NEtwork Analysis Latest Lab Manual

Government College University, Faisalabad
Department of Electrical Engineering
Network Analysis
Lab Manual
Prepared & Edited by:

Engr. Rehan Liaqat (Lecturer)
Engr. Muhammad Malik (Lecturer)
Engr. Aleem Hussain (Lab Engineer)
Verified by:
Engr. Kashif Nisar Paracha (Lecturer)
Approved by:
Engr. Muhammad Afzal Sipra (TI, M),
Associate Professor and Chairman,
Department of Electrical Engineering
Network Analysis Lab Manual
TABLE OF LAB EXPERIMENTS

Sr. No.
Objectives
To verify maximum power transfer theorem.
1.
To observe effect of source and load resistance on efficiency.
Page No.
7
To verify Thevenin theorem.

2.
To draw Thevenin equivalent of a passive resistive network.
11
3.
To analyze response of 1st order RC differentiator network for

different inputs and at different frequencies.
14
4.
To analyze response of 1st order RC integrator network for different

inputs and at different frequencies.
19
6.
To study the transient response of a series RC circuit.

To differentiate between steady state and transient response.
To understand time constant concept using step input.
To find actual value of a capacitor.
To study the characteristics and frequency response of passive low
pass filter.
7.
To study the characteristics and frequency response of passive high

pass filter.
5.
23
28
32
To observe resonance phenomenon in electrical networks and study

its effects.
8.
To determine the resonant frequency and bandwidth of the given

network using a sinusoidal input.
9.
To design a band pass filter with pass band (130 Hz -2 kHz) and
observe its amplitude response.
To observe frequency response of a band stop filter.
10.
To observe sinusoidal steady state response of an electrical network.
35
41
44
47
11.
To determine complex impedance, and power factor of a network.

To grasp the concept of active, reactive and apparent power.
To differentiate between reciprocal and non-reciprocal networks.
12.
To verify reciprocity theorem.
52
13.
To learn DC analysis, AC analysis and transient analysis of electrical

networks using PSpice.
55
14.
To learn modeling of electrical networks in frequency domain using

Matlab symbolic toolbox.
78
To determine two port network z parameters.

15.
To determine two port network y parameters.
84
Additional Tasks as per Lab Instructors Desire
PREFACE
With the name Almighty Allah who made it possible for me to revise this manual. The
laboratory of every subject taught in the degree of Bachelors in Electrical Engineering is of
significance importance in every university. Fully equipped laboratories meeting the industrial
demands under the supervision of qualified, talented and practically motivated lab assistants
and lab engineers are also a basic criterion of the Pakistan Engineering Council for accrediting
an engineering program. Laboratory of network analysis course is very important as many
physical systems can be modeled in the form of electrical networks. Once model is correctly
designed, one can implement the physical system with actual components. The experiments
covered in this lab will help students in testing the actual response of network models. Some
computer aided techniques of network analysis are also covered in the manual.
The major credit of manual up gradation goes to Engr. Kasif Nisar Paracha and his committee
members Engr. Hafiz M Kamran Ishfaq, Engr. Abdul Ghafoor Bhatti and Engr. Abubakar
Shareef. Without their constant follow up it was probably not possible to redesign all lab
manuals. Credit goes to Engr. Muhammad Malik for his contribution in maximum power
transfer theorem and Enrg. Aleem Hussain for conducting lab sessions. Thanks to staff,
students for their assistance and all the people who have shared a lot of material on web for
providing bulk e-resources as a model.
The revision of lab manuals is a constant process as technologies keep on changing. All
suggestions and criticisms for the improvement of lab experiments and their conduction will
be warmly welcomed.
With Regards
Engr. Rehan Liaqat
May 2012
General Lab Instructions

