. It has a short overall
length and high pressure-recovery characteristics. This
meter can be used for slurries and for liquids containing
solids. In slurry se'tvice, the pressure connections are
fiushed intermittently. Available sizes range from 1 to
12 in.
The standard short-form venturi tube (Fig. lb) has a
wide range of industrial applications. The low-pressure
and high-pressure taps are connected to annular chambers-Iocated
around the inlet cylinder section and
around the throat. Small radial holes interconnect the
charnbers with the inlet cylinder on the one hand, and
the throat section on the other, In this way, the average
pressure is sensed at the pressure taps; and hence, this
venturi is not as sensitive to irregularities in (he velocity ,
distribution of the fluid. This type of venturi is usually
suitable for clean liquid and gas services.
The standard long-form venturi tube (Fig. le) has a
smaller permanent pressure loss than the short formespecially at lower throat diameter to pipe diameter
ratios.
The short-form and long-form venturis operare with
a wide flow range because the diseharge coefficient stays
constant. Beeause of the annular chambers at the inlet
section and throat, metering aceuracy is scarcely
by upstrearn flow disturbances. Both are available in
frorn J lo 48 in.
For high-pressure and high-tcmperature scrviccs,
previously.described meters are also available as weldcdTo meet your author, see Chem. Eng" Dec. 23. 1974. p. 66.

161

'

CE REFRESHER

_ Thraat

Inletcane-/

t.ow-pressure tap

L - - - Highpressuretap
a. Venturi Nozzle

h. Short-Form Venturi
,,-~ High-pressure
Low-pressure --;,
annular chambers

L H igh-pressure tap

\_ Low-pressure tap
b, Welded

Ref. [1 J

e, Long-Form Venturl

DALL flow tube has high .pressure differential-Fig.

Sizing procedures for venturi meters (or any differen.tial-pressure producing flow element) are idcntical lo
those for orfice calculations, as given in Part 3 of this
series tChem. Eng., Feb. 3, 1975, pp. 72-75). Of course,
numerical va1ues for the flow coefficients differ, and the
range of throat diameters is not as wide as that for
orifices.
Flowrates and head losses across venturis are calculated from the following relations for:
Ref_ [1]
VENTURIS

d. Flanged-Insert Venturi
tor various service requirements-Fig.

Liquids at fiowing temperature:

1

insert designs having fianged or beveled ends, Fig. Id

is a fianged insert nozzle with annular rings to the pressure taps. This is an economica1 venturi from the standpoint of capital cost and (because of high pressure recov- .
ery) utility costo Sizes range from 4 to 42 in.
Where the lowest head loss and a high pressure differential for metering are required, the Dall flow tube is
chosen. Fig. 2a shows the cast-metal version for sizes 6
to 48 in, and Fig. 2b shows the welded designo The Dall
flow tube has the shortest overalllength among the venturis for the same pipe size. Its installation is easy. In
large sizes, a Dall tube costs less than a comparable
venturi.
162

l.

Q == 5.68/PCf_CNv's), gpm
...:; == O.176CQv's)/Cdi/PC), inI/Z

(1)
(2)

Vapors or gases at fiowing conditions:

W

= 359.43/32Cf_v'h:P, lb/h

y;; == O.00278W/(di/3ZCyp),

nI/2

(3)
(4)

The differential pressure across venturi meters, t:.Pv'

is given by:
D.Pv == (hw/12)(62.37/144)

==

O.0361hm, psi

(5)

A'summary ofsizing data js given in Fig. 3. The cornparison between various venturi meters for permanent
pressure loss can be obtained from the graph as shown
in Fig. 3. .The most economical installation from the
standpoint of piping and utility costs, i.1.I'\o the 111O;! acMARCH 3, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERiNG

Nomenclature

Pressure Distributlon

Along Venturi

Flow coefcient for venturi

Throat diameter of venturi, in
Inside diameter of pipe, in.
Gravitational constant, 32.2 n/s2
Manometer dcection or head loss, in of water
at 60'F
'
Capacity coefcient for Annubar
Differential pressure across venturi meter, psi
Volume flowrate at flowing temperature, gpm
Specific gravity of liquid at Ilowing tcrnpcrature
Specific gravity of liquid al 60'P
Wcight flowrate, lb/h
Ratio of throat diameter of venturi to inside
diameter of pipe
Capacity coeffcient for venturi
Fluid density at owing conditions, Ib/ft3
Liquid density at 60'F, lb/ft"
Density of water at 60F, 62.37 Ib/ft3

Tube

0.7
0.6

~
co,

0.5

~
e

0.4

..,'
e

curate metering, can be obtained with a

The maximum f3 ratio is 0.75.

How To Install Venturi Meters

o
o

'
ro
o.

0.3

ro
o 0.2

0.1

0.4

Permanent Pressure Loss Through Venturi Meters

70
30
./ Short-torrn ventur tu be,
venturi nozzle
80 f---~I -+---120
Dall flow tu be
90

100

0.2

0.3

0.4 0.5 0.6

Ratio, {3 = do/d1

0.7

0.8

{3 Ratios and Capacity Constants, {32

e,

F9r Commercal Venturi Meters

Average value, {3 ~ do/dI :

0.35 0.45

long-form venturi, short-form

venturi, venturi nozzle {32

0_12

e
e

0.12

Flanged-inlet, venturi

{32

Dall flow tuba

{32

Typical Manometer Ranges for Venturi Meters.

hw

Vhw

f3 ratio of 0.5.

20

30

40

60

80

120

160

240

320

4.47 5.48 6.33 7.75 8.94 10.96 12.65 15.5 17.9

"In. 01 water

PRESSURE drop and sizing data tor venturis-Fig.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/MARCH3, 1975

'

A venturi tube may be installed in a horizontal, vertcal-upfow or -downflow: or inclined position, providing
the venturi is always fuIl of the fluid being metered. In
most cases, the valved pressure taps (usually % in) are
horizontal.
The general rule requires as much straight-run of upstream pipe as possible in order to have a symmetrical
velocity profile. Venturi meters, in most installations,
need less straight upst~eam piping than do orfices, pitot
tubes or flow nozzles. Generally, with a smaller f3 ratio,
shorter upstream piping can be provided. SpecificaIly,
with f3 == 0.53, a straight run equal to 10 times the inlet
diameter is adequate, with f3 == 0.63, a straight run equal
to 20 times the inlet diameter is needed for a two-plane
pipe configuration. Upstream straight-run requirements
for various fittings can be estimated from the diagrams
shown in Fig. 4.
Straightening vanes can reduce the required upstream
pipe length. For a reasonable installation, use a minimum length of two pipe diameters upstream of the inlet
flange to the straightening vane, and '(he same length
between tJ{e vane's outlet and the venturi tube's inlet.
Usually the segmental type of straightening vane is
chosen .(see Part 3, Fig. 8, Chem. Eng., Feb. 3, 1975, p.
78). Configuration ofthe downstream piping has no effect
on rnetering accuracy. Reducers or elbows can be flanged
to the venturi outlet. Provide a straight run of two pipe
diameters if the venturi is followed by a valve.
If a noncorrosive clean fluid is being metered, the
venturi meters can be buried with only the pressure-tap
valves located aboye grade.
Large venturi meters in slurry service can have cleanout ports, vents with drains at both annnlar chambers,
inspection openings on the outlet cone, a manhole in the
piping joint just after the outlet cone, and valved purge
conncctions in addition lo the prcssure-sensing taps. AH
'63

CE REFRESHER

__
-

Low-pressure connection

'" High-pressure __
connection-

'.l
....Flow direction '
indicator

"'---

Pipe wall

Static pressure
hole

.:>"

\;---I

(- -

- - - High-pressure impact hole -

L~W pressure --

.....---Hlghpressure

- -

-1

-~h /

--~

\
\
\
\

6r-+--r-+--r-+-~
4r-+--r~--+-~~~~
2r-+--r-+~F-+'~~~--+-4--+~
OL-~~--~~~~

__'_~~

__~~-J

0.2

a. Pitot Tube

b. DoubleVenturi Pitot Tuba

Aef. [2)

PITOT tubes measure the flow ot olean tluids-Fig. 5

openings and valves should be accessible. If the pipeline

is buried, an adequately sized concrete pit is provided
for the venturi meter, and for instrument piping,

Pitot Tubes
The pitot tube works on the same principle as any
other fow restriction. However, it is not a restriction in
the pipeline but a restriction in an instrumento Because
of this, pressure loss in the pipeline is negligible. The
diferential pressure at a conventional pitot tu be (Fig. 5)
is measured between the high-pressure impact hole directed against the flow, and a static hole, located at an
angle of 900 or 1800 to the impact holeo
Because ofthe single, small, impact hole, the pitot tube
164

measures at only one point in the cross-section of a

pipeline. Therefore, to obtain good measurements, the
pitot tube must be precisely located at an average-velo>
ity or maximurn-velocity point and oriented in the direction of fiow. A changing velocity changes the ow pat i
tem and can result in a greater than acceptable error in ?
measurement. Due to these conditions, we must providc
the same straight length of piping as for orifice plates.
Pitot tubes are used in olean. fluid service (usuallyin
gas lines), are excellentfor measuring ows having YCf)
high velocities, have a hrgh'capacity range, and are cas)
to install and remove..
~
Another versin, termed a pitot-venturi tube, is ahe
shown in Fig, 5. To the sensing tip of a pito! be, j '.~
small venturi is added. The dcuble-venrurt Iifflngcl1en:

tu

MARCH 3, 1li15/CHEMICAL. ENGINEERING

i
!i
,;~

ltinmllllm1nIlIJIllHlIIIIUnUltllltunUlmUlHlttllUUmtlUl\tIIlIttUIILIllUilllllltllIHIIII\UU\UIImllllllllUlllIlIUlllltllUllIIlllIIUlllIUlIlIlIlIllfIllUUIIUlIIIHIIIUIIIUllIIlIIUllIlIlIlIlIlIllIIlIllllIlI1ll1I1111HlllfllllllllllllflllllllllllllUIIIllilnlUlllfllllllllUUUIIUIIIIII\1II111UlIIIIIIIllIllllII1ll1!l1ll1l11111/11111

Straighi-Length Requirementsfor Annubar Flow Elements- Table I

Upstream of Flow Element
Without Stralghtening Vanes in Pipeline

Pipe
Configurations

With ASME
Straightening
Vanes in Pipeline,
Pipe Oia.

Annubar Tube
(In the Same Plane
as Last Approach- Turn),
Pipe Ola.

Annubar Tube
(In Different Plana
as Last Approach- Turn),
Pipe Dia.

Oownstream
ot Flow
Element,
Pipe Oia.

One elbow or tee

Two elbows, or elbow and tee

in same plane

14

:3

Two elbows, or elbow and tee

in two planes

19

24

Beducer or increaser
Fully-open gate or ball valve

Partially-open valves
Globa valve

24

24

Note: Control valves should be located atter flow element.

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shown in the illustration, increases the pressure differential between the high-pressure impact hole and the low
pressure in the venturi throat [2].
Manometer defiectionsfor pitot tubes and pitot-venturis are calculated in the same way as for orifice defiections. The capacity coeffcient should be obtained
from the manufacturers. For rough estimates, the capacity coefficient,f3 2C, can be taken as 0.62.
Many of the disadvantages of the conventional pitot
tube have been eliminated with an'(averagingpitot tube
called an Annubar (Fig. 6). This device consists of two
sensing tubes. The upstream tube has ene to several
impact holes (high-pressure side) facing the fiow direction. An internal tube averages the pressure.sensed at
the four impact holes. The downstream tube (low-pressure side) measures the static pressure from which is
subtracted the suction pressure of the flow.

The Annubar .is an economical device in terms of

capital and operating costs. In an unusual application,
the fiowelement can be installed deep below grade without taking a pipeline out of service.This device is available for piping from ~ to 180 in, for pressures ranging
from -30 in Hg to 2,500 psi, and temperatures to
1,200F [3J.
Formulas for sizing Annubars are similar to the orifice
formulas. The manufacturer [3Jprovides a capacity coefficient as (Kuf'v)' wh~re Kg is a geometrical constant
depending on pipe diameter, and F; is a velocity distribution factor, For transitional and totally turbulent fiow,
F; = 0.82. The capacity coefficient, (Kuf'v), is analogous
to the orifice capacity constant, f32C.
The Annubar has a very wide capacity range and fits
in pipelines where turbulent fiow exists.A change in the
pipe size of the metering section is rarely necessary-c-and

.
i

1.

l'
\

High-pressure connection

- ~~ Identification tag

\
:- - - ..Upstream tube

\
\
Recsssed \

pressurenozzle

/
/

L Do~nstream tube
ANNUBAR meter is an averaging pitot tube-Fig.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/MARCH 3, 1975

Ref. [3]

Ref: [4J

IMPACT tube handles flow in either direction-Fig.

7
165

r'

CE REFRESHER

then only for extremely low or extrernely high fiowrates.

In most applications, only (he operating manometer
range of the instrumcnt or control system needs to be
selected. Permanent pressure loss is negligible.
Let us surnrnarize the sizing data for Annubar pitots.
The following table lists sorne representative values for
various pipe sizes:
Capacity
Coefficient,
(KgF,,)

Pipe Size,
Nominal,
In
I;to
II; to
6 lo
18 lo

Fu

to
to
to
to

__

Outlet float stop'

- -

Tapered-qlass metering tube

Loss,
% of h,,,

= 0.82

0.6
0.66
0.7
0.75

1%
5
16
24

Estimated
Permanent

10

0.62
0.70
0.75
0.78

8 to 4
3 to 1

<%

Instrument deflectionat flowingconditions for liquids:

h",

= [0.176Qv'S!(K~v)diJ2,

in

Noting poston of float-head edge

referred to capacity scale on glass
, tube gives flowrate reading

(6)

For instrument calibration at a standard 60F Iiquid-flow

condition, multiply right side of Eq. (6) by (S60/S)2.
Instrument defiection at flowingconditions for vapors
and gases:
; hw :::; [0.00278W/(KgFv)di-IPj2,

in

Metering float

~~:'

'.

Inlet float stop

I

(8)

,/

Straight-lcngth requirements for 'piping design, as recommended by the manufacturer, are given in Table 1.

-1nlet connection

Rcf: [5J

..Impact Flow Tube

The fiow-sensingtube (F~g.7) consistsof a short housing section, and a syrnmetricaland tapered throat section
having a flowrestriction in the center. The throat section
contains two sets of impact nozzles. One set points upstream, the other downstream, and each is connected to
an annular ring for averaging the impact pressure.
The differential pressure between the upstream and
downstream openings results from the difference in impact pressures, and is a function of velocity head. Sizing
of this flow tube is based on the general relationship of
v = C(2gh)1/2. Exact formulas for sizingthis impact tube
can be obtained from the manufacturer [4J.
The housing and throat section of impact flow tubes
are available in a wide range of metallic materials for
pipe sizes ranging from I to 4 in. For low-pressure and
low-temperature services, plastic-insert types are also
available for pipe sizes ranging from 6 to 48 in.
Applications for the impact flowtube range from wind
tunnels to sewer lines, and from gas to viscous fows.
Flow can be in either direction. In dirty-fuid services,
the impact openings can be purged.
Straight-Iengthrequirements for this device are; 6 pipe
diameters upstream; 10diameters upstream after a throttling valve; and 3 diameters downstream,
Rotameters
In rotameters, the area restriction varies in proportion
to flowrate,and the pressure difference acrossthe restric166

(7)

DilTercntialprcssure is obtaincd from:

t;,.p = O.036Ihw: psi

ROTAMETERhas tapered metering element-Fig. 8

tion stays constant. In contrast, constant-restriction meters such as orifices and venturis have a fixed opening,
and the pressure differenceacrossthe restriction becomes
prportional to flow.
The rotameter consistsof a tapered metering tube with
a float that moves freely up and down (Fig. 8). The tube
must be mounted verticallywith fluid flowin an upward
direction. The float will come to rest in a dynamic equilibrium when the pressure differenceacrossthe float, plus
the buoyancy effect, balance the weight of the fioat. An
increase in the fiowrate causes the fioat to rise higher
in the tube; a dccrease causes it to fal!.
In air and water servce, (he viscosityefects of the fluid
on the rotameter remain practically constant. This makes
possible the use of standard capacity tables for such fiow
streams. Standard sizing charts, tables of correction factors for any fluid, tables of correction factors for pressure
and temperature, selectionguides for types ofrotameters,
etc., are available in manufacturers' literature [5). Hence,
rotameter calculations are seldom made by process engineers.
In relation to piping design, pressure drop across the
rotameter is negligible.

Rotameters are especially suitable for viscous liquids

and very-small fiowrates (less than 2 gpm, or 75 lb/h).
However, a reasonable upper limit for the rotameter can
be 300 gpm, and 3-in-dia. pipe. Units are available up
MARCH 3, 1975/CHEMICAL ENG1NEERING

~""
1"

CE REFRESHER

l..

[g~. E -E~-E
+

Alternative

Tap

Locations

Pipa Confjgurations

P1PING arrangements for installing a rotameter having alternative taps are simple and econoll)ical-Fig.

to 12 in and 4,000 gpm. The useful flow range is wide

(10 to 1).
Rotameters can be used for slurries, depending on
concentration of solids in the liquid, particle size and
shape, density of solids relative to the carrier liquid, and
degree of abrasiveness. Such applications should be reviewed with the manufacturero ."
In special applications, the rotameter sca1e can be
calibrated to show (a) fluid velocity, (b) percentage concentration in liquids in case a mixture is flowing, and

(e) density or viscosity of liquid if volume flowrate and

temperature can be held constant.
Piping configuration does not affect rotameter accuracy. Straight length of piping is not required. Depending
on pipe configurations and rotameter design, alternative
tap locations can be chosen, as shown in Fig. 9. These
.provide simple and economical piping.arrangernents.
The rotameter is usually installed between two block
valves with a bypass. In clean service and with armored
rotameters, a bypass globe valve is not necessary. Locate
the flow-regulating globe valve to the rotameter (a) before
the rotameter for Jiquid service, and (b) after the rotameter for gas ~ervice. Union joints in the inlet and outlet
Unes facilita te quick removal of the rotameter. Valves
should be accessible and the rotameter scale visible from
the operating aisle.
~ An inexpensive method for measuring large flowrates
combines a rotameter with an orfice pl ate, as shown in
Fig. 10. About 10% of (he mainline flow passes through
the rotameter,
Rotameter calibrations are usually nonadjustable and
have differential ranges ofO-50, 0-100,0-150,0-200 and
0-400 in of water column. Rotameter tubes can be calibrated to show actual flowrates in the desired units. A
magnetic yoke or an impedance coil added to the basic
rotameter, provides the means of recording and transmitting the ow signal.
The next article in this series will appear in the issue
of Apr. 14, 1975, and will cover sizing techniques for
control valves. #

References
1. EngineeringInformationon VenturiMeterTubes,BIF Div.,NewYork
Air Brake Co., Providence,RI 02901.
.