Each student group consists of 2-4 students. Each group member is responsible in
submitting lab report upon completion of each experiment.
Students are to wear proper attire i.e. shoe or sandal instead of slipper. Excessive
jewelries are not allowed as they might cause electrical shocks.
A permanent record in ink of observations as well as results should be maintained by
each student enclosed with the report.
The recorded data and observations from the lab manual need to be approved and
signed by the lab instructor upon completion of each experiment.
Before beginning connecting up, it is essential to check that all sources of supply at the
bench are switched off.
Start connecting up the experiment circuit by wiring up the main circuit path, then
adds the parallel branches as indicated in the circuit diagram.
After the circuit has been connected correctly, remove all unused leads from the
experiment area, set the voltage supplies at the minimum value, and check the meters
are set for the intended mode of operation.
The students may ask the lab instructor to check the correctness of their circuit before
switching on.
When the experiment has been satisfactory completed and the results approved by the
instructor, the students may disconnect the circuit and return the components and
instruments to the locker tidily. Chairs are to be slid in properly.
Experiment No. 1
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
OBJECTIVE
To verify maximum power transfer theorem.
To observe effect of source and load resistance on efficiency.
THEORY
The maximum power transfer theorem states that, to obtain maximum external power from a
source with a finite internal resistance, the resistance of the load must be equal to the
resistance of the source as viewed from the output terminals. The maximum amount of power
will be dissipated in the load resistance if it is equal in value to the Thevenin or Norton source
resistance of the network supplying the power. The theorem results in maximum power
transfer, and not maximum efficiency. If the resistance of the load is made larger than the
resistance of the source, then efficiency is higher, since a higher percentage of the source
power is transferred to the load, but the magnitude of the load power is lower since the total
circuit resistance goes up. If the load resistance is smaller than the source resistance, then
most of the power ends up being dissipated in the source, and although the total power
dissipated is higher, due to a lower total resistance, it turns out that the amount dissipated in
the load is reduced.
The theorem states how to choose (so as to maximize power transfer) the load resistance, once
the source resistance is given, not the opposite. It does not say how to choose the source
resistance, once the load resistance is given. Given a certain load resistance, the source
resistance that maximizes power transfer is always zero, regardless of the value of the load
resistance. The theorem can be extended to AC circuits that include reactance, and states that
maximum power transfer occurs when the load impedance is equal to the complex conjugate
of the source impedance.
The theorem was originally misunderstood (notably by Joule) to imply that a system
consisting of an electric motor driven by a battery could not be more than 50% efficient since,
when the impedances were matched, the power lost as heat in the battery would always be
equal to the power delivered to the motor. To achieve maximum efficiency, the resistance of
the source (whether a battery or a dynamo) could be made close to zero. Using this new
understanding, they obtained an efficiency of about 90%, and proved that the electric motor
was a practical alternative to the heat engine.
Figure 1: Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Figure 2: Graph Illustrating Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
As in Figure 2, condition of maximum power transfer does not result in maximum efficiency.
If we define the efficiency as the ratio of power dissipated by the load to power developed
by the source, then it is straightforward to calculate from the above circuit diagram that
= Rload / (Rsource+ Rload) = 1 / {(Rsource/ Rload) + 1}
Consider three particular cases:
If Rload=Rsource , then =0.5
If Rload= or Rsource=0, then =1
If Rload=0, then =0
The efficiency is only 50% when maximum power transfer is achieved, but approaches 100%
as the load resistance approaches infinity, though the total power level tends towards zero.
Efficiency also approaches 100% if the source resistance can be made close to zero. When the
load resistance is zero, all the power is consumed inside the source (the power dissipated in a
short circuit is zero) so the efficiency is zero.
EQUIPMENT
DC power supply
Breadboard
Digital multimeter
Resistors (1k, 1.5 k, 2 k, 2.7

k,3 k, 3.3 k, 4.3 k, 5.6 k,
7.5 k, 10 k)
Jumpers wires
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Connect the components on bread board according the circuit diagram.

Measure VL, load voltage and IL, load current, across each resistor.
Put these observed value in Table 1.
Calculate PL, load power using PL=I 2RL or PL=VL*IL
Draw a graph between RL and PL.
Observe the pair that has maximum power output.
Results
Measured data
RL (k )
VL (V)
IL (mA)
PL (mW)
Graph between RL and PL

Graph between RL and
DISCUSSION
1. How will you relate maximum power transfer theorem with impedance matching
principle?
2. If circuit is reactive not resistive, how will you implement maximum power transfer?
10
Experiment No. 2
THEVENIN THEOREM
OBJECTIVE
To verify Thevenin theorem.
To draw Thevenin equivalent of a passive resistive network.
THEORY
Any two terminal, bilateral, linear networks can be replaced by an equivalent voltage source in
series with an equivalent resistance connected across the load. The load current is given by
IL = VTH / (RTH+RL)
EQUIPMENT
Power supply
Variable resistor
Digital multimeter
Jumper wires
Resistors: 10K (3), 4.7 K, 1 K
Bread board
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Figure 1: Actual Network
11
Figure 2: Measuring VTH
Figure 3: Finding RTH
Figure 4: Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the components as shown in Figure 1.
2. Measure the voltage (VL1) and current (IL1) in 1 k resistance and note these values.
3. Remove 1 k resistor as shown in Figure 2 and find VTH across the open circuit terminals
from where 1 k was removed.
4. Connect the circuit according to Figure 3 and measure the current I to find RTH.
5. Now connect the circuit as shown in Figure 4 by changing resistance of variable resistor
equal to RTH and voltage of power supply adjusted to VTH.
6. With this Thevenin equivalent circuit, measure the voltage (VL2) and current (IL2) in 1 k
resistance and note these values.
7. Compare VL2 and IL2 with VL1 and current IL1. If these values are same, Thevenin theorem
is verified.
RESULTS
VL1=
IL1=
VTH=
RTH=
VL2=
IL2=
12
13
DISCUSSION
1. What can be application of Thevenin theorem for maximum power transfer to load?
14
Experiment No. 3
1ST ORDER RC DIFFERENTIATOR CIRCUIT
OBJECTIVE
To analyze response of 1st order RC differentiator network for different inputs and at
different frequencies.
THEORY
The voltage (Vc) and current (Ic) relationship for capacitor is by
Ic(t)=C.dVC/dt
This relationship is helpful in implementing a passive differentiator circuit. For an RC series
network to work as an integrator R << XC i.e. voltage drop across resistor is very small and
VIN VC. The tentative output of RC network at << 1/RC is shown in Figure. Here is the
frequency of input waveform. The said condition on frequency assures that capacitor has time
to charge up until its voltage is almost equal to input voltage.
Figure 1: RC Diffrentiator
KVL equation for the network will be,