2. lnstructions for Pitot-VenturiFlow Element, Taylor Instrurnent Cos.,

Rochester, NY 14601.

ROTAMETER-ORIFICE measures large flowrates-Fig.

168

10

3. "TechnicalManual-Annubar," ETliot1nstrumentDiv.,DietrichStandard Corp., Boulder, CO 80302.

4. Shea, Jr., J. A., Flow Tube Technical Paper, The Bcthlehern Corp.,
Flow Tube Div. Bethlehem, PA 18016.
5. "VariableAtea Flow Meter Handbook," Vol. 1-111, Fischer & Poner
Co., Warminster,PA 18974.
MARCH 3, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINeaRING

CE Refresher

Control Valves
In

Process Plan
For proper performance in any piping .system, he e are the design relations, sizing
formulas and installation procedures for seleting and using control valves for fluids.

ROBERT KERN, Hoffmann - La Roche Inc.*

Control valves are the basic .regulatory devices in any

process operation handling fluid streams. Hence, we must
be thoroughly familiar with the different types of these .
val ves and their fow characteristics. This enables us to
meet process conditions, and to ensure proper installation
in the fluid system.

In recent years, a second group of control valves has

received wide _acceptance. In these types, the actuator
rotates a butterfly flap, plug or disk around its axis
(Fig. 3). Size for size, these valves usually have higher
capacities and less flow resistance than the contouredplug valves. Generally, control valves with rotating axes
are suitable for a wide range of ow-control applications.

Major Types of Control Valves

Characteristics of Valve Plugs
In the following brief discussions, only the general
features of each control valve are given, For complete
details about a specific control valve, consult the manufacturers' literature.:
One major group of control valves resembles the globe
valve (Fig. 1). In place of a handwheel, an actuator
moves the valve stem and plug, thereby opening and
closing the valve. The usual actator is an air-operated
device whose housing contains a diaphragm that separates it into two compartments. The diaphragm (and
attached valve stem) is balanced in its position by a
spring on one side and air pressure on the other. In flow
control, the air pressure changes in response to a signal
resulting from the measurement of the differential pressure across an orfice or other flow-sensing element,
The single-ported control valve (Fig, 1) finds use where
tight shutoff is required in addition to flow control. The
double-ported control valve (Fig. 1) has two seat rings
with two plugs on a common stem. This is a higher
capacity valve than the single-seated one of the same size.
With hard seat rings and high temperatres, the doubleseated valve cannot shut off tightly. The valve accessories,
shown in Fig. 2, allow for various operating functions
and conditions.
To mee! your au!hor. see Chem. Eng., Oec. 23, 1974, p. 66.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/APRIL 14,1975

The valve plug can be disk type, solid contoured or .

ported. Flow-control characteristics depend on the shape
or cavities of the plug. The three basic types of plug and
their flow characteristics are:
11 Quick Opening-A single-disk (for high temperatures) or a double-disk (for low temperatures) plug is
used for total shutoff or opening. A disk-type plug has
linear flow characteristics and short stem movement.
11 LinearFlow-A plug has linear flow characteristics
when the flowrate through the valve is proportional to
the lift.
11 Equal Percentage-A plug has equal-percentage
characteristics if at any plug position, the same percentage of change in flow takes place for the same amount
of plug movement. The percentage of change is related
to the flowrate just before the plug is moved, as shown
in Fig. 4.
Most plug characteristics are somewhere near or between those described. Manufacturers pro vide diagrams
similar to Fig. 4 for each valve.
'A plug having linear-fow characteristics is commonly
. specified for lquid-level control. The equal-percentage
plug is used for pressure or fiow control; or where only
. a small percentage of the overall pressure differential is
85

f"

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, \

t
nl'

Single-Seat (Equal-percentage
contoured pluq, fails closed)

Double-Seat {Equal-parcentage
ported plug, tails open) ,

Alternativo
Actuator and Plugs

CONTROL valves handle many types of process flulds, and are actuated by alr In response to a procesa signal-Flg.

available; or where pressure drop acrossthe control valve

varies greatly.
'
The modified parabolic-flow characteristic falls between the linear and equal-percentage characteristics.
This type of plug (usually V-port) finds use where the
major part of the system pressure drop is available for
control.
Actuators (also called operators or valve positioners)
lift the valve stem and plug above its seat, or move the
plug in the seat eylinder. Butterfly or ball-type control
valves have the actuators side-mounted because the aetuator stem rotates the hlve axle. Plug characteristics can
be influenced by the linkage between aetuator stem and
valve axle.
The valve housingand the operator's yoke are separare
pieees. Hence, after a valve is installed, the operator can
be rotated around the valve stem or valve axle, relative
to the valve body. This enables a convenient position to
be chosen for the aetuator, in order .to provide access
to operating points on the valve.
Hydraulic, mechanical and piston operators are also
available.

Buttarfly
Valva

Camflax Valva

Safety Requirements
Without air pressure in the pneumatic actuator, the
valve can be in closed or open positiori.These alternative
86

ROTARVactuator
moves flap, plug
or disk-Fig. 3
APRIL 14, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Lubricator tor
valve-stem
packing box

Bellows Bonnet
(Seal between valve and
packing box in toxic serviee)

Extension Bonnet
(For eryogenic temperatures)

Finned Bonnet
(For temperatures higher thari 4000 F) .

Case Mounted

Side Mounted

.';.'"

Pneumatic Postoner
(Or transmitter) .

Limit Stop
(Restricts stem movement)

ACCESSORIES extend usefulness of control valves by providing for extreme and unusual conditions-Fig.

postions are accomplished by reversing the seat ring and

plug, or by reversing the Iocation of the actuator spring .
from below to aboye the diaphragm (Fig. 1).
One concern of the designer is to select valves that will
fail-safe in the event of instrument-air failure. In principIe, a control valve fails safe if temperature and pressure
of the process system do not increase after the control
valve becomes inactive,
For example, fuel-oil control valves to heater burners
should faiI closed. At the same time, feed to heater tubes
(in most cases) should fail open to avoid overheating the
furnace tu bes. The feed-control valve to fractionating
columns usually fails closed. Steam supply to reboiler
fails closed. Reflux-drum vapor outlet and reux pumpdischarge valves fail open. Control valves in mnimum- .
110w bypass lincs at centrifugal-pump discharge lines,
compressof bypass lines, and rcciprocating-machine bypass lines fail open.
Reactors are protected under controlled conditions,
and usually the feed-control valve fals closed, Generally,
a designer of flow systems should consult process, instruCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/APRIL 14,1975

mentation and equipment engineers when deciding on

fail-safe' positons for control valves so as to assure
orderly shutdown procedures.

Capacity Coefficients of Valves

Valve fiow coefficient, C", depends on the internaI
dimensions of the valve and the smoothness of surfaces.
Tests made by manufacturers (using water or air at predetermined pressure difference) establish C" values.
Manufacturers give the following definition:

e, = Q( ..sVf;P)
C; is a capacity index indicating the flow of 60F water
in gpm, which will pass through the compJetely open
valve under a pressure difference of 1 psi betwecn the
inlet and outlet angcs, Obviously, if S
1 and
I::.P == 1 psi, then C" == Q.
Capacity indexes for the butterfiy valve are also given
at two throttling positions of' the flap, in addition to the
fully open position.
.

87

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/
Nomenclature
C,

Critical ow factor for line-size valve

Critical flow factor for valve betwcen pipe reducers
e" Capacity cocfficicnt for control valve in fully open
position
C", Calculated coefficient for control valve
D/d Ratio bctwecn largor pipe dia. to smaller pipe dia.
E
Expansion factor, (lB(J/p
k
Ratio of specific heats
M
Molecular weight
P
Absolute pressure, psia
P'
Absolute pressure, psia
Pe
Critical pressure, psia '
6.P Differential pressure, psi
Pv
Vapor pressure of liquid al owing temperature,
psia
Q
Volume owrate, gpm
R'
Correction factor for control valve between pipe
reducers
S
Specific gravity of liquid, p/ PsOw
S60 Specific gravity of liquid al 60F
T
Absolute temperature, R
u,
Sonic velocity, /s
W
Weight owrate, lb/h
J1
Viscosity, cp
p
Density of fluid at ftowing condition, Ib/fl3
P60
Density of fluid al 60F, lb/ft"
Psow Density of water al 60F, 62.37 Ib/ft3
Subscripts
,
l
Upstream condition
2
Downstream condition

e'r

Control-val ve coefficients for single- and double-seated

val ves are given in Table I.
Calculated Flow Coefficient, Cvc-When sizing control
valves, a flow coefficient is calculated with normal design
fowrate in gpm from:

e = Q( VSiy-s;y
vc

Then a. valve , is selected whose capacity index, C",

exceeds Cvc' For a good range of control, the capacity
index should fall between 1.25 to 2 times the calculated
fow coefficient, or:

evc/c" = 0.5

''

to 0.8

This is an optimum range for linear and percentage-.

'contoured plugs. Sorne valves have a wider optimum
range. AH valves will operate below and aboye these
C"clCv ratios, but the plug willl:lS closer to the fully open
or fully closed position. Under these conditions, we lose
the important advantage of having wide flexibility in '
controllable flow-capacity range, and this may limit
operability of the process,
High velocities across the valve orifice can wear out
the plug and seat, especially if temperature is also high
or when abrasive fluid is present.
Critical Flow Factor, C,-The pressure gradient across
a control valve is shown in Fig. 5. For liquids, the flow
can be considered subcritical ifthe vapor pressure of the
liquid will not get higher than the lowest pressure-point
across the control valve. (Vapor pressure is the pressure
at which the liquid begins to vaporize at its flowing
temperature. Tables of thermodynamic properties of liquids give corresponding saturated-liquid pressures and
temperatures. )
If the vapor pressure falls between the ranges of A
and B (see Fig. 5), vaporization or cavitation wil! occur
88

in the control val ve. ' Ir the vapor pressure nears the
downstream pressure, P2, cavitation can be suspected.
Cavitation can cause rapid wear of valve plug and seat
as well as vibration and noise. If the vapor pressure falls
between upstream and downstream pressures, PI and P2,
, vaporization can occur. In this case, there will be twophase flow in the pipeline after the control valve. If the
vapor pressure is higher than the inlet pressure, PI' the
control valve receives two-phase flow; and additional
vaporization can be considered across the valve. For this
condition, diameter of the downstream pipe will usually
be larger than the upstream pipe.
The criteria for subcritical and critical flows in liquids
are, respectively:
'
6.P

< e/(6.p.)

6.P ~ c,z(IJ.P.)

where:

6.p.

= PI -

(0.96 - 0.28 "PI/PC)p.

. and Pe is the critical pressure, psia.

For simplicity:
== PI - Pv' provided that Pv

sr,

(1)
(2)
(3)

<

O.SPI
The sizing formula for critical flow is:
e"c = (Q/e,)(VSi"';;;)

(4)

We will use a simplfied version of Eq. (4) later in this

article.
One example of subcritical flow is that occurring in
a control valve located in the discharge line from a centrifugal pump. Critical flow can occur across ' pressureAPRIL 14, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

IIIl11uunnllunlllllllU!UlllllllllmmUllllllllillllllllllllllUlIIlIIlIlIUlIlIIlIlIIlIUlIlIlIIllIIHllllllllJ111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111

rcducing valve where. (he upstrearn Iiquid condition is

closc lo the boiling point.
For gases, critica! flow is assumcd when gas vclocity
rcaches the sonic velocity:

Flow Coefficents tor Control Valves- Table I

Flow Coefficient, C;,
Size, In

.0/.

Single-Seat"

Double-Seat*

12

1%

14

18

u. = 68v'k(~'/p), ft/~.

Sonic velocity should be avoided because it can cause

noise and vibration.
The criteria for subcritical and critical flows in gases
are, respectively:

1%

21

28

36

48

t:,p < 0.5C/P1

2%

54

72

!::.P ~

75 .

110

124

195

270

450

480

750

10

750

1,160

12

1,080

1,620

14

1,470

2,000

16

1,920

2,560

These values nave been obtained for Masoneilan 10,OOO-saries(either

equa-percentaqe or V-port) plug valves having lull-capacity trim, but also apply
lo similar valves 01 other manufacturers [2].
"
11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111

(5)

O.sqP1

(6)
(7)

Critical flow can be avoided by reducing the pressure

drop across the val ve, by relocating the valve in the flow
system, or by choosing a valve with a high C, value.
The critical flow factor, C" is a dimensionless number,
which depends. on the valve type [6], C( is the ratio
between the control-valve coefficient under 'critical conditions and the ow coefficient as published in rnanufacturers' literature.
Valve Between Pipe Reducers-Flow capacity of a control valve placed between pipe reducers is slightly decreased. In subcritical flow, this is accounted for by a
correction factor, R. In critical flow, the correction factor
is C'r' which replaces C, in the calculations. R and C'r
also depend on the ratio between pipe size and valve
size. C'I C'r and R have values srrialler than 1. Numerical
values for the valves shown in Fig. 1 are listed in Table lI.
Let us now summarize a number of formulas for sizing
control valves for liquid and gas services under different
flow conditions [1].

Liquid Service
Subcritical Flow-For a liquid flowing well below its
saturation temperature in the turbulent zone, with viscosity close to that of water, and sizes of the pipe and
control valve identical, the calculated control-valve
coefficient is:
(8)

where the specific gravity, S, and owrare, Q gpm, are

taken at the flowing temperature; and DoP== Pl - Pz.
For mnimum pressure drop at the fully open piug
position, Cv replaces Cvc:
(9)

,
at a selected

If we are interested in the pressure drop

plug position between Cvc/Cv
0.5 to 0.8,.a convenient
expression is:

Q
t:,p = [.
(CvclCv)Cv

]2 S, psi

(lO)

where Cv is taken from the manufacturer's catalog, and

CvclCv is the selected plug position. (The methods of
Eq. (9) and (10) can also be adapted to vapor ow.) .
The calculated flow coefficient for laminar or viscous
flow is:
. (JI)
PRESSURES during liquid flow in a control valve-Fig. 5
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/APRIL 14,1975

Critical Flow-If

the valve and piping are the same

89

CE REFRESHER

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Correction Factors for Conlrol-Valve Flow Coefficienl- Table 11

r----.---.

Double-Seat*

Single-Seat*
Condition

Factor

Equal-Percentage

V-Port

Equal-Percentage

V-Port

C(

0.98t or 0.85*

0.98

0.90

0.98

0.86

0.94

0.86

0.94

Critical flow
size control valve
-- Line
___
o

Critical flow
(Control valve between
pipe reducers) .

CI,

-------

R
R

Subcritical f1ow, Dld =::: 1.5

Subcritical flow, Dld
2
(Control valve between
pipe reducers)

0.96
0.94

--_.-

, These values have been obtained for Masoneilan 10,OOO-seriesplug valves havirig full-capaclty tnm, but also apply to similar valves 01 other manufacturers [2J.
t Faclor for flow to opeu.
.
'Factor for flow to close.
lI\1tlllltlllll\III1Il\\\llIllIIl1l1llllmm\llll1\11!I'''Il\ImlllllllllllltI1IUllll111IIlIlInU\llI!IIIIIIIU11I1llllllltlltlI1l1111mnlllli11t111111111l111111111111ll111l111111l1t1II111111111l11lnt1l1l111l111l1l11111111l11111111l11111111l111111111111l111111UII11IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1l1111111111lllllllllllllllllllllllltllllllllllllllllllnnl1111111111111111111

ti

size, the simplified calculated control-valve coefcient

becornes:
,~12)

providcd 1'":2 0.5P,

control-valve

W_
63.3 --I'(JI

Gas, Steam and Vapor Service

The calculated

>

.rently (i.e., Pv
1'1)' additional vaporization of
liquid can be assumed inside the control valve. For this
condition:

cocfficieut Ior subcritical

where the maximum t:"p o,se/p. (For calculating

the densities in two-phase Ilow, sce Part 1 of this series,
Chem. Eng., bec, 23, 1974, pp. 60-61.)

ow will be:

w
e;. == ---:-.=--==
11.65 ..F;i>(p+ P2)Pl

Example llIustrates Computations

(13)

Le! LIS size the control valves for handling a flow of

113,000 lb /h (348 gpm) of liquid amrnonia in each of

where ::"1'
1\ - P2' provided that t:,,? <o.se/p.
For critica! ow when t:"p ~ o.se/p:

.
.
w
e; = 1O.13e,pVi;

..

,.:

(J4)'

If the valve is located between pipe reducers, multiply .

the righthand side of Eq. (8), (11) and (13) by (1/ R); .
and Eq. (9) and (lO) by (1/R2). Replace e, with C'T in
Eq. (12) and (14).
. These corrections can be ncglected if the capacity of
the selected control valve at normal ftow gives a coefficient ratio, Cvc/Cv' well within O.S to 0.8, The operating
position of the valve plug will perhaps not be identical
to the calculated position, but this .will no! change valve
r pipe size, Also, in sizing valves Ior critical flow, make
sure that the ylug will not opera te close to its seat.

Two-Phase Flow
For well-mixed liquid and inert gas in turbulent Ilow
with no additional vaporization, the following applies:

c., =

44.8

v"t;=('=1 =+='='z=)-

(15)

where PI and P2 are the upstream and downstream two'phase densities,. respectively.
When saturated liquid enters the. valve (i.e., PI == Pv),
or saturated liquid and its saturated vapor fow concur90

FLOW retauons Igr sizing Mntml valvs=Fig, 6

APRIL 14, 1975/CHEM!CAL ENGINEERING

CE REFRESHER .
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Flow Coefficients tor Hand-Operated Throttling Valves- Table 111

No. 556

No. 576P

No. 1042 .

No. 1040

No. 1046
..,

Bronze Globe Valves (rhreaded)

Steel Globe Valves (Flanged)

Flow Coefficient,

Size,
In

Cv

Flow Coeflicient,

For Valves
No. 546P-150 Psi
No. 556P-200 Psi
No. 576P-300 Psi

Cv
For Valves
No. 556-200 Psi
No. 576-300 Psi

Flow Coefficient,

Size,
In

Flow Coefficient,
Cv
For Valve
No. 1040"150 Psi

Cv
For Valves
No. 1042-300 Psi
No. 1046-600 Psi

0.9

1.2

46

55

4.2

2%

72

90

8.6

105

130

14.5

200

235

29.5

400

400

49

10

1%

24,

41

.,

720

720

Note: Flow coeflicients nave been obtained for valves manulactured by Jenkins
Bros . but siso apply to similar valves 01 other manutacturers .
. 1lllllllllllUIIIIlIIIIIIWIIIIIUlUlUtllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1II11I1II!lIInlll!llIllIllIlIlIlIlIlIllIIlIlIIIlUiuIIIIIUlIlIlIlIlIIUlIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUlIIIIIIIIIIIIlllllllllllumllllllmummllllllllllllltlllllUlIIlI!l1l1llUlUllllIIlIlIUlIlIlIlIlIUnUlIlIJlUllllUJIII1l1j!lllllnl~fIIl

j
-

estimates, will have minor effect on valve capacity. These

are small values=-square-roct functions of the calculated
ow coefficient.
'
When critical flow occurs in the liquid, the piping after
the control valve (and bypass valve) should be carefully
sized. Vaporization increases pipe resistance considerably. To stay within reasonable velocities when vaporiza- ,
tion occurs across the control valve, the downstream
piping and block valve will often be larger in size than
the upstream pipe size.
In sorne cases of saturated liquid flow, vaporization in
and after the controlvalve can be avoi~ed by providing
a static head of liquid upstream of iae valve. This should
be noted on the engineering flow diagram.
At high pressures, high temperatures, or large pressure
differentials, the control valve should not operate close
to its seat. High velocities can wear the plug and seat.
This causes inaccurate fiow control, and leakage when
the valve shuts off.

Bypassing the Control Valve

A bypass is usually provided for control valves smaller
than 2 in., in lethal and high-viscosity services, in handling liquids containing abrasive solids, in boiler feedwater service, and in high (over 100 psi) pressurereducing steam service.
For consistency in piping design, the ow coeffcient
for the bypass valve should be about the same as that
for the control valve. Table III lisis the fiow coefficients
92

. for some of one manufacturer's globe valves. Because of

various seat-and-plug designs, valve coefficients are not
the same for comparable globe valves made by different .
manufacturers. .
. .'
.
We find by comparing the data in Table III for globe
valves with the flow coefficients for double-seated control
valves in .Table 1 that the bypass valve and control valve
can be the same size. For single-seated control valves,
the bypass globe valve can be one size smaller than the
control valve. We can size bypass globe val ves or manually operated throttling valves in the same way as control
valves provided that flow coefficients are available.

Piping the Control Valve

The best position for a control valve is with the stem
vertically up}Vard.A control valve will operate in angular,
horizontal or vertically downward position. Neither piping designers nor operators accept these positions. Large
angle-control valves are an exception; a horizontal position for them can be most practica!.
.
A single control valve without block valves and bypass
is usually sufficient in clean-fiuid service; or where parallel equipment containing control valves is installed with
block valves located at pipe headers. Where dirty fluid
or solid particles can be occasionally expected, a ternporary or permanent strainer is installed, upstream of the
control valve. Single control valves have handwheel
operators.
Most piping specifications call for control valves to be
APRIL 14, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

i
1

1
,

:1

1;

MANIFOLDS and bypasses tor iristallihg control valves into the process piping require proper clearances and drains-Fig.

located aboye grade or platform elevation, and at the

edgc of accessways, exccpt for those valves that have to
be located in self-draining pipelines. For example, a
control valve placed in an overhead gravity-flow slurry
lineo
.
For inplace maintenance, cJearance space is required
below and above the valve for removing the seat, plug,
actuator cover, spring and yoke. Estimated clearance
requirements are shown in Fig.7. Dimensions of control
valves are given by manufacturers [2,4].
If flow conditions permit, manifolds fo~ the control
valve that are smaIler in size than the main piping will
. prove economical. Typical standard manifolds are shown
in Fig. 7 [lOJ. The U-type is chosen when the inlet and
outlet flows approach the control valve from an elevation
higher than that of the valve. The corner type is used
when flow is from a high point to a low point, or the
reverse. The looped-bypass type serves horizontal ows
near grade. A looped-corner bypass can bring a control
valve over the operating platform, For economical support, control-valve manifolds should be located near
structural columns,
For pressure-relieving and draining a control-valve
manifold, provide drain valves or plugs at low points.
One drain point is required if the control valve fails open.
Drins on each side of the control valve are needed if
it fails closed. In saturated-stearn fiow, one or two steam
traps are advisable at the low points of a pocketed control-valve manifold.
The automatic control valve is part of an instrumentaCHEMICAL ENGINEERINGIAPRIL 14, 1975

tion system. Sensing points for flow, pressure, temperature and level should be close to the control valve, as
should the transmitter. Instrurnent wiring and tubing
connect these elements. Air lines run from the transmitter
'. to the diaphragm housing, and from the transmitter to
.the: instrument-air header.
Level controllers usuaIly have gage-glass companions ..
It is convenient for the plant operator to see the gage
glasses from the control-valve manifold when operating
the control-valve handwheel or the bypass globe valve.
The next article in this series .will appear in the issue
of Apr. 28, 1975, and will cover the design relations for
sizing pump-suction piping. #
.

References
1. "Handbook for Control Valve Sizing," Masonelan lnternational, Ine.
Norwood, MA 02062.
2. Dimensions-Masoneilan
Control Valves and Auxiliary Equipment,
Masoneilan lnternational, Inc .. Norwood, MA 02062.
3. "Valve Sizing," Catalog 10, Fisher Controls Co., Marshalltown, lA
50158. .
4. Fisher Control Valve Dirnensions, Bulletin 1-100, Fisher Controls
. Co., Marshalltown, lA 50158.
5. Boger, H.'W., Recent Trends in Sizing Control Valves, 23rd Annual
Symposium on Instrumentation for the Process Industries, Texas
. A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, 1968.
6. Baumann, H. D., The Introduetion of Critical Flow Factor for Valve
Sizing, ISA (Instr. Soco Am.) Trans., Apr. 1963.
.
7. Baumann, H. D., Effeet of Pipe Reducers on Valve Capacity, Instr.
Control Systems, Dec. 1967.
,8. Boger, H. W., Sizing Control Valves for Flashing Service, lnstr.
Con/ro/ Systems, Jan. 1970.
9. Boger, H. W., Flow Characteristics for Control Valve Installations,
ISA (/llS/r. Soco Am) J., Oct. 1966.
.'
10. Hutchison, J. W. (Ed.), "ISA Handbook of Control Valves," lnstrument Soco of America, Pittsburgh, 1971.
.

93

I
I

o
Successful operation of pumps
requlres the right suctlon

1:

characteristics. Reduce a potential

problem with this accurate rnethod
for slzing suction piping

if the draw-off nozzle is high in elevation aboye the pump

suction.
Example. Fig. 3 shows a pump-suction piping configuration. Table 1 gives flow data, unit friction 1055 per 100
feet and total-suction pipe resistance for the Fig. 3 configuration. .An 8-inch draw-off nozzle and 8-inch header
have been selected.

'--

Robert Kern, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., Nutley, N.J.

W1'IEN DESIGNINGSUeTION PIPING for centrifugal
pumps, you first need to size the draw-off nozzle. Then
you must check the Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH).
Here is a quick draw-off nozzle and suction-pipe sizing
method that will insure vapor-free flow near the liquid
boiling point, In addition, a systematic procedure for calculating available NPSH is presented for both subcooled
and saturated liquids.

\,
1
1

__L_

Draw-off nozzle sizing. It is essential to keep a centrifugal pump suction line vapor-free. To avoid vaporization and possible cavitation in a suction line after the
draw-off nozzle inlet, the minimum static head of a liquid
aboye the nozzle should 'be more than the exit resistance.
Exit resistance of nozzles can be expressed as h.i. =
K v2/2g. Using a safety factor of three, the required
minimum liquid head aboye the draw-off nozzle will be:
hL = 3K .v2/ (2g)
Where v = (00408) Q/d2 ft./sec. and values of the resistance coefficient K, for horizontal or vertical nozzles,
are given on Fig. 1.
.
To obtain the draw-off nozzle size or minimum required
liquid height in the suction drum, the aboye equation is
solved graphically on Fig. 1. Enter Fig. 1 on the vertical
scale with the available liquid head and intersect one
curve representing the nozzle type and read veIocities on
the horizontal scale.
For vessels at the mnimum height, the pump-suction
pipe size can be the same as the draw-off nozzle size. Velocities in suction lines are about 4-8 ft./sec. for normal
viscosities. Use this velocity range if hi. > 30 inches. Gen.eral1y, the suction line is one size larger than the pumpsuction nozzle size.
To provide an economical design, when the draw-off
nozzle is at a high elevation, part of the potential encrgy
can be used for greater friction losses in the suction pipe.
When practical, usually aboye 12 inches, the pipe header
can be a size smaller than the draw-off nozzle size obtained
from Fig. 1. Examples of the interconnection bctween the
draw-of nozzle and a vertical-suction pipe section is
shown on Fig. 2. A smalIer header diameter than pump- )
suction nozzle size is-not recommended. - ..
. ..
When specifying the pump-suction-nozzle flange rating,
the suction-drum pressure plus the total static suction-head
should be taken into account beside operating tempera-

:~~::~:;:::::G

~n be;p:n::::ablC amount

Available NPSH. A specific NPSH calculation procedre

is presented in Table 2 using the example of Fig. 3.
Two columns are shown in Table 2: subcooled and
saturated liquido In this example, the pressure on the
liquid surface is equal to the vapor pressure of the liquido
Consequently, the sum of Lines 1 and 2 is zero. Statichead pressure (Line 5) less suction-line resistance (Line
8) provides the available pressure (Line 9) for NPSH.
Lines 1 and 2 are expressed in psia for calculations of

fffffffinffifFf:T:mn:m:n7iffEffi

5Q

j::-

45

t-J:j:ffiti=~~~~-::j

1=
!~--I~

1"1
K=O.78

Fig. l--Graph

for estimating draw-off nozzle sizes.

'v==:':
EXAMPLE:
Flow rate: Q
2200gpm, hr,
15 in.
From graph with hr.
15 in.: v
7.4 ft./see.
Pipe size: d = VO.4D8Q/v = VO.4D8 X 2200/7.4
d
11 in.
Nominal sizc: d = 12 in.

==

Fig. 2-Suction-pipe

connections

to .elevated draw-off

nozzles.

119

"

"jABlE 2-t'.1F'SH cclculcticns tc;-m with tl1le

ex,m..ple shcwn .011 -;g. 3

HOW TO SIZE PUMP SUCTION PIPING

Subcooled
Liquid

1. PreSBure on liquid
s ur f ac e ;

2.

at suction

1 ~/'

?V/~1t

6'

~/

10.

12"/
PUMPV1
Fig. 3-Example configuration of suction piping.

TABLE
l-flow
data, unlr friction loss, and
total suction pipe reslstance for example
shown in fig. 3

Equivalcnt

Unir Loss
psi/IDO t.

Length Ft.

Total Loss
psi

45
96
14
9
40
6

Total:

180/100

= 0.855

0.475

Equivalent static head loss == (144 x psi)/p

= (144 x 0.855)/55
= 2.24 t,

atmospheric and vacuuI}1 pressures. For subcooled-liquid

flow, the pressure on the liquid surface is greater than the
vapor pressure and Line 3 becomes a positive value. The
static-head pressure (Line 4) is positive if the liquid surface in the suction drum is aboye the pump; it is negative
if the liquid level is below the pump. Line 5 must be posi12Q__

~.

08rr

~____::::::_psi

p _

4//5

ps I,

.i!2fL>

~ft.
Required NP5H

~=

Note: Density ( P ) and specific gravity (5) should be taken at

flowing t empera t ure,
(
-IJ1
(a) Statie he ad , psi = (f t . heed x p)/144 =f)3,,5"5)(l14 .
Note: When there is a Buction lift, Lne 4
1s negative.
(b) Start calculations on Line 5 with statie head
caleulated by (a) when there is saturated liquid f1ow.
(c) When there is suction line6p only, include it on
Line 8.
(d) Lines 9 and 10 must be positive.
(e) Required NPSH from manufacturer'. head-capacity curves.

5
10 @
a::
::c

r-t

800

\10.408 (900)/8

Lille length:
3 clbows: 3(22) =
1 tee:
gateovalve (open):
st ramer ;
reducer (6il1. x 8-in.)

psi

~
z

Nominal nozzle and pipe header size: d = 8 in., Schedule 40

d5 = 32,380 n.5
Unlt Friction Loss:
Reynolds Number: Re = 50.6 (Q/d) (p/J)
= 50.6 (900/8) (55/0.6)
= 522,000
The friction factor from Moody's! diagram, at this Reynolds
Number,f
= 0.016
APloo (8-in.) = 1.35fS(Q2/d5)
= 1.35 (0.016) (0.88) (9002/32,380)
= 0.475 psi/IDO ft.
Line Loss:

psi
_:!: __1497
. _ psi
ps f

Q/v

= 6.78 ineh

Suction

psia
psi

~~;i~;~~)
~P_S~_=. _:Z!.I_&J!.f~q_8)

Flow Data:
Liquid pumped: Heavy gas-oil
Flow rate at temperature: Q = 900 gpm
Speeifie gravity: S = 0.88
Density: p == 55 lbs.zcu. ft.
Viscosity: J == 0.6 Cp
Minirnurn liquid level in suction drurn, h i. = 18 in.
With hL = 18 inches, the veloeity from Fig, 1, !1 == 8 ft./sec.

==

..

nozzle

(e)l1. Available NPSH =

P~MP SUC!'ON
6 - 300psI R.F.

/~

Suetion nozzle size: d = \10.408

,:;-:.__

6. Maximum equipment 6p._._ __ __

7. Maximum 6p in
suction pipe ---------~
(c) 8. Line 6 + Line 7 _u
(d) 9. Available pressure

PSTRAINER

"l

ps a

Va.por prcssure oE

liquid
.
3. Pressure available
(4) 4. Static heud p reseure ,
(+ o r3 -)-------------,--(b) 5. Line
+ Line 4

5nturated

900

Fig. 4-Manufacturer's

1000
NPSH diagram.

tive. Line 6 should inelude the maximum equipment resistance in the suction line (the resistance of a dirty
strainer, for example). Similarly, Line 7 should inelude
the possible increased resistance of the deteriorated pipe
wall (if there are solids in the liquid, or water ftow for
example) .
The sum of Lines 5 ancl 8 is the available pressure
which can be convcrted to sta tic head and is used to calculate tlic available NPSH, (Line 10). This must bc cornpared with the requircd NPSH (Line 11) obtained from .
the pump manufacturero Available NPSH must be greater
than the required NPSH. The comparison should be made
to the same base line: pump centerline, pump base plate
or face of the vertical nozzle to givc three possible alternates. Manufacturer's base line is usually the pump centerlineo
A manufacturer's required NPSH diagram is shown on
Fig. 4. With an available NPSH of 10.8 fet, a maximum
of 1,050 gpm can still providc reliable suction conditions.
By adding Line ! and 4, the maximum suction nozzle
pressure isobtained for nozzle rating. By summing up Line
1 plus Line 4 minus Line 8, the nozzle pressure is obtained
for pump total head calcuJations.
Indexing terms: Cornputing-B, Flow-fi, Er ic t io n-fi, Nozzles-S, NPSH-9,
Piping.9J. Pressurc-G, Prcssure Drop-E, Purnps-, Rcsistance-Ii, Size-7, Sizing-B,
Suction-S, Vapor Prcssure-Ii, Velocirv-B.
.

April 1972

HYDROCARBON
PROCESSING

_._--~-----'.._.__ ._------------------------~_..

!--

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",",:~\~.::~?
::'(,,',1 D

::.:.
~;,'

How to design iping

for reboiler systems
Interactions between hydraulic requirements and piping configurations
require close attention to many fluid and mechanical .details, in order
to obtain the most efficient and economical distillation units."
.

Robert Kern, H offmann - La Rache Inc.

o Familiarity with graphic piping design is an essen-

after the 'lines leave their vertical run, are governed by

the elevations .of the main pipe rack. Lines that fun

tial requirement for the designer of hydraulic systems.

The accuracy of his calculations, predictions of'flowrate
and pressure differential,..rdiability of.operatin, and
the economyof capital, energy, ~aintenanct! and operating costs depend to a great extent on pipe configurations and pipe components.'
.
In these articles, we haverecognized. the irriportance
of graphic piping design, and to a limited degreehave
presented its fundamentals. We will now.evaluate the
flow systems and piping design for a distillation column, which is a more integrated unit thanthe individualsystems discussedin our earlier articles, './ j'.

directly to equipment at grade (more or less in the

;direetion of the main pipe rack) often have th,: same
elevatinas the pipe bank.
.
Lines from tower nozzlesbelow the pipe rack should
approach the pipe bank roughly' 2 ft below the piperackelevation, The same elevationis used for those lines
tht-run to pumps located below'the pipe rack.
,....Pump-suctiolines cn also be arranged on this ele:vation: They should be as short as possible lnd run
without loop~ ,or pockets. Pipelines.. dropping .frorn
above the 'pipe-rack elevation, 'wll approach the pipe
qaIll<;;roughly 2 (t higher than: the elevation of .the
Layout for distillation columns
<.. ,
pipe bank. This elevation is also used for steam
A process flow diagramof a.typical distilla:tion collines to reboilers.These steam lines usually connect to
umn with bottom pump, thermosyphon reboiler, overthe: top of the headers to avoid excessive condensare
head condenser, reflux drum and 'reflxcpurnp are
~raiIlagetoward process equipmt!Ilt..
.
ce
shown in Fig.l (F/1 ).The eqripment COmPo?entsare
X>'Theplan view (F/l) of the tow~rsh()~s the seirne.~ts
located adjacent to each 'otber in the actualpJant. Also\ . t>~Lits circumference "allotted:.();f'pipiIlnozzlf.!~,mari~
-.in FIl, we fnd elevation and plan drawirigs for the
>!i?oles, platfop#".brackets and I~d,ders:Such a_pattern
.. ' column.These show .how the principaLele~eqts9f a ;!\~~'U~Uyl~ads;~~;.~<weH-organize~'~rrangementf()rthe
.'.".distillation column are usually .integrated irt?\:a:noyer>pI''cessequipfnent ,ancl auxiliar'y:c()mponents..,
.; ..all plant arrangernent. Manholes face access'.r6~ds(or ...:.;.;'f~t:)m'alay'out'.andpoint, ifis"pf'eferable :~ohi:1ve.
,'". accessaisles.at housed.installations)...Each rnap.e.()lehas '.'; '~~cJ~~1
pla~forw:l:>ra,~lcet,:spac.iJ:lg,
a?~'tJ;leori(!nt~g()Il:()f.

m.ain

i'.

f~~~!~r~!~~rrhei~t~:~f~~a}~s c::~!~i~~~~~!~s~fe, V};~~1t:~lR~~~~~oi:~e~;r;;~~t~:~~:::ft~1;.:;~;h~

.....
Eor economy"andeasy.support; piping"sli~ld dropo:....
3";"7~astructurlmeTbers,.Accordillg td OSHA,.ladders '
;y:,:::'::~::: ;'~_i~:qlediat.e!_!~:~;':~_p_~:~
:.'_1e~~ing,:.;
t~.~:',:,~oW'er,,:_~'~.~z~_~~:'~;:,.~~d'~,:
.r~n, ,':::~i,::~\+.~~~,~~~e_n_;,:pla_tfo~~Y'~_P:9;~~d_:
t+?~;::;.~{~1?~ger_.-t~1:n---:~,8
..~..~_t~~:~
parallel;and'as close as possilJ~e,to the towe(itself. A.r '.)<";Area segments :f~r piping g?lng JO equipnient at
verticaLlin~.leIlds...itself a~.a .s'Uitabh~lOf.~.~?~for.thei" . Lfg'ra,~~are. ayail~pJ~,between.thtladg~rs. and'()p.-b()th
straight 11m oC anoorificerThe horizontaltielevatins,
.gide~of the m~llho1eS.Lines appr9aching the pipe rack

.;r

" -t.:

.' :."; ::-

:>
:-..-:._-.y.::

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.

j{:"i"

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-~

.Q7Y~~';:.;:.;

..,:.:,"y....;;:.