VIN=VR+ VC
VR = RI = RC . dVC/dt
Since VIN VC ,Therefore
VR RC . dVIN/dt
Thus the output voltage is somehow derivative of input voltage.
EQUIPMENT
Function generator
Bread board
Oscilloscope
Jumper wires
Probes
Capacitor: 0.33F
15
Resistor: 1k
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the components as shown in Figure.
2. Apply a square waveform of 6 V peak to peak from function.
3. Observe the input waveform and response simultaneously on oscilloscope when T<<RC
where T is the period of input waveform.
4. Save this waveform in USB from oscilloscope and insert in results after taking the print
out.
5. Observe the input waveform and response simultaneously on oscilloscope when T=RC
out.
7. Observe the input waveform and response simultaneously on oscilloscope when T>>RC
8. Save this waveform in USB from oscilloscope and insert in results after taking the
printout.
9. Repeat the same steps for a triangular waveform.
10. Repeat same steps for sinusoidal waveform.
RESULTS
Graphs of Input and Output For Square Input
(i) T<<RC
(ii) T=RC
(iii)T>>RC
Graphs of Input and Output For Triangular Input
(i) T<<RC
(ii) T=RC
16
(iii)T>>RC
Graphs of Input and Output For Sinusoidal Input
(i) T<<RC
(ii) T=RC
(iii)T>>RC
DISCUSSION
1. If the following input is given to differentiator circuit, what will be the output waveform?
Draw the ideal and practical waveforms.
2. An electronics technician needs a simple circuit that outputs brief pulses of voltage every
time a switch is actuated, so that a computer receives a single pulse signal every time the
switch is actuated, rather than a continuous on signal for as long as the switch is
actuated. He tells you it is perfectly okay if the circuit generates negative voltage pulses
when the switch is de-actuated: all he cares about is a single positive voltage pulse to the
computer each time the switch actuates. Also, the pulse needs to be very short: no longer
than 2 milliseconds in duration. Given this information, draw a schematic diagram for a
practical passive differentiator circuit within the dotted lines, complete with component
values.
3. Plot the output waveform of a passive differentiator circuit, assuming the input is a
symmetrical square wave and the circuits RC time constant is about one-fifth of the
square waves pulse width.
17
4. Potentiometers are very useful devices in the field of robotics, because they allow us to
represent the position of a machine part in terms of a voltage. In this particular case, a
potentiometer mechanically linked to the joint of a robotic arm represents that arms
angular position by outputting a corresponding voltage signal.
As the robotic arm rotates up and down, the potentiometer wire moves along the resistive
strip inside, producing a voltage directly proportional to the arms position. A voltmeter
connected between the potentiometer wiper and ground will then indicate arm position. A
computer with an analog input port connected to the same points will be able to measure,
record, and (if also connected to the arms motor drive circuits) control the arms position.
If we connect the potentiometers output to a differentiator circuit, we will obtain another
signal representing something else about the robotic arms action. What physical variable
does the differentiator output signal represent?
18
5. Calculate the output voltage of this passive differentiator circuit 150 microseconds after
the rising edge of each clock pulse (where the square wave transitions from 0 volts to +5
volts).
6. An LR differentiator circuit is used to convert a triangle wave into a square wave. One day
after years of proper operation, the circuit fails. Instead of outputting a square wave, it
outputs a triangle wave, just the same as the waveform measured at the circuits input.
Determine what the most likely component failure is in the circuit.
19
Experiment No. 4
1ST ORDER RC INTEGRATOR CIRCUIT
OBJECTIVE
To analyze response of 1st order RC integrator network for different inputs and at
different frequencies.
THEORY
The voltage (Vc) and current (Ic) relationship for capacitor is by
Vc(t)=1/C. Ic dt
This relationship is helpful in implementing a passive integrator circuit. For an RC series
network to work as an integrator R >> XC i.e. voltage drop across capacitor is very small and
VIN VR. The tentative output of RC network at >> 1/RC is shown in Figure. Here is the
frequency of input waveform. The said condition on the frequency of input waveform assures
that capacitor does not have sufficient time to charge up, therefore its voltage is very small
and resistor voltage is almost equal to input voltage.
Figure 1: RC Integrator
KVL equation for the network will be,

VIN=VR+ VC
Since VIN VR , therefore, I=VR/R = VIN/R
As Vc(t)=1/C. I dt , Vc(t)=1/RC. VIN dt
Thus the output voltage across capacitor is somehow integration of the input voltage.
20
EQUIPMENT
Function generator
Jumper wires
Oscilloscope
Capacitor : 0.33F
Probes
Resistor: 1k
Bread board
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the components as shown in Figure.
2. Apply a square waveform of 6 V peak to peak from function.
3. Observe the input waveform and response simultaneously on oscilloscope when T>>RC
out.
5. Observe the input waveform and response simultaneously on oscilloscope when T=RC
out.
7. Observe the input waveform and response simultaneously on oscilloscope when T<<RC
8. Save this waveform in USB from oscilloscope and insert in results after taking the
printout.
9. Repeat the same steps for a triangular waveform.
10. Repeat same steps for sinusoidal waveform.
RESULTS
Graphs of Input and Output for Square Input
(i) T>>RC
(ii) T=RC
21
(iii)T<<RC
Graphs of Input and Output for Triangular Input
(i) T>>RC
(ii) T=RC
(iii)T<<RC
Graphs of Input and Output for Sinusoidal Input
(i) T>>RC
(ii) T=RC
(iii)T<<RC
DISCUSSION
1.
Design a passive integrator circuit using a resistor and inductor rather than a resistor and
capacitor. In addition to completing the inductor circuit schematic, qualitatively state the
preferred values of L and R to achieve an output waveform most resembling a true triangle
wave. In other words, are we looking for a large or small inductor; a large or small
resistor?
2. Determine what the response will be to a constant DC voltage applied at the input of these
(ideal) circuits.
22
3. A passive integrator circuit is energized by a square wave signal with peak-to-peak