""

ciLi~~:2:.':::::::'!=.i:C;;~
.' ;'.....
::::;..:.,..,.':~~.-~":_":__"";"~;",,:~;:",:,i...,

". ~-,~<'-;'.~.',.~ :::.'\,~

':,;,~ ;.< -,">.'_ .:'
'.:\.-:-::~~';~.::.:~:.i'

":';~,.",;.i;

-,;/; - _.\~j,:;1,}:t~;;.:::;:::!,:r> ':.. ::'_~--..;--::'j:~'\;::.--;;,,;,:~'~

...;~.

L.."'..,.....

;<:;'il;r
:<;::?1:;';;~

;,;,~~:~--:\
:r'"

'

':'~

'j.-'

...2~ J:'i

~,--3:-;;:::r~

_F~ ..

,., Unes with both ends higher

than top pipe rack

/'
Distlllation
column

j I/

,1/'

"

:
I
I
I

,Unes
with one end below
and other end above pipe
rack on either pipe
rack elevation
,. _ Unes with both
/
ends lower than
/
bottom pipe rack
/

reboiler-inlet nozzles, as well as between the reboiler

outlet and return connection onthe tower, are preferred
in order to have equal flow in the reboiler circuit. A
nonsymmetrical piping configuration may also be accepted for a more-econonical or more-flexible piping

.~~.

Maximum
liquid level

'1

!
I

'

. R~bolers often have two outlets and two parallelpipe segments. When sizing and arranging nonsymmetrical piping, an attempt should be made to equalize
the resistancetnrough both legs of the reboiler piping.
More resistance in one leg produces a smaller flow than
in the other. Hence, uneven heat distribution will occur
in the reboiler-one segment of the riser will be hotter
than the other.
At startup in reboilers having high, liquid drawoff
nozzles, a gravity-flow bypass is usualIy provided from
the tower's liquid space, to a low point of the downcomer.
Valves are rarely included in rehoiler piping, except
when a standby reboiler is provided, or when two or
three reboilers are used and operated at an extrernely
wide heat-capacity range. Sorne companies require line
blinds to blank off the tower nozzles during shutdown,
turnarouIld and maintenance.
The heating media (steam or a hot process stream)
connect to the tubeside of horizontal reboilers.The inlet
piping usually has a temperature-regulated control
valve (with block valves and bypass globe valve, if
required). This is normally arranged at grade near the
reboiler's tubeside inlet.
.

a. Bottom of reboiler should be elevatedjust aboye top of

condensate poto
_ -Oistillation column

Reboiler elevations
Most reboilers are at grade next to the tower, with
centerline elevations of about 3 to 5.5 ft aboye ground
level for exchangers .about 1 to 3 ft dia. Exchangers
at grcl~ provide econornical arrangements-i-valves and
-{nstruments are accessble, tube-bundle handling .is
convenient, and maintenance is easy. In this arrangement, the static heads are well determined betweenthe
exchanger's centerlineand the drawoff and.return.nozzles on the tower. Vertical reboilers ar usually sup'":
portd on the distillation column itself.
Sorne reboilers have a condensare or- Iiquid-holdingspot lcated after.the tubeside outIet, as shown in ..J':/2i
lrisuch cases, the centerline elevation of the reboilr '.
istsomewhat higher than units that do not have these
control vessek'
.
..;'
.
The arrangement in F/2a is a high-capacity steam
trap. .The top of the condenser pot should not be higher
.'. than .the bottorn of the exchanger shell, to avoid foods;
ing the tubes with condensare and adversely affec;ting
the exchanger's heat-transfer duty.
_. '--:;;; . : .
The arrangement. in X/2b maintains a recfliirecf

..-._,,_J_:_; ..

".'.'condensare leyel..in .thereooiler, ".to provide [or ~idy:';

.. range of heat-transfercontrol. :erocessconditions clyteI''':
.....mirietheprecise. relationship between .the...xchiiinger'
and the vertical condensate-contro"t,pot.
. '.
'" In Fj3. we show an example where a reboiler has"
been'elevated".to. me~t.the NPSH. I'7q~rt!ment;o(th~,.i
. centrifugal
pump; Thedvatedrebiler;.inturll, ris~;'
the tower because the mnimum liquid level in: the.
bottom of the tower must be higher than the liquid,'
...: leYf::!iI1.
~heexcljan~e~<Theelevationicli~~rence(diri;i;,en~i;;'

.... ,,;

,.. ,"..,';iFK;~fi;0,, .' ce

:-";:;:),'~.,:;':'.

"A;-,~-.:~.': )' ....

..-

.>', ~:.~'.:';.:;.t'
.'

:i:',

",;~~~-,~n~~';:::,~
':
:':"'~.'.~~'
.;_'.-,:

"',

;':'

':'109'

CH;~;d~'E~~~ERl~G
,:.:,::,::,:>,-,_

.i.'_;:}';;;

_:, ','.j-_\'" <'" :':';:".'; ,.:':,:.'/.:.~::'

AUQUSTt/1975
.:.~:,", :;v

'"."

\";:-f::-f'"

..
~.
>.'-::.'

,..
~f<~~~'~;';JC'7"-fD""-"~7h~1fu~:"2:~~;f~~,~~,'2~;~
~,...'"'~~"~;\ji,'
...

<~;.,.<:;.,.~::".m
.. ."" ~..,;.,.

.')::~;~:.~:;,:,,;E~:___,,:_~~"~,~;~~
"'_~_'".,;..:::~,;_-_~~_,_~::,.:
..:L_:,_" __._,,,:.:::..,

'_ \,5" ~~_._:.::'_',;,~.'~,

" _':.:.~.:;_~cc..._

-,

,_)

Requiredelevation'
differel1ce between :
iiquid.leve] in tower
and exchanger
.

._~,,,'_

--.-_, ,;,.:.;; ~~

'.'

;.-?iL:~

av.

thi
"tO

I~
gr;
th
Pl

Reference line

Ut

th
el
tr
i,

3.5 to- 5.5 ft

E
os
d

ti

2. For vertical exchangers (see F/4b and F/4d):

, Pz'

== (PzHz + P3H3)/144, psi

(3)

where P2 is again the rnixture's density, as expressed

by Eq. (2) for horizontal exchangers, and P3 is the
average density of liquid and liquid-vapor mixture in
the reboiler:
(4)

Eq. (4) provides a conservativeestmate ofthe density

gradient in vertical reboilers,Actual density will be less
than that expressed by Eq: (4). In aIl equations, the
units for pare lb/ft3, and for H, ft. We also note that
the verti~alreboiler should be flooded. The maximum
elevation of the top tubesheet should not be higher than
the mnimum liquid level in the tower.

800~====~~~~~~~t1
~ 6001---"""'-'?'b-"7..17t--#+-7
400

1==:::::;;:z;:2;;t:;~7

3001---Y~

~~~

200

Hydraulics in horizontal reboilers,

In the following discussion,the hydraulic conditions
only in horizontal exchangers will Be developed. (The
derivations are the same for verticalexchangers.jexcept
that P2' will replace P2.) For horizontal exchangers:
PI - Pz

= P = (1/144)(PIHl

- PZH2)

(5)

If a safety factor of 2 is introduced, then the available

pressure difference for friction lossesis halved, and:
(6)

The quantity (H1 - Hz) is usually 3 ft' (see F/4a).

Consequently, a minimum driving force of Pmin =
(3/288)Pl;::::; O.OlPl is always available al:' horizontal
, exchangers.
. The maxirrium possibledriving force dependa on the
elevation difference between the drawoff nozzle and
exchanger centerline (dimension H1) and on the total
evaporation taking place.in the reboiler.Neglecting the
vapor-column backpressure in the .returnline, the rnaximum usable driving force is:
' '..

at.the maximum value, any inaccuracy is well compen- ,

sated for by the safety factor of 2, and by the necessity
to usecommercially available pipe sizes that are normally larger than calculated pipe diameters.

Friction losses in reboilers

..' The total friction losses in a thermal-circulating reboilersystem must
smaller than the available driving

911

force. The pressureIoss caused by friction takesplace

in two .main locations: in the exchanger itself, Pe,.and
in, the piping, pp' .Hence:
".,

In most applications, the actual driving force is not

much below this maximum. H1 can range from 6.to
24 ft, depending on the size of the arrangernent and
on NPSH fora pump taking suction at the bottom of:
the tower, For these H1 vales:
.

" ':;.;aPt + App <,y

Friction lossesin reboilers, p~,are generally given

as 0.25 to OS psi. (A note should indicate -whether
entrance and exit losses are included.) Unit losses in
downcomers and risers are in fractions of 1 psi! 100 ft.
Thus, 'thedriving force is reduced to.;"functionof
ClSulationproceduresfor-Iiquid lines..hav-been
the dOWIlC?merliquid. density at. operating teIIlpera- '...outlined in Partzofthis series,Ch,e~.Eng., Jan. 6, 1975,
ture. .For example, if the piping geometry' produces
pp, 115-120 (Example 1); and f9r'the two-phas flow
Hl
12 ft, and Pl
50,lb/ft3 for ker6sene~
risers in Part 8; June 23, 1975, pp .. 145-15L (ExamARma" ... = .(1.
',2./.288)5.
O ;::::;2;0..psi
pl7 1). We calcula.tereboilerreturns as dispersed fow,
. , ',;.'
~
regardless o .the intersection:()f,itheBaker para.rIt~ters
.;:.'}
Thesesimple relationshipsare'usefuLwhenthe evap~
'(seeFig. 1 in part',S).
'. ;'.i
, '
'."
oration rate is not known; and .line sizes ha~~ .to be .,...,.'....
'...
.To avoid .trial-and-error calcJ1tions;a selection
,ji;::): i estimat~d;Tl1'e available driving force ~ilI,be near 'Out
,chaI1:,for reboiler pipe size is prs;ntedin F/5! Ihis
, ;.;\ :. less th<.l.~,.A-PmaJ:
." ... ,..
i , },' . "........ ... ch~ Isbased on liIIliting velociti~ for flow,in d()wn"
APi:d~k{~~~raluatled
..here is,.of cours~f aIl.'extreme", ,'.C?mers of 2to/f,(t!s, We ,enter~lJ-egraph with known
valu ra 'ell at tota evaporation, In'ieboile~; partial
'liguid-flow qali~Wes;We obtai~c~9wncomerpipesizes
< >
evaporation. usually .takes '.place, which will reduce
from the shaded.p'ortion oCth9:9graph, and als91ind
i llP_. ~oweve" even jf th~ driving fo,Cej, ;""uUjed
. the =ponding
..flow veloci'!l~:o,
he

,;':,

e,.',..

compu!f

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t

lt
':'I:t

. :), :.11.'

,,'"

,tl

<v,,)1
.,,'
f
~;;~;t~:L
..'..,.l..
..l~
;:;':~, ''1~
".: ";11
1

~~~{ ;

-;:.:.};.>~:':'>( .'

'e~i,\f/'

~~;;'i:i;'"J!i!}~."~;~i~"""'-;:"-"'~~\~;?~,,,;;,,~,""7',;~;.;,i;,,:'::;~~E.;;,
.,.;.,.;,."-;~,;;:;~':~',""',,~~~~d~~,,-;~~t:~.~~';;..:'~;~i;.\;'
.........,"'"'.,*:;;j!,t'f"""~"..'.,.,'~>:;;....'.1

And, we calculate volume flowrate, * Q, from:

Reynolds numbers. The riser can be assumed as one

or two sizes larger 'than the downcomer pipe,
- In vertical reboiler circuits, reboiler losses are greater,
and pipe losses smaller, than in horizontal circuits. In
this case, a safety factor of 1.25 applied .to the driving

Q= W/500S

Q = 85,000/500(36.7/62.37) = 289 gpm

force can be used. In kettle-type reboilers, evaporation

rates are high. For these reboilers, a large-diameter re-. turn Jine is usuaIly necessary.

Elevation o the drawoff nozzle

The minimum elevation, Hp for the downcomer
tower nozzle aboye that for the centerline of the horizontal reboiler rnay be fourid from Eq. (6), where
H2 =Hl - 3, ft:
Hl

= 288~p -

3P2
Pl - P2

(9)

The downcomer nozzle cannot be lower than H1. ~P

replaces D.P in Eq. (6), and is the sum of the downcomer, .riser and exchanger friction-losses:

~P = t::..Pd + ~Pr + ~Pe

The value of Hl is useful when elevation adjustments
are made to vessel heights duringgraphic piping design,
or when the vessel can be located at a mnimum elevation. The coefficient for P2 in Eq. (9) is the elevation
difference between the downcomer and riser. nozzles. If
this is other than 3 ft, the correct dimension should be
inserted.
Many towers have a bottom drawoff pump: NPSH
requirements usually cause the process vessel and. the
reboiler, drawoff nozzle to be raised higher than that
ofthe reboiler's minimum elevation. This increases the
static head in the vertical legs, and also the driving
force in the circuir, With increased tower height, it lS
worthwhile to check the reboiler circuit for a possible
reduction in size of the Iiquid and .return linesespecially where large-diameterlines are necessary. Uneconomical reboiler lines are just carelessly oversized r:
poorIy routed.

We will begin by sizing the downcomer and then

calculate the overall pressure loss in it, We follow up
with similar computations for the riser-remembering
that the line has vapor/Iiquid flow. The simplest part
of this analysis is finding the preliminary size of the
reboiler lines. The computations for checking whether
these line sizes are adequate require considerable detail.
We should also note thatthe reboiler has.two'inlets and
two outlets (F/6). Consequently, we find full flow
(100%) in each line from the column to the "tee" connection on the reboiler's inlet and outlet piping; but
only 50% of total flow in each line segment after the
tee. In the following procedures, we will see how this
flow arrangement affects our design calculations.
" Doumcomer=Yox a liquid flow of 289 gpm, we find
the pipe size for the downcomer as 6.in from the selection .chart of F/5. (For a 6-in, Schedule 40 pipe,
LD. = 5.761 in, d5 = 6,346 in5.)
Inorder to calculate the unit loss for the 100% flow
section, we must calculate the Reynolds number from:
NRe

N' = 50.6( 2.89 )(.36.7)

Re
5.761
0.6
";#'"

6.p._o
~P100

85,000'
36.7 0:6 '

)2(

" ..' ...,~Ptoo(50%)=

.....
0.19 ('144.5
0.022 .)
;,;"."
.
. 289
0.0182
~Ploo(50%) == 0.0574 psi/lOO ft
,We now determine th(!;,equivalent'length of pipe and
fittings .for each segmente from tables iri<Part 2 of this
series (C}em. Eng.,jan. 6/1975, pp. 115.2.120),as follows:

yapor

Segmentfor
50% Flow,
Ft

59,500 25,500
36 :J.31
0.5- ~-.:;ROl' --

.-......
53

...:
:_}}t,tual..length

The flow data for the riser refeci that 70% ()ft6ial
-. _.r: flow -.s.
liquidand'30% vapor: We'obtairi 'ihe
density,* Pv' intheriser
from: ;:. ' .. '
-,-:-;
;'.,
. ...,
.,,::,\
'-,' "'-""_-

.; '_'.;.i-.'Entranceloss

..Elbows*

vaP6r

'-","

= 0.19 psi/lOO ft

W~can then find tle unit 10ss at50% flow:

- Downcomer
Liquid

= 0.0216fptCQ2/d5)

t::..PI00 = 0.0216(0.0182)(36.7)[(289)2/6,346]

Let us size the reboiler lines for the kerosene distillation unit, assketched in F/6. F16w data are:

Liquid

= i55 300
'

, Forthis Reynolds number, we obtain .the friction

factor,}; as 0.0182 from the chart in Part 8 of this series
(Chem. Eng., June 23, 1975, p. 147), and calculate the
unit loss .from:

Example demonstrates calculations

Flowrate, W; lb/h
_Density-(hot),.p,Jp/ft3
'Viscosity, L, cP'
Molecular weight, M

= 50.6(Q/d)(p/L)

'~"

.'}'~h,ll!Ptee

\Fo:EXit.loss

"''','

"0""'",

..

~~~~lbo~l9_r50%

10

'

30

'.~~:(
,>-,

-.--:--.:.,'/

"

- _'

"

_":"

36
82

'"

'

flow $egment;,?for tOO~ ",,__;._,._

...',.'...

,,'; ,Q.Yef~llpressure Jqss;br the downcomer:

.

._. '"

,.__ ._.:',,,

~-', .

'

- --,,, ,

- -- -

' -'..

""

",~f
~{).19(64/i()())-+O.057(82/1()O}.=
:.:':":-~": ~..
..
;':":

-.

.- -:;;:_ .. -::.'; ;:_~.

:---:-:i:':,;:

,"

. ,,',;

'-''"

'. -'H-"<!.,-' :"1 '1..2' ...:_..:.-/; ~'. ::';..

'-:.;:'~i"'

':,'/c'_

-'--~=:'::':::=-==:=::::-:=-:-=:=="'-.:-::-::-:-;}:
CI:iEMICAL El)!:O!N~ERING AUG\lsr,.; 1975
. ' .... ,;:}.~!5 U /.' .....
, -":.,'.--.~-~-:':,,:'-:- <:8;.;,;;"_;_:'

..

_': ~

:"~,,.-:.',:'::":

Let us estimate that the unit loss in the 50% flow

section is one-third that in the 100% flow segmento
Hence:
D.Ptoo(50%)

= 0.34 psi/lOO ft

Again, we determine the equivalent length of pipe

and fittings for each segment of the riser as follows:
Segment for
50% Flow,
Ft

Segment for
100%Flow,
Ft

6
14
24
24

18
14

Actual length
1 Elbow
1 Sharp tee
1 Entrance loss
1 Exit loss
Total

48
68

80

verall pressure loss of the riser:

I1P = 1.01(80/100)

+ 0.34(68/100) = 1.04 psi

In summary, the total pressure loss is obtained by

.adding the loss in the dwncomer, riser and reboiler:
6-in Downcomer. .
'0.167 psi
8~inRiser
~ l.02 psi
Reboiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.35 psi
Total /1P
,
1.557 psi
Reboiler flow relations and elevations for problem . ~

By substituting the .appropriate values into Eq. (6)

for this example, we determine the available pressure
difference, as:
.

Riser-Since the downcomer is a 6-in pipe, let us use

a riser having a nominal size of 8 in. (For an 8-in
Schedule 40 pipe, LD.
7.981 in, d5
32,380 in,5
A = 0.3474Jt2.)
,,-:
_
~.
. In arder to calculate the unit loss for the 100%ftow
section, we mus! calculate the vapor-phase Reynolds
number from:
.

NRe = 6.31Wv/d!Lv
NRe 6.31(25,500)/(7.981)(0.01)
NRe = 2 X 106
For this Reynolds number, we obtain a friction factor,j,of 0.014 from the chart in Part 8 of series; and
then calculate the vapor-phase unit loss from:
.

=
=

D.PlOo 0.000336(f/Pv)(Wv2/d5)
.
D.p!oo 0.000336(0.014/1.31)[(25,500)2/32,380]
D.p!oo = 0.072 ps/lOO ft
,',

'-'.' .

The available pressure difference of 1.57 psi is greater

than the calculated pressure lossesof 1.557 psi. Therefore, the design and sizes are acceptable. . -,
.
Finally; we check the minimum elevation of the
drawoff nozzle above the centerline of the reboiler by
sub1ll:itutinginto Eq. (9):
288(1.535) - 3(4.05) = 15.55 ft
31.7 - 4.05

" ...

D.P = (1/288)[(36.7)(13.5) - (4.05)(10.5)] = 1.57 psi

"

,:

.' "

Sincethe drawoff nozzle is actually J 6.0 ft above the

reboiler'si centerline (F/6), the minimum value of
15.55fyis ~sceptable.<.
The next article in this serieswill appear in the Sept.
15, 1975, issue. This article will review the design of
pipelines for the hydra~lic and thermal conditions occurring in overhead condensng systems,

~''':.- .. ,;: '.

'

Since the riser handles vapor/liquidJlow, we must

now determine the rwo-phase ftow modulus * from: .

'I'""t<"."" u. hvdraulic-svstems design,

and
the author of a number

felds, and has taught

for the design of process
layout, graphic piping and
jt.;
,,~~.. both in the V.S. and South
~~
~. Previously, he. was associated
W. Kellogg Co. in England and
Mr. Kern has an M.S. in
.mecnamcai engineering from the
. _,._~ ..~ University of Budapest.

'.

. ....~ ............

How to design
The statc of Huids in pipelines, and the physical arrangement
of equiprncnt around the distillation tower, establish the design
parameters for rneeting hydraulic and piping conditions of the system.

Robert Kern, Hoffmann - La Rache Inc.*

.,

o The state of fluid in [he pipelines, and the hydraulic

j
I

Gravity-flow reflux

and thermal conditions in condensing systems of distillation columns, are the reverse of those in reboiler
circuits.
The inlet line to eondensers can carry superheated
or saturated vapor, or dispcrsed vapor-liquid mixtures.
Fluid is cooled in the cxchanger, and partial or full
condensation takes place. The condenser's outlet line
can have stratified and dispersed two-phase flow, saturated liquid, or subeoolcd liquido In addition, the fiowing fluid can be a mixture of two substances. Thus, this
type of condensation offers a wide range of dassification
from a thermodynamic standpoint [1].
In contrast, saturated liquid normally flows in the
downcomer of reboilcrs. The liquid is vaporized while
passing through the exchangcr. The reboiler's outlet
line carries a dispersed vapor-iiquid mixture having a
vapor content of 30 ro 90% of total flow. (See Part 9
of this series for more details, Chem. Eng., Aug. 4, 1975,
p. 107.)
In this article, we will examine the hydraulics for
the folIowing:
1. Condensers with graviry-flow return lines.
2. Condensers with pumped-reflux lines.
3. Two-stage condensation.
Within these groups, hydraulic-design and plpmgdesign conditions vary, depending on the state of fluid
in the lines and the physical arrangement of the instalIation,
Vacuum technology has its own systems, equipment
and terminology. Piping dcsign of vacuum-condensing
systems are outside the Euler-Bernoulli-Darcy theories
and are not inc!uded in this article,

Horizontal conderisers-A condenser in "gravity-flow arrangements is located aboye the level of the terminating
point of the condenser's outlet line, as shown in F /1
and F/2. For the horizontal condenser in F/lb, vapor
enters the exchanger at the top, and subcooled liquid
leaves at the bottom. The looped-outlet pipe ensures
a permanent liquid level in the condenser. This liquid
level is controlled through the reflux branch and
through the takeoff line to storage.
The static-head pressure difference, D.Ps' between .the
vertical overhead line and the condenser's outlet line
for the arrangements in F /1 can be written as:
(1)

Ms must be equal to or greater than the sum of (1)

the pipe-system resistance, D.pp, between reference
points A and B; (a) exchanger pressure drop, D.pe; and
(3) required pressure difference across the control valve,
D.pcv:
(2)
The required distance, H, between fractionator inlet
and exchanger centerline can be caIculated from Eq.
(1) as:
(3)
The vapor column can be neglected by assuming
P2 O in Eq. (1) and (3). AH pressures are in 'psi;
densities, p, in lb/ft'; and dimensions, H, in ft.
As Eq. (3) shows, for a mnimum of elevation difference between the top of the column and the exchanger
centerline, the piping and components resistances must
also be minima!.

"For biography of author, see eh,m. Eng., Aug. 4, 1975, p. 113.

129
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING SEPTEMBER

15, 1975

1
I

!
[

Polnt 8-

B.

'Saturated liquid (shellside conderisation}

I
1

Horizontal condensers with gravity-flow reflux

Generally, in condensing systems,the unit loss in the

piping is low-about a tenth or a hundredth of 1
psi/lOO ft. Inlet and outlet resistances to process equipment usually take a considerable portion ofthe pipeline
resistance and should not be ignored in the calculations.
(Using three decimal places in the calculations is not
unusual.)
In horizontal condensers, condensation takes place in
the shell. This gives lower resistance than the tubeside,
A baffle (or baffies) in the exchanger is in the horizontal
plane through the exchanger's centerline. If necessary,
two inlet and two outlet nozzlescan halve the total flow,
and reduce entrance and exit resistances considerably.
In this case, the inlet and outlet piping should be symmetrical.
The subcooled liquid for the arrangement in FIlb
can be drained or pumped directly to storage. The
product stream for Fila is usually directed through a
cooler before storage.

Vertical condensers with gravty-fiow reflux co.ndense~. ....

vapors on the sheilside or tuheside 01 exchan9'!r
{P

130
-C-H-E-M-(-:,-\-_E-:N-'(-;-N-E-EI-,ING SEPTEMBI~-R-I:;~:;~-

.
...

v--~

Seal loops prevent a reversed flow of vapor in gravity-fiow condensing svsterns

leg (Z2 dimension in F /3), the piping design should be

such as to prevent siphoning that can empty the seal.
If dimension ZI is smaller than Z2' and the pressure
just before the seal loop and at the terminating point
after the sealloop is identical (for example, with greatl
reduced flow), liquid can be siphoned out of the seal;
and intermittently, the condenser will not operate well.
This can be prevented if Z1 is designed to be longer
than Z2 (see F/3a).
For the arrangement in F /3b, the final vertical leg
has a larger diameter than the gravity-flow reflux lineo
.Again, this can prevent the siphoning of liquid from
the seal loop.
Another arrangement (F/3c) has a closed vent lineo
This can be opened at reduced condensa te flow to keep
the seal loop filled with liquido With this type of venting, the pressure difference across the vent valve should
be zero. Therefore, it is essential to connect the endpoints of the vent line to locations where pressures are
expected to be about equal.

Control val ves in tlwse svstcrns should be located at

a low point of the n-turn linc and product stream,
Sufficient static head bcorc the valve inlet will prevent
vaporization across the valvc. A product cooler should
not receive a liquid-vapor mixture.
Vertical condensers-Arrangcments for these condensers
with gravity-flow outlcts are shown in F /2. Condensation can take place in the shell (F/2a), or tubes
(F/2b). A single-pass vertical condenser is more suitable
for liquid subcooling than a horizontal one. The sealloop height can be adjustcd within a greater range than
with horizontal condcnscrs (F /2c). The required liquid
level in the exchanger shell is determined by the exchanger's designer.
The hydraulic balance for the arrangements shown
in F/2 is:

(1/144)(H1Pl

+ H2P2)

> (1/144)H3P3

+ 6.P

(4)

vhere 6.P is the sum 01' piping, 6.Pp, exchanger, 6.Pe'

"and control-valve (ir any), 6.Pcv' resistances:

6.P

= 6.P + uPe + 6.pcv

(5)

Pumped-reflux arrangements

The elevation difference, as expressed from Eq. (4),

between the condenser's outlet and the refiux inlet nozzle will be:

HI > (l/pl)(f(P3

- HzPz

+ 1446.P)

Typical overhead lines for hydrocarbon distillation

columns are shown in F/4. Fluid circulation in the
piping is the result of the thermosiphon effect in gravity-reflux condensaton. For the systems shown in F/4,
there is (and most of the time must be) a pressure
difference between the top of the tower and reflux
drum. The reflux drum has a pump, which returns the
liquid to the top of the tower or sends it to storage.
In .these arrangements (besides the sum of the static
heads), actual pressure differences, 6.Pp, also enter into
the calculations:
.

(6)

where PI is the density of condensate in the reflux line,

P3 is the vapor density in the overhead line, and P2 is
the average density in the vertical exchanger:
(7)

Seal loop prevents flow reversal

(8)

In gravity-flow condcnsing systerns, a seal loop is

provided to prevent a reversed flow of vapor in the
condenser's outlet line. This loop can .be used for holding a liquid leve! in the condenser, as shown in F/la
and F/2c.
If the gravity-flow reflux line terminates in a vertical

For the dimensions given in F /5, the static-head

difference will be:

(9)
where PI is usually vapor density, and P2 is vapor-liquid

131
cm:!lllCAL

ENGINEEIUNG SEI'TEMBER 15, 1975

I
1
t

~:;::~.The .simplest ev'erhead

,-

line 9!V8S the

srnailest pipe

b, Subcooled liquid
in toe

SiZ9.

cravitv-ftow

;u'det Iine.

Overhead condensers for distillation columns

mixture (or liquid) densty. The overall available

is the sum of Eq. (8) and (9), or:

tJ.p

= tJ.Ps + tJ.Pp

D..P
(10)

If the righthand side of Eq. (10) becomes negative,

the condenscr 1l1l!S be placed at an elevation closer to,
or aboye, the reflux drum. A negative value indicates
that thc static-head backpressure (p2Hz) in Eq. (9) is
greater t.han ihc SUIll of (1) pressure difference between
the top 01' t hc t owcr and the reflux drum plus (2) the
vapor st a 1 ic lJ(';d (( .H 1) in the overhead lineo The
greatcr rhc ('('Ilc]C'!IS,l tion, the heavier the mixture becomes in t!: C<lrJ(icll,er's outlet line, which results in,
a greaier bac..Lp.lc,.sun. Of course, P2H2 becomes positive W11C1l dI(' int' has a gravity-fiow arrangement between th CO!1(!c-ll'C! outlet and the reflux-drum inlet,
as shov,n in F -la and F/4b.
Eq. (1()) sIH)\\', t he driving force in the overhead
svstern. This mus! bc' greater than the sum of piping,
inlet aud ('xi t lusscs, 2::.l'p, and exchanger resistance, tJ.Pe:

(11)
tJ.PI'

usuu llv is r)t:t wecn 2 to 6 psi, and condenser tJ.Pe

rangcs [rorn O.:) to 5 psi.
The max imum possible condenser-centerline
location
below t hc rcllux drun (dimension Hz in F /5) can be
calculalcd [rorn the combination of Eq. (9), (10) and
(11), to give:

(1/144)(pfll

- p}J2)

+
tJ.Pp .. (tJ.pp

'Dimensional relations for a .condenser at grade

+ D.pe) = O

As a safery factor, the positive static-head

132
CHl~M[CAL ENG1NEERING

sEiil:illii"~,;, 1!J'/')

(12)

column pres-

,
([[J
.

:lj

Elevated condensers and details of reflux drum

sure of the overhead vapor line can be neglected.Consider:

P1Hl

= O.

ExpressingH2 from Eq. (12) in feet, we get:

H2::: (144/P2)(Mp

b.pp

b.pe)

(13)

In layout design, usually the reflux drum is elevated

first in accordance with the required NPSH (net positive suction head) of the reflux pump. The dimensions
shown in Detail A of F/5 will establish the condenser
elevation from grade.

Slug flow is undesirable

Slug flow can develop in the pocketed condenseroutlet line shown in F/5, depending on vapor-Jiquid
proportion and fluid velocity. Slug flow should be
avoided because it can cause undesirable pressure
surges.
An empirical relation can .be used to estmate the
slug-flowregion. If the velocity (calculated with twophase density) in the pipeline is smaller than (5pd
Pv)1/2, slug flow is possible. The type of flow can also

. Liquid and vapor velocities determine type of flow

133
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING SEPTEMBER 15, 1975

1
!

Det.:;d

r(?\nmdi2~("35'
\~

di
-In

"

la,

.'\

_..,~-'_-,_''':=

Two-stage condensing system has parallel flow through large surface condensers in series with air coolers

biliiv ,,1' ,J\,~11m,' ";11\ be rninimized by (a) increasing

(he pn'ssulc dlop i n he condenser's outlet line and
reducirn; 111<' r-'S{;IIH'C of the rest of the cone!ensing
sys1('1l1. ,1,) !{\'idilJe; 1wo parallcl lincs between condens('f' .md Id)tL dl'Uln, (e) using valved alternative
pi: ru n-. 1"1 ;t!i''1II;tivc lowrates, and (el) changing
t o a grav!lv-Il.)\\
;i'Ll!lgcrncnt.

be estimatee! by calculating the Baker parameters ane!

using Fig. 1 in Part 8 of this series (Chcm. Eng., June
23,1975, p. 146), Flow-region maps such as are shown
in Fj6 are al so available for vertical Ilows. To use these
maps, the vapor-phase ane! Jiquie!-phase velocities are
calculatee! separately for the same pipe e!iameter. The
intersection of these in the appropriate e!iagram ofFj6
establishes the flow region.
The general criterion for selecting a suitable Iine sizc
is that th pipe diameter must be suflicicnt ly small to
have (he highest possible vclocity, but large enough to
stay within available pressure diflercnrial. The possi-

Equipment

arr;ng-ernent

In a gr;l\'ity-ll<Jw ill'rangcment, a structure is often

requln'(1, LltIOI" tll;11 inlluence layout design are shown
in 1-'/7, Iklow lile cll'Vall:eI condcuscrs, a platform is

1:H
CllEMICAL I-:N<:I~::i:l;iN(iSEP'It:~jllllt

1',- 1'1;',

usually provided. Structural members, space for piping

below the platform, and reflux-drum diameter or minimum headroom requirement determine the platform
level for the reflux drum. Piping, NPSH or headroom
will establish the distance between grade and the reflux-drum platform.
The piping arrangement
of condensing
systems
should be as. simple as possible. Each elbow in the
overhead line represents a sizable percentage of the
overal! pipe-friction loss. However, lines can become
longer because of fiexibility considerations.
Usually,
there is no valve in an overhead lineo Pressure loss in
fittings and line length have to be compensated for with
increased pipe diameter.
Piping design, and access to valves and instruments,
also depend on how well nozzles are located and oriented on process vessels. The usual nozzle arrangement
of a reflux drum is shown in Detail A of F /7. The
condensate inlet is at one end of the topo Alternatively,
a bottom inlet with a standpipe in the refiux drum can
be designed, eliminating a couple of elbows and reducing pipe resistance. The pump drawoff nozzle is at the
bottom and opposite end of the reflux drum. Level-gage
and level-controller connections can be in the center.
At the center, the liquid level is least agitated by the
inlet and outlet streams. Pressure connections are usually in the vapor space, and temperature connections
in the liquid space near the pump drawoff nozzle. AIternative manhole locations, and vent, drain and support connections are shown in Detail A of F /7.

Two-stage condensation
We will now describe a large, two-stage, condensing
system, and in doing so we will find additional design
ideas for the condenser piping.
Where cooling water is expensive, condensing systems
can be designed for use with air coolers or with a combination of air coolers and water coolers in series. If
close condensate-temperature
control is required, the