amplitude of 12 volts and a frequency of 65.79 Hz. Determine the peak-to-peak voltage of
the output waveform.
4. Draw the intermediate response shown by the oscilloscope for following figure.
23
Experiment No. 5
TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RC SERIES NETWORK
OBJECTIVE
To study the transient response of a series RC circuit.
To differentiate between steady state and transient response.
To understand time constant concept using step input.
To find actual value of a capacitor.
THEORY
For the RC network of Figure 1, voltage V (t) across the capacitor is given by
C
where, V is the applied source voltage to the circuit for t 0. RC = is the time constant. The
response curve is increasing and is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 1: RC Series Network
Figure 2: Capacitor Charging
The discharge voltage for the capacitor is given by
24
where Vo is the initial voltage stored in capacitor at t = 0, and RC = is time constant. The
response curve is a decaying exponentials as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Discharging of Capacitor
EQUIPMENT
Power supply
Jumper wires
Oscilloscope
Resistor: 220 k
Probes
Capacitor: 470F
Bread board
Digital multimeter
Stop watch
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
i(t)
Figure 4: Capacitor Charging
i(t)
Figure 5: Capacitor Discharging
25
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the components on bread board according the circuit diagram shown in Figure 4.
2. Find actual value of 220 k resistor by multimeter.
3. Apply step input voltage of 5 V from power supply. As soon as power supply is switched
on, start the stop watch.
4. Note down the values of capacitor voltage (VC) and resistor voltage (VR) at different time
instants.
5. Current i(t) can be either found by VR/R or by inserting an extra 1 resistance and
measuring its voltage by oscilloscope.
6. Specially note the time reading when capacitor voltage becomes 63% of input voltage i.e.
3.15 V.
7. Take the readings at regular time intervals until capacitor is fully charged up to the supply
voltage.
8. Note down the time when capacitor voltage reaches to 98% of the supply voltage i.e. when
VC=4.9 V. This usually takes place after 5RC.
9. Now draw the graphs of VC, VR and i (all versus time).
10. Now connect the components on bread board according the circuit diagram shown in
Figure 5 and start the stop watch.
11. Note down the values of capacitor voltage (VC) and resistor voltage (VR) at different time
instants.
12. Observe the value of current i(t). Current i(t) can be either found by VR/R or by inserting
an extra 1 resistance and measuring its voltage by oscilloscope. Actual direction of
current flow will be opposite to that shown In Figure 5.
13. Take the readings at regular time intervals until capacitor is fully discharged up to the zero
volts. This usually takes place after 5RC.
14. Now draw the graphs of VC, VR and i (all versus time).
15. Find the actual value of capacitor in F by using your observations.
RESULTS
For Capacitor Charging
Sr.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
VC (t)
VR (t)
i(t)
26
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Graphs for Charging

Graph between VC and t
Graph between VR and t
Graph between i and t
Value of Time Constant=
Actual value of capacitor=
For Capacitor Discharging
Sr.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
VC (t)
VR (t)
i(t)
27
Graphs for Discharging