water coolers are located after the air coolers. For optimum heat transfer, a reversed sequence can be chosen.
A large-capacity
condensing system handling the
overhead from the primary fractionator of an ethylene
unit is shown in F /8. The pressure difference between
the fractionator and reflux drum is small, D.P = 1.75
psi. With this limited pressure differential, it is essential
to have minimal resistance through exchangers, piping
and pipe components.
Resistance of the surface condensers has been minimized by choosing three exchangers, each handling
one-third of the total flow; and by providing a flared
exchanger inlet, and four large outlets for each shell.
Exchanger resistance is given as 0.12 psi, exclusive of
inlet and outlet .resistances. The photograph
in F /8
shows one of the exchangers being delivered.
Air-cooler resistance has been minimized by using
numerous single passes and large-diameter finned tubes.
Air-cooler pressure loss is estimated as 0.7 psi, excluding
nozzles.
Even with al! these provisions, close to 50% of the
available overalJ pressure difference has been consumed
by the exchangers alone. About 30% of the overall D.P
has been taken up by the inlet and outlet resistan ces,

leaving 20 to 25';; of 1.75 psi for pipe resistance. This,

and the rather lonz pipe configuration, mean very large
pipe sizes. These are indicated in F /8. Velocities in these
lines are less than 50 t/s. Under these conditions, the
piping sysrem from t he fractionator to the reflux drum
has to be self-draining. Horizontal sections of the piping
slope toward the reflux drum.
Saturated vapor 110\\'S in the 72-in-dia. overhead lineo
(Overhead lines are not usually insulated, and it is reasonable to assume that sorne condensation wiII take
place in thern.) Condensate, collected in the overhead
Iine, can drain to the surface condensers through the
three tangentiallv welded branch-connections
(see Detail A in F /8). Quite likely, this condensed liquid.is not
distributed to the thrce surface condensers equally because of the nonsvmrnetrical arrangement of the branch
lines. Considcrng the small amount of liquid, and that
this liquid does not affect the heat-transfer duty of the
exchangers, the nonsymmetrical
arrangerient
is accepted.
For equal vapor distribution to the three surface
condensers, butterily valves are installed at the inlet
flanges of the flared exchanger sections (see Detail B
in F /8). The butrerfly fiap in each valve has a reduced
diameter-leaving
50% of the cross-sectional area of the
inlet nozzle perrnanently open. In this way, it is assumed that, with less resistan ce, a rnore-sensitive regulation can be accomplished than with a valve having
a full-diameter flap.
Pipelines between the surface condensers and air
coolers have two-phase dispersed flow, Because of the
low velocity, elbows and tee connections, sorne liquid
separation (wit h stratified flow) at the bottom of the
lines is also assurned. (Under such conditions, and with
these Ene sizcs. it is difficult to assess how valid twophase-flow theories are.)
The outlet lines of the surface condensers connect
centrally to t hc inlct headers of the air coolers. Equal
fluid distribut ion is assured by the relatively great
differcnce in resi,tance between the very-low header loss
and the hit:h enirance resistance to the air cooler
branch-conncctiulls. For equal distributon of the stratified liquio al Le bottom of the pipe, each branchconncct ion CXlt'l(h ahout 2 in up into the horizontal
air-co()krl"';lc.kt {;;ce Detail e in F /8). These extensions'
dam up t hr: (pIi:: in the bottom of the pipe, and the
overflow !aciliLllc, cqual liquid distribution across each
air-coolcr p:t'''' :YQlllnetrical piping at the outlet side
of a ir ('()okl's i, not considered as essential as at the
inlct side.
The next. ;,n.icie in this series of piping design will
appca r 1Il t l: ISS\lC of Oct. 13, 1975, and wil! cover '
calcula tion pmc(,c1ures for compressible fluid flow under
isothennal ami adiabatic conditions in pipelines and
restrici ions.

Roferences
Q;. "Prun'\', lh':n Transfer," McGrawHill, New York, 1950.
r. 1 .:n,J:. :-"1!':ill!Ii!;, A, H., Two-Phase Vertical Flow Maps, [oint

1. K<:~n,U

2.

(:,IU:

S\'jilj>0;'l\lnl

\::challcs
and Mcasurcmcnt in Two-Phaxe '-Flow
(I! Lt'('ds, Leeds, England, Scpt. 24-25, 1969; Proc.
11.""'1",,). Vol. 18' Pan 3C (1970)

l,ltlu!

(JJI

SY~!>':::",_.:ll .~,-'fJl\'(.1
'oL ,l/un

}:>'<".

-,JI \ .

'l. C..dv. 1'. 1). 11",\ 1"

unhufl Frultl\,.

4.

(;/(,(:1,1(,:,.1.:
1)1:--III1HIlIOII

SI.j.l
;-';~'j)L l(I'~

Slug

Fl~,~
in Condensei

I
I

Outlet Piping Hydro,

L"l ~1;"1:11l:1j~:al
Piping Arrangements Solve Two-Phase Flow
11~d),nIJ~. I{rf!tocflfun ProcfJs.;.Fcb. 1967.

..,
A
1-

h
Y
Ir

ti
.y
:

g
:'-

I How to size piping

and

-;

T
)

components as gas expands

at flow conditions
An evaluation of isothermal and adiabatic conditions leads to
practical formulas for establishing flowrate, pressure drop and the
-limiting velocity. for gases through pipelines and restrictions.

Robert Kern, Hcffmann - La Rache Ine. *

o Flow of gases and

Useful fluid-flow relations

vapors through pipelines, and

piping components and other restrictions,is affected by
the changing conditions of pressure and temperature.
Therefore, we must.examine the nature of the flow,
i.e., whether it is isothermal or adiabatic, and apply
the appropriate flowrelations to the piping designoLet
us first review the principIes for such isothermal and
adiabatic flows,and then solve sorne typical problems.
Densitiesof gasesand vapors vary with pressure and
temperature. In isothermal. flow (temperature is constant), density varies with pressure.In adiabatic flow,
a decrease in' ternperature occurs when pressure decreases.This results in a density-increasecorrection. At
high pressures and temperatures.. the compressibility
factor can be less than unity, and sorne increase in
density will occur.
.
.
When calculating flowrate or pressure drop for piping design, pressure wiU have the dominant influence
on density. As pressure decreases due to piping and
componentsresistance, the gas expands andits velocity
increases.
.
However,we may encounter 'a limitation.The velocity of flow in a pipeline of constant cross-scton (or
in the throat of a restriction) cannot gohigher than
the sonic or critical velocity. Even if the downstream
pressure is lower than the pressure-necessary to ;eadi
critical velocity, flowrate through a pipeline or restriction will not increaseaboye that calculated.at the critical velocity. .
..

..

Accordingto available data, the relation between the

.Reynolds number and friction factor is the same for
liquid flow, steady gas flow, and expanding gas flow,
up to thelimit of sonicvelocity[l]. In short lines having
high pressure differentials, flow usually falls in the_totally turbulent zone, and the friction factors in Table
VI of Part 1 can be .used [12]. At the beginning of long
pipelines, transitional turbulence is also possible, with
friction factors..higher than at total turbulence. These
friction factors: for steel pipes can be obtained from
Fig. 2 of Part 8 (15]..
.
Interpolation. between the initial transitional-turbulent friction factor over a length of'Iine, and the
totally turbulent friction factor ovr .the remaining
portion of the line, can give a close estmate of the
overall friction factor. This also means that the expres~
sions for the resistance coefficient,K, head loss,ht, and
coefficients of restrictions, e, (derived for steady flow)
can be usedin the calculations ofexpanding gas flow.
Thermodynamic derivations _assumethat the ideal
gasIaws are applicable: i.e., PV
a constant .for isothermal flow,and PVk
a constant for adiabatic flow.
While, theoretically, this .is true only for frictionless
flow, it makes little practical difference when calculatiIlg flowrate or pressure drop through pipelines and
components.

*l"0r biography of author, see eh"". Eng., Aug. 4, 1975, p. 113..

125
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING OCTOBER 13, 1975

~. For a given pressure differential, the mass discharge

rate through a pipeline is greater for adiabatic flow
than the rate for isothermal flow. The difference will
never be more than 20%. Practically, there will be no
difference if the pipeline is more than 1,000 pipe diameters long [2]. Actual flows are somewhere between
isothermal and adiabatic conditions; and the difference
in flowrate stays well below 20%-even for lines having
lengths well under 1,000 pipe diameters.
In comparing the basic equations for adiabatic and
isothermal flows, isothermal fow can be considered as

a hypothetical adiabatic flow where the adiabatic exponent k

1. This proposition is useful because isothermal derivations are simple and the solutions conve. nient compared with sorne of the lengthy and
complcated procedures of the relations for adiabatic
calculations.
Data for the adiabatic exponent, k; specific heats, cp
and c7}' and the gas constant, R, are given in handbooks,
usually at sorne standard pressure and temperature.
Increase in pressure and decrease in temperature tend
to give higher k values and a Iower compressibility
factor, z. At high pressures and temperatures, z can be
considered as a correction factor for the gas constant,
R. These changes will make little difference in sizing
piping: and components, or estimating flowrates ando
pressure drop.
.
..
Elevation changes in pipelines have negligible effect
on pressures, flowrates and pressure drops because gas
densities are usually smal!. For restrictions in a pipeline
or flows through a short pipeline, we must pay close
attention to the design parameters in order to avoid
overly high flow velocities. High velocitiscan cause
vibrations or noise, or ~0tf..

Wp = Flowrate

through pipe
Wo = Flowrate through restriction

Bernoulli's general equation for steady flow can be

expressed graphically as:

Flow through ruptured exchanger

tube and tubesheet orifice

A
fJ
C
CK
j

do
,D

f
g

hL
k
K
L
M

tlP
llPE
llPe
R
p

T
o
ve

!l.

.P,
.'.p + 2g+Z.,

=:

P2 ~
hL +; + 2g +Z.2

These relationships can also be written as:

(l/P)(P2 ~Pl)

+ (1/2g)(v~

..,- vi)

+ (z2 -

zl)+

hi

=O

. For expanding-gas flow, v2 :f v1; and with horizontal

pipe, z2 = z1' Hence, the differential form of Bernoulli's .
eq~ati()n. can be written as:
-{l/p)dP

= (l/g)vdv+

hL

where the cl.ertsi'}';p,

is not toIlsmt, and
hL

= Kv2/2g

... -

Isothermal flow: flowrate through pipeliIles

It

Internal cross-section of pipe, ft2

Ratio. between restricton diameter and
inside diameter
Mechanical flow coefficient
Kinetic-energy correction factor
Internal diameter of pipe, in
Diameter of restriction, in
Internal diameter of pipe, ft
Friction factor
Gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/s2
. Head loss, ft
Specific heat ratio
Resstance coefficient
Overalllength of pipe.. ft
Molecular weight
Absolute pressure,Jb/ft2
Absolute pressure,psia
Pressure loss or pressure difference between
two points, psi
Pressure drop in steady fiow, psi
Critical pressure drop, psi.
Universal gas constant, 1,544/ M
Fluid density, lb/ft3.
Absolute temperature, R
Mean velocity offluid, [t/S
. Critical (or sonic) velocity, ft/s
Specific volume, ft3/lb
Weight flowrate, lb/s
Weight flowrate, lb/h
Weight flowrate for steady condition, lb/h
New expansion factor
Compressibility factor

Subscripts .
1 .' Upfiow condition
2 Downflow condition .
o Orifice..',
Pipb
Relief valve

I
1I
i

"
Weight flowrate through the pipe is: w = Apv, or
A = ~v = constant. Expressing this relation in
differential form, and remembering that both density
and velocity change along the pipeline:

complete break near the tubesheet, as shown in F/1,

and (2) isothermal flow? (We will compare this calculation with that for adiabatic flow in Example 4 under
the same flow data.)
Flow data for this example are:

w!

pdv

+ vdp

=O

Pressure in exchanger tubes, P1 ::; 1,lOOpsig.

Rlief-valve set pressure, P2 ::; 400 psig, on
shellside.
Gas temperature, 100~F.
Molecular weight, M::; 18.7.
Compressibility factor, z ::;0.9.
Exchanger tubes are % in, Schedule 160 for which
d
0.0512 ft
0.614 in; d2
0.377 in2; and O.D.
1.050 in.
'
TubeJength
20 ft.
Friction factor, f 0.026 for complete turbulence.

(3)

dv=-v(~)

In expandng-gas flow, the pressure-and-density ratio

stays constant: p/p = dp/dp = Pt/p . We can express
this as two relationships:
1
dp

dp

-=P
P

(4)

1 '(P)l
t= P: p

(5)

dv ::; -v(dp/p)

(7)

-dp
=..!_(~)2_,1 (K _'dP)
,
gAp"
2
P.

(AW)2(h)' ('1)(
g K-

2 dP)

_ 2~2

(9)

"w = 1,335.6(0.3,77)},~11~~89 2,

. +
W == 8,380 lb/h

,/:

(1,124.7)2 - (414;7)2
1,124;7

Isothermal flow: .pipeline pressure drop

A convenient method for calculating pressure loss has been developed by others in a sequence of technical
papers [3,4]. _,'
,
Replacing w/A h{PIV1 in Eq, (10), multplyng by
l/pi, and rearranging, we get:
''
"

(10)

(11)

(Pl i)21n(h)'P2

P2)2';" IviK + v
( PI
"- gPl
gh ' "

We convert Eq. (11) to convenient units by letting:

W
3,600w, lb/h; A
(d/12)Z('lTj4), where d is in.;
p 144P, whereP is psia; andX =jL/D. With these
expressions, Eq. (H) now becornes:

'.(13)

".

w=

the term:

We can now calculate the flowrate, w" through the

completely broken exchanger tube (when the reliefvalve set pressure is 400 psig) by substituting into Eq.
(12): .

Solving Eq. (10) for flowrate, w, lb/s, we get:

=
=

11.65

2In (l.;124.7/414.7)::; 2

;Y'

(~r(~:)(-i)(K + 2In~~)

= 10.15
= 1.5

For convenience, we will also evaluare

2ln (PI/P2)iri Eq. (12) as:

(8)

In Eq. (9); pressure is the only variant. Integrating

Eq. (9) between two reference points in apipeliI)e:

==

::; 3.89 lb/ft3

k ::;jL/D == 0.026(20/0.0512)
Tube entrance and xit resistance
Total resistance

Inserting Eq. (5) into Eq. (8), and multiplying both

sides by 2p, we get:

pi - p

14.7)

Tube resistance:

T-;,

-2t2pdPs:{~r(~:)()(~

= 10.72(460 + 100)0.9

Then, we evaluate the 'total resistance as follows:

dP)

PI

18.7(1,110
PI

(6)

Expressng velocity in terms of weight flowrate: v

w/Ap; and inserting this into Eq. (7) yields:

- 2p dp ::;

Pl ::; MP/10.72Tz

With Eq. (2) and Eq. (6), Eq. (l)becomes:

-dP=g

First, we evaluate the upflow density, PI' from:

where PI and PI are the initial absolute pressure_and,

density, respectively. Inserting Eq. (4) into Eq. (3)
yields: .

" ,V2p(K

'

"

1,335.6d2YPt/[K

+ 21n(PI/PZ)]X

(15)

y't-:'(P=j:-_-, ",--P""')-/P-l,' (12)

b.pj;ig the pressreloss in steady flow, expressed in

consistent units. See Eq. (13) in Part 2 [13]. The coefficieIlt of the-logarithmic expression in Eq. (3) is:

Eq. (12) can be used to, c:alculate fowratethrough

a pipe for expanding-gas flow under isothermal.condi'tins, provided that upstream and downstream pressures are known.

Example
What is the flowrate of natural. gas
through arrptured exchanger' tube assurning' (I). a

(plvi)/gPl=

because:
127

vi/v~ ,'.'

'.

Eq~(18) can also 'be written as:

Eq. (16) is the critieal-velocity flow

ex-.
.
. By using Eq. (14), (15) and (16) in Eq. (13), and
rearranging, we find:
pressed in consistent units.

~!
.;._,(P2)2 = 2t:.PE ._

(.v )\n(h)2
h

...J

(19)

.,:_--

. PI
Pt
Ve
CheslerandJesser [4] introduced the followingproposition: To obtain pressure loss, /),.p,. during expandinggas flow, multiply the steady-flow pressure Ioss, /),.PE'
by a kinetic-energy correction factor, CK:
PI -

P2 == 1 _ CK(t:.PE)
Pi
PI'

P2 = tJ.p = tJ.PE X CK

(18)

(20)

-,
The original

proposition

of Eq. (lB) now bccornes:

(:.? 1)

where 6,P is the pressure loss

psi, and 6,PE, psi, is:

rol' (,;';p;llldill~'g:IS low,

Eq. (22) was originally m.sclltcd as Eq. ( 17) in Part

2 of .this series [13].
In Eq. (20), vI/ve is the Mach 11 uru 1)('1. Th(' e:xpn:ssion
for the upstream gas velocitv, "1' \\ith init ial dc-nsitv,
PI' is:

~~

e 0.75
O

'0
31 0.70

(23)

The sonic velocity, ve' calculatcd wit h initial absolute

pressure, PI' and initial dcnsitv, t'!, is:

= 68..p;:;;

UJ

0.65

(24)

0.60

The kinetic-energy correction factor. CK in Ec. (21)

can be obtained from F /2, which is the graphical sol ution of Eq. (20). The dimensionless r.u ios ()f j,Pf;/ p,
and corresponding
values of (l'l/V,.)~, can be conveniently calculated with upstream gas conclitions. PI has
dimensions of psia, and CK is dimcnsionless.
Example 2-What
is the overall prcssure drop in an
SOO-ft-Iong, well-insulated, 12-in Schedule 30 pipeline
(d= 12.09 in, d2
146.17, d5
25B,:1(4)? Flowrate,
W, = 250,000 lb/h of carbon dioxide having a molecular weight, M, == 44. Pipe inlet conditions are: p = 80
psia, Tl = 600oR, and viscosity, '.l, = 0.027 cp,
We calculate upflow gas density, p, from:

0.55

Ve

k = 1.45

0.0

0.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

1.0

k = 1.40

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

k = 1.35

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

1.0

0.8

k = 1.30

0.2

0.0

0.4

. 0.6

0.8

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Pressure ratio, ;:;,P/p

44(80)
= 0.547 lb/ft'
10.72(6nO)1
!
:.:...Source: Crane Co. and Ret , [7,8].

For steady fiow (based on upstream conditions) with

a friction factor off
0.013 (for a Reynolds number,
NRe = 4.87 X 106), the pressure 105S is .found by substituting in Eq. (22). Hence:

'.

.. 0.00000336(0.013)(800)(250.00W
(258,304)(0.547)

Expansion factor for compressible

flow through nozzles.and orifices

== 15.46 psi

~P

'Yo determine the value of CK from F/2. we must now

compute ~PE/PI and (v/ve)2:
~PE/Pl

= 15.46/80 = 0.193

in Eq. (23) to find

We substitute
1

0.0509(250.000)
(146.17)(0.517)

i' i :

= t1P

= (159.15;82:2.

)..j,~

as:

,'c'

82:2.;'i t'[

== O.\.UTl

Using these values, we obtain C'I{ :::: 1. la fr.un F/2.

Therefore, the overall pre;isl.m~ dlp in rh i pipeline. *

X CK

15.46 X 1.18

18.24 psi

Adiabatic flow
Adiabatic flow can be assumed for flows through an
orfice, flow nozzle or a short pipeline. In addition to
pressure change, there will be a change in temperature.
This affects density, velocity and fiowrate. Temperature
change can be calculated frorn:
T3

= 68 V80/0.547'=

(U/vc)2

as:

159.L') fl.S

and now substitute in Eq. (24) to find

l.'e

kinetic energy losses, will be:

including

tiPE == .
~PE

= T (P /P)(k-l)/k = T(pjp)(k-U
1

The method of calculating flowrates through restrictions and short pipelines is .identical to the rclarion
expressed in Eq. (21). Without rnueh elaboratiou, ve
will develop certain procedures in wha 1 follO\\s. Cerailed derivations are availahle in the li: r.uure [:J.!).

Adiabatic llow through orfice

*Des~!it'r:-. otten calculate
t~srirnar\':d- ,1\":,I1:C 'dC!1~ir_\" nnd
qbtJ;n.g,-.e_.-11n' .uii hnu-tic

-:u';,ld;

1.0

k = 1.25

P1 =;M.f/.J.0~2Tli
P1

0.50

The mechanical principlcs are

uid or expanding gas is flowing.
in rhe iutcrn.il energy takes place
'1'11i3 is niiccted by multiplying

"in _t:i ..

rhc ,-~,:-:";,,\ll
Eq. Cl',,!"i. L
and <-1:;:. ;.(~-. .

'\,I,:ith

----. __<-._------.
(:HL:,-j!l :,\L

L\:(

;i'\U':\" I.\{;

(".'1

r( fr.U':"

1~, iq7~}

the sarne whether iiqIn addirion, a chanuc

in thc expa ndi nu U::LS.
Darcv's equarion
v

1.0

factor, Y:

a net expansion

is the pressure difference between the inlet and outlet

points of the pipeline, psi; PI is inlet density, lb/ft3. \Ve
obtain the net expansion factor, y, from F/4.
Example 4-Let us now calculate the adiabatic flow,
rate of natural gas through the ruptured exchanger
tube for the data given in Example 1.
To find the net expansion factor, y, we evaluate:

(25)

W= WEY

where WE is:
WE

= 157.66Cdo y;;;pf

(26)

Eq. (26) was presented as Eq. (5) in Part 3 r 14).

We will modify this equation by substituting hL :;::
144~P/ P1' and then substitute the modified equation
into Eq. (25):
W

= Wo = 1,891d~CY~

= (1,124.7 - 414.7)/1,124.7 = 0.63

= 1.3 (from Table 1 in Part 1 [12])
K = 11.65 (calculated in Example 1)
these data, we enter F /4 and find Y = 0.765.

AP/P1

(27)

With
Inserting the appropriate values into Eq. (31) and
solving yields:

where W or Wo is flowrate, lb/h; do is diameter of

. restriction, in; PI is upfow density, lb /ft''; ~P is the
pressure difference between upflow and downflow, psi.
e is the orifice or nozzle fow coefficient (from Fig. 1
and 4 in Part 3 [14]). Y can be obtained from F/3.
The net expanson factor or adiabatic flow .coefficient, y, is a function of the adiabatic exponent, k :;::
cpl cv; absolute pressure ratio, ~P / PI; and the ratio
between restriction diame ter and nside pipe diameter,
f3 :;:: do/ dl, Pl is upstream pressure, psia.
To design a pressure-reducng orfice, we can calculate its diameter from Eq. (27) as:
.

d;

= 1,891(0.765)(0.377)Y710(3.89)/11.65
W" = 8,397 lb/h

Wp

As this example demonstrates,the adiabatic flowrate

differs very little from that of isothermal flow (8,380
lb/h in Example 1). The L/D ratio is 20/0.0512 :;::390,
which is much less than the 1,000 pipe diameters previously discussed. As .it should be, the adiabatic flowrate
is greater than the isothermal flowrate,
The flowrate for sizing the relief valve, shown inF /1,
will be the flow through the restriction (Example 3) plus
the flow through the ruptured exchanger tube (Example 4):

. W

=.

inz

(28)

1,891CyyAPPl

where ~P represents the required pressure reduction,

psi. The restriction diameter, do, is usually small com. pared with pipe diameter. After calculating6P/P1, we
can .obtain the value ofY from F/3 by usng the line
for a nozzle ratio, dal dl :;::O to 0.2. We get the mechanical flow coefficient, e, from Fig. 1 in Part 3 [14].
Example 3-What is the flowrate through the tubesheet at the place of a completely ruptured exchanger
tube? Data are the same as given -in Example 1 and
F/L
We will treat the ruptured tube as an orfice for which
do ':;::0.614in, and dl :;::24 in. Hence, f3 :;:: 0.614/24 :;::
0.026. To find the net expansion factor, y, we calculate:

= (1,124.7 -

AP/Pl

414.7)/1,124.7

WRV

We can.also obtain the data for calculating the critical pressure drop, from F/3and F/ 4 at the lower endpoint of each lineo For example, in a flow nozzle where
f3 0.5 andk :;:: lA, F/3 gives a net expansion factor,
y
0.698, and a pressure ratio, ~Pc/ Pl
0047. Therefore, the critical pressure drop is: ~Pc :;::0047PI' and the
critical downstream pressure at the point ofsonic velocity wiU be P2 :;::P1 ,....~Pc. The flowrate will not increase
even if downstream pressure. is decreased to less than

= 0.63

pherethrough a 3-in Schedule 40 pipe (D O~2557ft,

d2 = 9,413 i~2). The pipeline is 20-ft long and carries
gas from vessel that has a: pressure of125 psig, Gas
properties are: molecular weight, M:;:: 12.18; tempera'.ture, t :;::140F; k :;::1.4; and Pl :;::0.265 lb/fta. What
is the maximum flowrate through the line?
Actual pressure difference ~P' is 125 psi. Hence,
M IPI :;::
.125l( 125 + 14.7) :;::0.895. From Table VI in'
Part 1[12], we obtain the friction factor,1, :;:: 0.0178
for totally turbulent flow. We use this value to calculate
pipeline resistance .and total. resistance as. follows:

pip

. We will use the following equation previously develoRed.as Eq. (17) in Part 2 [13]:
M = 0.00000336L(f/pd(WPd5)

Pipeline resistance:

w_e then let (12jL)/d:;:: K, andslv.Eq, (29)for

flowrate WE' lb /h. .
.

K=fL/D = 0.0178(20)/0.2557== 1.4

Exit.~na entrance losses
= lA

= 1,891d2V(APP1)/K

. Tot:hl resistance

Using the.proposition.of Eq. (~6), Eg. ~30) becomes:

W

= W" = 1,891d2YV(APPl)/K

P2
Example 5,.-Coke-oven gas is discharged to atmos-

1,891{0.37_7)(0.62)(0.79)Y710(3.89).

WE

internal diameter of pipe, in; M:;:: Pl

(31)
-

P2

= 26,748 lb/h

Critical pressure

. Wo = 18,351 lb/h

Adiabatic flow throU~.

18,351 + 8,397

Thisis also the flowrate through the relief-valve discharge lineo

.

From F/3, we find y :;::

0.79 for these vales. Note that
k :;::1.3 (obtained from Table I in Part 1 [12]. The
mechanical flow coefficient, e, :;::0.62 from Fig. 1 of
Part 3 [14]. Substituting the appropriate 'Vlues into '.
Eq. (27) and sclving..we find:

Wo:;::

2.9

We enterthe chart in F/4: for k:;:: 1,4 with these

>."alues and find theirintersection falls beyond the limiting .point of snic velocity or critical pressure. Conse130

CHEMlCALENCIl'lEERINCOCTOBER 13.1975

1.00

Limiting Faetors for

Sonie Velocity, k = l.4t

0.95

!::..PIP,

)... 0.85

c;

1.2
1.5
2.0

0.552
0.576
0.612

0.588
0.606
0.622

] 0.80

4
6

0.662
0.697
0.737

0.639
0.649
0.6.71

8
lO
15

0.762
0.784
0..818

0.685
._,...
0.695
0.702 .

20
40
100

0.839
0.883
0.926

0.710
0.710
0.710

0.90

.ge 0.75
'"

Q.

en

0.70
0.65

..
~
",;. ;-',

"\'

>~-:-

.,.:;

0.60

,-

... -:-_."j>"
0.55
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
0.5
0.6
Pressure ratio, i;P IP,

0.7

0.8

0.9

~-

-P-

1.0

tk ls approximately 1.4 for air,

H2, 2,N2, CO, NO and HCI.

Umiting Faetors for

Sanie Veloeity, k = 1.3*
K

seu-ce: CraneCo. and Bet. {51 10]

Y=Q~

8
10
15

0.750
0.773
0.807

0.698
0.705
0.718

20
40
100

0.831
0.877
0.920

0.718
0.718
0.718

L Kennan,.}, H.,J. Appl. Mech., Vol. 6, All-20, A135-136 (1939).

2.Lapple, C. E., lsothermal and Adiabatic Flow of Compressible Fluids,
Trans. AIChE, Vol. 39, 385-428 (1943). .
.

The critical prc;:ssuredrop will be:

= 0.66P = 0.66(125 + 14.7) = 92,2

l

The critical downstream pressure, P2, just before the

.end o the pipeline,is 125 - 92.2 32.8 psig. We now
calculare the maximum ftowrate through the 3-in pipe
by using Eq. (31):
.

Wp

0.642
0.678
0.722

References

Wp

3
4

0.612
0.631
0.635
0.658
0.670
0.685

flow through pipes to a larger flow area

quently, with a K value of 2.9, we must Usethe limiting

factors for sonie velocity for which I1Pc/ PI = 0.66 and

).pe

0.525
0.550
0.593

'k is approxirnatelv 1.3 foroCO2,

S02' water vapor, H2S, NH~,
N20~C12; CH4, C2H2 and C2H4

Pressure.ratio, APIP,

Expansion factor for compressible

'. t:.PIP,

1.2
1.5
2.0

= 1,891(9.413)(0.64) V92.2(0.265)/2.9
= 33,067 Ib/h

Atthe end of pipelineswhere sonit velocities Can b~

expected, application of a silencershould be considered.
The next article in this serieswill appearto the issue
ofNov. lQ, 1975, and will deal with the major aspects
of pipingdesign for process plants.

3.: Lobo, W. E;, Fried, L. and Skaperdas, G. T., Pressure Drop in the Flow
'of Compressible Fluids, [nd. Eng. Chem., Vol. 34, No. 7,821-823 (1942).
4:' Chesler, S. and Jesser, B. W., Pressure Drop for Flow of Compressible
Fluids in Pipes, Appendix to Paper No. 51-SA18, ASME, New York.
5. Dodge, B. F., "Chernical Engineering Thermodynamics," McGrawHill s .
New York, 1944.
6. Shapiro, A. H" "The Dynamics and Therrnodynarnics of Compressible
Fluid Flow," Ronald Press, New York, 1954.
7. "Fluid Meters, Part 1," ASME, New York.
8...
Cunningham, R. G., Orifice Meters with Supercritical Compressible Flow,
Paper No. 50-A-45, ASME, New York.
9. Smith, E. Se, Trans.ASME, Vol. 52, HYD 52:7b, 89-109.
;JO. Flow of Fluid Through Valves, Fittings and Pipe, Technical Paper No.
410, Crane Co., Chicago.
.
11. Smith,.B., Charts Used for Easier Pipe Sizing,HydrocarbonPTocess., May
1969.
.
12. Kern, R., Chem. Eng., Dec. 23, 1974, p. 58.
13. Kern, R., Chem.Eng., Jan. 6, 1975, 115.
,d4: Kern, R., ehem: E"g., Feb.3, 1975, p. 72.
.., 15. Kern, R., Ch'm. Eng., June 23, 1975, p. 145.

p.

132 .
<:;HEMlCAL ENGINEERING OCTOBER ,13, 1.975

I
.~

Pipe systems for pro

Integration of process flows, equipment, instruments and controls
with an economical and functioning piping system depends onthe
use of systematic procedures for plant layout and piping designo

Robert Kern, Hoffmann - La Roche Inc.*

o The

piping design of chemical process plants is a

collective effort that depends on successfully' dovetailing the activities of a great number of specialists
within an engineering/ design organization.
The
smoothness 'and effectiveness of this operation depend,
to a great extent, on the hydraulic-systems designer.
Since piping design and associated activities are the
<. most complex part of plant design, let us examine the
major aspects for such design by answering the follow~g:

..

1~What information is required for system and piping design?

2. How is.this information used by the hydraulic-sys. tems designer?
..
.,.
.
3. What information is produced by systemand pip. ing engineers for the design and.construction.of a process plant? !

The information flow for these procedures is outlined

in Fig. 1 (F/1). Whether one engineer, or an organization having specialized departments, develops much of
this information makes no difference in the steps neces~ary",fordeveloping the piping and plant designo
.....
Information Required

To design the hydraulic systems, we need the followlng kinds of information: ..

1. Process Flow Diagram (PFD) is the basic plan of an
industrial planto It shows how and what type of process
. equipment are used and interconnected with pipelines.
lt usually provides data on flow, material and energy
balances; process flows (flowrates, specific gravities, molecular weights, pressures, temperatures and viscosities)._.
. Generally, the PFD presents essential process-design re>

t
quird

fLG'1

\!!_)

\_,
P-IOO

--

,236,'~3gpH1

60900 Ib/h
33.5/hlft3

Instrument Symbol:;
FRC Flow recorder/controller
lG Level gage
PI Pressure indicator
PRC Pressure recorder/cnntruller
TI Temperature indicator
TR Temperature recorder
TW Temperature well
Other'Symbols
CW Cold Water
DR Drain
M Motor-driven pump
O
Ol
RV Reliel valve
T
Turbine-driven pump
00 all pipelnes, the coding
indicates type 01 fluid f1owing, 'ne number .and size, and
materials .specifications
(Al,

B1, ete.).

PFDJ

21
equip

, eonst

holes!
sizes;!
menu
temp
cluck
equir

ginee
3.
tatiol
eall';
the

tion

pcr

pone
man

a. Process Ilow diaqrarn

proc
Fl2i

Ir

. ~.... ro ATM.
I

eros:

grar

Cl

~::::-

4.
basi
Spe

eng
anq

erai

sun
low
des

me
sys:
piF
t

acc

r=

la}:
dl
an

otl
lis:

.1

quirements. A process description also supplements the

source. These are compiled by contractors and owners
PFD. A typical portion of a PFD isshown as F/2a.
to record useful data, preferred design methods and
2. ProcessEquipment Data enumerare dctails about the
procedures, past operating experience affecting design;
equipme~t used, such as sizc and rype; rnaterials of
and descriptions of actual experience with processes,
enstruction; operating descriptions: manholcs, handequipment and plants.
holes, and process, utilitv and instrurncnt nozzles,and
Manufacturers' catalogs and reports give informasizes;.auxiliary eq~ipme~t and devices,special requiretion about the latest developments and .available
.ments; and design, test and operating prcssures and
equipment. Design data in manufacturers' catalogs can
temperatures. References lo manufacturers are also inbe used at the preliminary stages of designoAt the final
cluded on equipmentdat~l shcers.Thc PFD and process
stages, certified data and drawings of process equipe<;luipmentdata are usually workcd out by process enment. are required.
gmeers.
8. Plot Plan gives the physical relationships between
3. Process ControlDiagram (peD) shows the instrumenprocess equipmenr in plan and elevation. With this
tation requirements of thc proccss plant, such as 10drawing, the line lngth and assessmentsof pipe configeally-mounted and board-rnounrcd instrumenta, and
uration can be made for pipe-sizing, control-valve and
the connections betwcen lhe clcments 01' instrumentapump calculations. A conceptual or proposed plot plan
tion loops. Instrumentatio!1 data sheets supplernent the
can be developed from the PFD, process equipment
PCD and provide details 01" the iristrurncntation comdata, andproject design data ..
porients, such as types of cquiprncm. dimensiona and
manufacturers; and details (JI' iustrument locations at
Design of hydraulic systems
process vessels. A typical pan 01' a peD is shown as
For a smal! plant, .the process-flow, process-control
F/2b.
and engineering-flow sheets can be produced by a
Instrument symbols identifv, and a number system
single chemical engineer. The volume of work for decross-referencs: (a) the peD, (b) engineering fow diasigninga large chemieal plant, however, requires an orgrams, and (e) piping drawinus.
ganization with departments of specialized skills.
4. Piping Design Speatications describe a company's
Piping and Instrumentation flow diagrams (P&Is) are the
basic requirementsconcerninu p"ipingand.plant designo
baste doeuments for final plant layout.andgraphic pipo
Speeificationsgenerally applv to:
ing designoThe hydraulic-systems designer prepares the
Development, prescruution and intcrpretation of
P&Is from documents available and supplied to him.
engineering flowdiaarams: pipeline designation tables,
When piping drawings are cheeked, theP&Is should
andmaterials of.construction.
be complete in all minute details, P&Is should show all
Design of process,utilitv ami auxiliary piping; op~
necessarynotations and instructions so that the graphic
.erating i;.lnd_
safety C(~q(J.i!;>ns:_albwa.blc
design prespipingdesigner can produce areliable and economical
sures and temperatures: piping material, corrosin alpiping layout. A section of a P&I is shown as F/2e.
lowanee, wall thicknesscs,and insulation requirernents;
The P&Is consolidare in one set of drawings the PFD
desrable unit losses: piping-and-components sizing
and=the PCD. P&Is show all pipinginterconnections
methods. Valving is an important pan of hydrauIi~between processequipment, components, pipelines and
systems designoTableI (T;I) showsa typical page?fa
manifolds, utility and auxiliary piping connections.
piping-design specificationfor valving.
.
Line sizesare given, and locations of sizeand speeifiea Mechanical plant-dcsiun requirements; clearance,
tion changes are indicated. AH vaIves (including type)
accessheadroom, operutiou. rnaintcnance, grading and
are showriwthproper loeations in the pipelines.
paving requirernerus: eCOIlOITl"andrnethods of plant
The piping-systems engineer should.indicate to the.
layout and graphic pipn; desiun: .rnechanioal han"':'" piping-layout designer those lines that need special atdling requirements. and associatedequiprnent. . ....
'.
tention.These are:
It is essential for a11cnginccrs and designers to read
a. Minimum~length fines or circuits.For example, length
,andbe familiarwith a coinpanv's specifcations.i; .ti'
of a transfer line on one hand, and a closed compressor
5. National Standards, Coln and Spt/icatio~ can be un}
circuir on.the other (noting where the compressor suco:
othr information sour: lur the piping designer.. TI
tion begins). .
.
.
<
.'
'liststhe most importan!. CS. public3tiQns. Codes p~i-~
b; Gravty-jioUJ lnes. Mostofthese. lines arereadily ree~
mariIy outline desit;ll f('(luin:ments and constructioh
ognized (for example, pump suetibns qrcondenser outdetails for piping s\"telO", St<mdards give piping, fii:
Iets). Ditlensions of sealloops in gravity:flow lines, '.'
tings and valve dimenslOlls;. materiaIs, pressure,.and'
sloping lines, and pocket~free gravity-fl?~lines should
.tmperature .rating:;.S!l<1;ltiGllionsd~cribe m<lieI"i~I~.. .be cl<!arlyindicated (Jng&Is.......". .. <. ,\.