Graph between VC and t
Graph between VR and t
Graph between i and t
DISCUSSION
1. Differentiate between natural and forced response.
2. Differentiate between transient and steady state response.
3. Define time constant. What is its value for RL network?
28
Experiment No. 6
LOW PASS FILTER
OBJECTIVE
To study the characteristics and frequency response of passive low pass filter.
THEORY
The impedance of an inductor is proportional to frequency and the impedance of a capacitor is
inversely proportional to frequency. These characteristics can be used to select or reject
certain frequencies of an input signal. This selection and rejection of frequencies is called
filtering, and a circuit which does this is called a filter. If a filter passes low frequencies and
rejects high ones, it is called a low-pass filter. An RC low pass filter is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Low Pass Filter
Filters, like most things, arent perfect. They dont absolutely pass some frequencies and
absolutely reject others. A frequency is considered passed if its magnitude (voltage amplitude)
is within 70% (or 1/2) of the maximum amplitude passed and rejected otherwise. The 70%
frequency is called corner frequency, roll-off frequency, break frequency, cutoff frequency or
half-power frequency. The corner frequency for the RC filter is given as:
fC = 1 / 2RC
At cut off frequency, R=XC i.e. voltage VR=VC and phase angle between input and output
voltage will be 450.
29
Figure 2: Amplitude and Phase Response of Low Pass RC Filter
EQUIPMENT
Function generator
Jumper wires
Oscilloscope
Resistor: 1.2k
Probes
Capacitor: 1F
Bread board
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
1.2 kohm
AC Voltage Source
1 micro farad
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the components on bread board according the circuit diagram.
2. Apply sinusoidal input voltage of 5 V peak to peak with 20 Hz frequency from function
generator and note the peak to peak voltage across capacitor from oscilloscope.
3. Also measure the phase difference () between input and output voltage by oscilloscope.
4. Increase the frequency at regular steps and fill the table shown below.
5. Draw the graph between output voltage and frequency.
6. Mark the cut off frequency on the graph.
7. Draw the graph between and frequency.
8. Mark the value of at cut off frequency.
30
RESULTS
Sr.
No.
Peak to peak
value of input
voltage
Frequency of
input voltage
(Hz)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
10
110
120
130
140
150
Peak to peak value

of output voltage
from oscilloscope
(V0=VC)
Phase angle between input

and output voltage
( degrees)
Graph between Output Voltage and Frequency

Graph between and Frequency
DISCUSSION
1. Differentiate between passive and active filters?
2. What is the ratio of output and input voltage levels in db at cutoff frequency?
31
3. What do you mean the term frequency octave and frequency decade?
4. Write some real applications in which low pass filter is used?
5. Your viewpoint regarding the results.
32
Experiment No.7
HIGH PASS FILTER
OBJECTIVE
To study the characteristics and frequency response of passive high pass filter.
THEORY
If a filter allows signals of higher frequencies to pass from input to the output while blocking
the lower frequencies, this filter is called a high pass filter. The minimum frequency it allows
to pass is called cutoff frequency fC. A high pass filter may be RL or RC as shown in Figures
below.
The cutoff frequency for the RC filter is given as:
V0=Vi[R/(R-jXc)]
fc = 1 / 2RC
At fc, R=Xc and the phase angle between Vo and Vi is +45 as shown in Figure 1(c).It can be
seen that high pass filter can be obtained merely by interchanging the positions of R and C in
low pass RC filter. In high pass filter, all the frequencies above fc are passed and below are
attenuated.
Figure 1: High Pass RC Filter
The cutoff frequency for the RL filter is given as:

V0=Vi[jXL/(R+jXL)]
fc = R / 2L
33
Figure 2: High Pass RL Filter
EQUIPMENT
Function generator
Jumper wires
Oscilloscope
Resistor: 1.2 k
Probes
Capacitor: 1F
Bread board
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
1.2 kohm
AC Voltage Source
1 micro farad
PROCEDURE
generator and note the peak to peak voltage across resistor from oscilloscope.
3. Also measure the phase difference () between input and resistor output voltage by
oscilloscope.
4. Increase the frequency at regular steps and fill the table shown below.
6. Mark the cut off frequency on the graph.
7. Draw the graph between and frequency.
8. Mark the value of at cut off frequency.
34
RESULTS
Sr.
No.
Peak to peak
value of input
voltage
Frequency of
input voltage
(Hz)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
10
110
120
130
140
150
Peak to peak value

of resistor output
voltage from
oscilloscope
(V0=VR)
Phase angle between input

and output voltage
( degrees)
Graph between Output Voltage (Vo) across Resistor and Frequency