. .....
. for~~ernanufactun;i1.tplpc,.m\d htting~....
e- ,:', >1:)c: :1'wo~phase jiow lZnsVSirit most)ayqritdesigner~
Ptoject Desil!TIDa:,l pm"'tdc.!litecOriditio~~:.~;~-' .are not ir-terested in proeess data,. thes(!lines are I()t' ,..
abl cooIing-watcr {cmxr;tturn;available 01' require~)'
readily reeognizetl; If the.systems designe-indicates the ....
steam, brine, fue! l,ik ct,,~.data, '~ations
and dis~'
line '!Vhefe'shig flow is possible, wheI'eivaporization
.'.tances from feed an.d pt:nduCl_,Storag~.tanks are given.
takes pl(J.~e,or wher<::two-phase flow!~~sts,.a mo~e .<Asite plan isincluutJ hctt .u neccssary, with clima~ic .
careful ~t)-ldy,Iayouriand piping desigJ)X:~anbe pro~ .....
<;op:clitions,
averagcwtntcr .tnd .5UIllmer temperatures,
duced: ,/
.. ..
\. , ':;'
. >;':>
rain and sno\"taU qUilnhucs, seaS(}l1al
tem,pera!te' '.
'.d.,~Y"_l;netricalpipednes.,;these.are.req~ih;dfor evel1:"

...
l

:\;;0;)"':"'

:'~::i~.
'

,. <r,'

_LiKi'
'211
'...':".........._-:::-:=-::-:..;.;;:;,;..;__--..;.:::.:~---'---"'"'-"-

I
!

~;~~

~.:

.~

Tvpical design specifications for valving

Block valves shall be provided in the waterfnfet and outlet of exchanqer units when the exchangers
are provided with process isolation valves .for frequent inspection and Cleaning durng operaton of the
unit. In freezing cimates, an antifreeze bvpass from the inlet to the outlet ptping (or other means] to
prevent freezing shal! be furnshed.
Block valves shall be 'provided at the following locations. in purnp, turbina, and cornpressor
piping:
O ln suction and discharge pipinq to purnps.
O At the quipment in auxilarv piping for gland oil, flushi~g oil, and cooling water.
O At the header in overhead water-supply branches located outdoors in freezing climates.
O In all auxliary piping when .necessary to allow removal of the equipment durng
operation of the unit.
"Block valves shall be provided at the following locations in steam piping:
O At.equiprnentjnstearn
pipinq to steam-driven equipment.
O Upstream of control valves that are .spared (sepu:ate control valves furnished
standbys).
O At equipment in pressure exhaust-steam piping from steam-driven equipment.
O Adjacent toequipment in vacuum exhaust-steam piping frorn steam-driven equipment
when the equipment may be shutdown tor sustained periods during operation of
the unit.
Utilty svsterns shall be provided with valves at service connections. Whel a distribution
used tor water or for steam, a Block valve shall be furnished at the header.

svstern is

Block valves shall be provided and located as required for bleed and aeration systems.
A block valve shall be provided in the rnain line of fuel-oil and fuel-gas piping to fired heaters, to be
located remote from the equipment, and be accessible forrapid operation in an emergency.
Block valves shall be provided for piping leaving and entering a building.
,

Two block valves wtha bleeder ora resilient double-seated valve.with body bleeder shallbe provided
in piping connectng systerns.in services in which contamination cannot be tolerated.
.

q INhen stearn

svstems are connected to process <services and are operated at l

pressure than the process service, ene block valve shall be furnishedr-

Valving 61' operating ventand drain connections shall be as follows:

[J Services with ANSI ratings'600 psi or less: single blockvalve.
O Services with ANSI ratings 900 psi or over: single globe valve.
OUi:uid hvdrocarbon services vylth a vapor
block valves,
':
Caustic services: ~ingle globe (~g'tonly) or
Va(vingatsample ?onnections shallbe asonows:
O Setvices with ANSlratings 300 ps oress: single block valve.
O Services with ANSI ~atings 400~siovr: single globe valve .
....
.OLi(lJid hydroc:arbOn
vapor
. t block valves; '.

here can reduce initial and makeup catalyst quantities).

1\t the final stages of design, the P&Is are usually reviewed by the plant operators for adequacy in valving,
instrumentation and pipe interconnections necessary
for operating, startup and shutdown.
P&Is, layout studies ando plot plans are simultaneously developed, and the final drawings released for
piping layout and detailing.

Utility-Flow Diagrams are supply and return systems

for steam, cooling water, process water, brine, condensate, air, nitrogen, etc. From the start of a project, these
are produced as engineering fiow diagrams, except occasionally for steam, when an elaborate systerrrmight
require a steam-energybalance.
Sinceprocesspiping interconnects equipment in a sequence, equipment arrangement usually does not infiuence its orientation. In contrast, utility-flow diagrams must be drawn to a plot plan, so that leads to
equipment connect in a plot-arrangement sequence to
utility headers. Otherwise, fiowrates in these pipe sections cannot be realisticallyestimated.
Utility supply is controlled at sensing points in the
process piping. Supply and return leads usually have
. valves at the terminating points on the process vessels.
These valves, instruments and control loops are shown
on the P&Is (for example, the steam-supply control
valve to a reboiler). In addition, valves are often required at the header (as shown on the utility-flow
sheetsj-sespeciallywhen a number of leads have to be
provided..
Utility headers are usually sized.with unit. losses in
decimals of 1 psi. Leads are sized with the available
pressure differencebetween supply and return points at
the header.
Flow Diagram Symbols. The piping and instrumentation syrribolsare the alphabet of all fiowdiagrams. Piping symbols usually represent the various valves and
components in the lineo Fittings are indicated where
they have significancefor processand piping designoA
few examples are: a cap .at the end of a header, a reducer or increaser at changes in line size,fianges.where
pipe sections have to be removed, and swing.elbows
where alternate tie-in connectionsare required." .....
Instrument .syrnbols and interconnecting line designations have .been issued by the Instrument Soco of
America [1]. These symbolsindicate location of sensing
elements; local and board-mounted instruments; pressure-, temperature-, fiow-'and 'level-controlloops; and
the instrumentation hardware in the pipeline....... ...
all the equipment, pipelines and symbols are
.shown on theoverall and detailed design of.a process
having automatic and manual control,' plant startup
and shutdown can be understood and evaluated v-.
[Graphic piping-design symbols have been issed.by
ASME but are not widely accepted by rhe oil=and
chemical industries. Contractors and owners Usetheir
own piping symbols..These are identical.to a gr~~t extent amongthe various companies.]
......;..
A Pipeline List is prepared for severalreasons: tosupply a complete record of pipeline data; t() provide a .
.checklist for material takeoff; to cross-referpncypiping
....
details;.plans, elevations .~nd ~ow dagrIn~; ~~)()cate

Ir

_o,

"

,.,,'

"

-','

"',

."

....

,'

"

~_ "

-';:'J. ,. "

National piping eodes,

standards and speeifications
ANSI Code for Pressure Piping:
B31.1 - Power Piping
B31.2 - Fue! Gas Piping
831.3 - Petroleum Refinery Piping
831.4 - Oil Transportation Piping
831.5' - Refrigeration Piping
831.6 - Chemical Plant Piping (In Preparation)
831.7 - Nuclear Power Piping
831.8 - Gas Transmission and Distribution.
ANSI Standards:
816.5 - Steel Pipe Flanges
B16.9 - Steel Butt-Weldinq Fittings
816.28 - Steel Short Radius Fittings
836.10 - Welded and Seamless Steel Pipe
836.19 - Stainless Steel Pipe
lssued by:
American National Standards Institute
1430 Broadway
New York, NY10018

Section I ~ Power Bolers

Section 1I - Material Specifications
Section 1II - Nuclear. Vessels
Sectiop__Vlll- Unfired Pressure Vessels
The American Soco of Mechanical Engineers
345 East 47th Sto
New York, NY 10017

f'f'\
V

9, Chem. Eng., Aug. 4,1975, p. 111).

To avoid vaporization in a hot liquid line, a positive
statichead can provide additional pressure to keep the
liquid subcooled, An example of these conditions is
shown in F 13. Flashing through the orifice (and control
valve) can be avoided with a static liquid column
ahead of the orifice. If the orfice is as close to the vessel
aspossible, and if the piping up to the control valve has
onlyone elbow, we wiU need the minimum equipment
elevation, orifice range and Iine length. To meet such
conditions, we can eleva te a tower; drum or exchanger.
When vapor and Iiquid have to be separated, the vapor-collecting drum is elevated, as shown in F/4. For
example, the steam drum on a pyrolysis furnace (F / 4a)
collects the steam generated by the waste-heat boiler.
similar arrangement prevails for steam generated in a
furnac-heating coi!. In another exarnple, the elevated
steam drum (F/4b) prevents steam frorn collecting in
top of reactor jacket, and thus avoids overheating it.
In F15, we.find a vapor-disengaging drumjhat is
placed over the heaters. Here, the liquid .level in .the
drum keps the exchanger tubes fooded, and the vapor
space in the drum prevents excessive Iiquid carryover
in the vapor-outlet line .. This drum must be elevated
over the -exchangers .and can: be mounted .directly on
the exchanger nozzles.
.
Elevation .requirernents for proeess vessels to meet
pump NPSH, -relative distances between reboilers and
towers, and elevations for condensrs and reflux drums
have already been discussed in Parts 6,9 and 10 of this

(use F/5 inPart

Static
head

required
Equpment
elevation

I Minimum
. Grade I elevation
$.\.""''Z\,<:.\.'''''''::...........
'''r'~-:::-..''''\,~

eon t iOI

. ipe"
o f pi
-

,valve

"Minirnum 31 D with' 2 'or 3 elbows.

Mnimum 14 D with 1 elbow (if h;;; 6D)

Static head before orfice prevents vaporization

~ricated pipes on drawings; and to place pipelihes in

__iation to the processequipment,
.'
.
From the: line list, the specialist in pipe support and
flexibility can obtain temperature and wall-thickness .
data. The metallurgist can verify chosen materials of
fabrication. Using ternperature data, insulation thickness can be determined. For relief-valve sizirig, rhe designer can find what fluid is flowing, and the alternate
pressures in the line under normal, mximum, test and
emergency .:conditions, Frorn the list, the piping designer can find the appropriate P&I; andthe construc- ..
tion foreman can locate a fabricated, delivered and '
identifed line on one of the 'piping drawings.

Equipment elevations .'.

.1i

The systems designerworks out al equipment elevations, static-head pressure requrements, elevation differences between process equipment;: and elevation differences between the starting and terminating points of,
a pipeline; This is also essential 'information for plant'
layout and piping designo
.
.For unhousd process units, the most ecoomical.Io-j,
catiori for ..process equiprnent is usually at grade ..The);
units seldom require a structure; construction is easy; ,.
most valves and instrumenta can be made- accessible ..
from grade; and operation and maintenance are conve-i"
nient and safe.
.
.
.......
. -..
Minimum skirt heights for towers vary frorn 3 tof ft/
.for towers ranging from 2 to 12 ft dia., and having bot1:V"
tom ternperatures of 100 to 400 F. Higher tempera?;i.
tures (or cryogenic ternperatures) require theaddition%; .
of 1.or 2 ft to these heights in order to avaid th transmissionofunduly
high (or low) teinperattires to the~::;
foundation oi supporting steel. Drums arid exchangers;i~\
.areusually elevated 1to 4Ji: frorrl grade to the bottom;/
oftheunit,depending.ondiameter,
size and valvingJonh\
the bottom-outlet piping.
'> .
o
>
When.. a pressure ..difference between fWo I?ieces
process equipment .is not '.available, gnivity flow ig']:',
'caIled for.; The elevadn dif1erenc betw~n the eqip~i~i"
ment wHI. be determined by pipe, fi!tings and valv'i,
resistaIlces:,
..
. ,:,.,. .
:.:
..
/
,;y
, .Gravity:flow lin~ faJl,
sized. forve!ocities similar.:,,'
,'..-.,..to}hos~for pump-su~.tio~'pr reboiler~do~comer liI!es....
0

..... o,,

of.'.

pe

::',

~ -J.;>--'

,'-.

,~:".,:

..;_: ;~:.: =::~,:.,--_--;. "._.

'+::>"

:.;/,.,.- ..

series
15,l~
Ele
or on
ers al
eleva'
be no

Ecol
Ec(
maril
to de
sisten
than'
Even

pone!
comp

This
bling
overlwaste

waste
sults
andr

An
signer

plant
tweer

WI
ity ce
sure (
signe:
grapl
lic-sy:
bendi

Pif
from
ter sc;:
esserr
befar
contr
calc

Fo
oppo
sign.;
plant
desig;

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series (Chem. Eng., Apr. 28,1975, Aug. 4,1975 and Sept.

15,1975).
,
Elevation requirements should be noted on the P&Is,
or on data sheets so that the layout and piping designers are fuIly aware of them. Similarly.vif equipment is
elevaied for layout reasons, the process engineer should
be notified.

Econorny ofsystems design

, Economy of piping and components depends primarily on the skill of the engineer. A rational approach
to design development, systernatic methods, and consistent data usage will yield far more reliable results
than intuitive judgments and rule-of-thurnb decisions.
Even with rational methods, calculated pipe and comDisengagirig drum is supported on
ponents sizes end up oversized because piping and
xchanger nozzles
- 'components are manufactured to standard.increments.
This provides a .fairly safe and wlde latitude in assembling.a process-piping system. However, the selection of
overly sized pipe, components and equipment is a
shown, large and critical pipelines are routed, space for
waste of money. On the other hand, undersized systems
main pipebanks is indicated, all equipmentand major
waste energy, if they work at al!. Undersizing often restructures are located .and dimensioned, and .controlsults inchariges to design, fabrication and construction,
valve locations are given. Generally, all plant compoand tewrk, all of which are expensive.
nents that occupy space should be shown on a layout
.Ari important activity of a hydraulic-systems destudy in a well-organized manner. At this time, the
signer should be consultation with other specialists of
most essentiallayout requirement is met-cproviding acplant designo There must be a full understandirig becess space and access aisles for operating, maintaining
tween process and system designers.
and constructing the planto
.
When large and expensive piping is sized, when utilWhen released for detail design, layout studies
ity cost is high per unit loss, and when available presshould be presented in a way that all disciplines can
sure differentials are limited, the hydraulic-systems dework simultaneously and independently, and produce
signer mus! obtain a dimensioned sketch frorri the
detailsthat wili not interfere with eachother when the
graphic piping designer. From this sketch, the hydrauplantisbuilt. At this point ofdesign development, a fi_ lic-systems desjgne(,can. suggest . the elimination of
nal plot plan is.drawn and.jfrequired, a .model is built,
bends and offsetsfor saving capital and utility costs,
The next step is the production of constructon draw- .
. Pipelines can be much longer than ene may estimate
ings-including piping plans and 'isorrietrics, This is
from a plot plan. These lines can often be simplified aflarge-scale operation in contrast t th work of the
ter sorne discussion with interested specialists, It is also
single individual at the conceptl design phase and, gen-'
essential to obtain pump data from the pump specialist
erally, to the two to four designers during the developbefore calculating pump differentials, and to establish
ment oflayout studies,
..
,
control-valve types with the instrument engineer before
For' effective piping design and detailing, all inforcalculating their sizes.
'.
matiozi'presented on engineering-flow diagrams, design
Forsubstantial capital-cose reduction, there is mote " " data; specifications, manufacturera' drawings, plot,'
opportunity during the process-developrnent and d~i . plants and structural drawings must be' final. For ex";
sign phases (and during the mechanical-design and.:
ample.iduringthe layout-study phase, the addition of
plant-layout phases) than during the hydraulic-systenis
pressui~ or temperature point in a .pipeline will cost ' ........
design phase. .
.
nothing: During piping detailing, the same change can .....
. .'
cost as much as desgning and detailing the pipeline, in ; .
Piping desigIJ...
.'
.' '.
(.'
additinto delays in making fabrication drawings.
'.
.'........
''he pipiug designer has that exceptional .and esse9.,.}.
,.,' ~-,>: ;-.;.<:;
,:-,::',,-'
.tial talentto be able to visualize squi~ment andinter-: '0'
connecting piping presented.: on tlow diagrams .as<,~
l .. Ins~cmtation
S}'ll1b61sand Ide~tification, Standard ISA.~5.1, Instru ...,'
iliree-dimensional plant, ando lO represent this on
ment SocoofAm~rica, Pitt~burgh, Pa., 1968. ., ". i.
:.
...:."...
:clra'Vng.Pipin? d~~igll,i.s.executedin.}hree m~in stei>s:!T
2. Heitner; l.; Sorne Typcal F16v.:Shee~ and How~~
~.;..., Petrol. Rt< >
finer,Oct ..1963. . .
.
..,
". ..... .
. ..
'.(1)lyoQ:r studles, (2}plpin~. plarlsan~ elevattons, aIl~
piping details (,wmetncSI:
;":.
. ,;:, <O\;j,
.} The layout designc..rnl{)rQlna~esspeClficatlons; pro~
ess~..project and equlpment. dOlgn d~ta; and well-es'"
\.tablished design practico too produce"a layout study
, .that informs aH disciplin~ 01' the phys!caLfeaturs'ofa
.:

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~...;~1~1:thissta~e,lpe~etf~'~

all~,tt~riOmiC<ll.
'se'~L';';

are;

determil1cd... !:ilflJtl\1l"3;l..steel .outlines .

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