Graph between and Frequency
DISCUSSION
1. Your comments regarding the results.
35
Experiment No. 8
RESONANCE PHENOMENON IN ELECTRICAL NETWORKS
OBJECTIVE
To observe resonance phenomenon in electrical networks and study its effects.
To determine the resonant frequency and bandwidth of the given network using a
sinusoidal input.
THEORY
A resonant circuit, also called a tuned circuit consists of an inductor and a capacitor together
with a voltage or current source. It is one of the most important circuits used in electronics.
For example, a resonant circuit, in one of its many forms, allows us to select a desired radio or
television signal from the vast number of signals that are around us at any time.
A network is in resonance when the voltage and current at the network input terminals are in
phase and the input impedance of the network is purely resistive.
Figure 1: Parallel Resonance Circuit
Consider the Parallel RLC circuit of Figure 1. The steady-state admittance offered by the
circuit is:
Y = 1/R + j( C 1/L)
Resonance occurs when the voltage and current at the input terminals are in phase. This
corresponds to a purely real admittance, so that the necessary condition is given by
C 1/L = 0
The resonant condition may be achieved by adjusting L, C, or . Keeping L and C constant,

the resonant frequency is given by:
o
36
Or
Frequency response is a plot of the magnitude of output Voltage of a resonance circuit as

function of frequency. The response of course starts at zero, reaches a maximum value in the
vicinity of the natural resonant frequency, and then drops again to zero as becomes infinite.
The frequency response is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Frequency Response of Parallel Resonant Circuit
The two additional frequencies 1 and 2 are also indicated which are called half-power
frequencies. These frequencies locate those points on the curve at which the voltage response
is 1/2 or 0.707 times the maximum value. They are used to measure the band-width of the
response curve. This is called the half-power bandwidth of the resonant circuit and is defined
as:
= 2 - 1
Figure 3: Series Resonance Circuit
When network of Figure 3 is in tuned condition, inductive reactance will be cancelled by

capacitive reactance, therefore, impedance of the circuit will be minimum, current will be
maximum and this current will be in phase with voltage i.e. power factor will be unity as
shown in Figure 4.
37
Figure 4: Effect of Frequency on Different Parameters
EQUIPMENT
Function generator
Resistors: 120 , 1
Oscilloscope
Inductor: 10 mH
Bread board
Capacitor: 100 F
Jumper wires
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
AC Voltage Source
120
ohm
120
1
10 mHRLC
Series
Branch1
100 F
PROCEDURE
2. Find the theoretical value of resonant frequency.
3. Apply sinusoidal voltage of 10 V peak to peak from function generator with frequency
less than the resonant frequency.
4. Observe the waveforms of input voltage and current on the oscilloscope simultaneously.
5. Note down value of rms current at oscilloscope.
6. Increase the frequency gradually until the current becomes in phase with the input voltage.
This frequency is the resonant frequency.
7. Increase the frequency further and see the phase difference between current and voltage
waveforms.
38
8. Note down values rms currents at different frequencies and plot the graph between current
(I) and frequency (f).
RESULTS
Input Frequency
Current
Current Status
(f)
(I)
(Leading/ In phase/Lagging)
Sr. No.
39
Voltage and current waveform on oscilloscope when f< f0

Voltage and current waveform on oscilloscope when f=f0
Voltage and current waveform on oscilloscope when f> f0
Graph between current (I) and frequency (f) from the observed values
DISCUSSION
1. What is the purpose if 1 resistor?
2. What is the quality factor of network shown in circuit diagram?
3. What do you mean by the term selectivity?
4. Actual results in frequency dependent networks may vary from the theoretical ones?
Comment.
40
5. What are the different applications of resonance?
41
Experiment No. 9
BAND PASS FILTER
OBJECTIVE
To design a band pass filter with pass band (130 Hz -2 kHz) and observe its
amplitude response.
THEORY
It is a filter that allows a certain band of frequencies to pass through and attenuates all other
frequencies below and above the band. This pass band is known as the bandwidth of the filter.
A passive band pass filter can be obtained by cascading a high pass RC filter to a low pass RC
filter as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Band Pass Filter
The pass band of the filter is given by the band of frequencies lying between fc1 and fc2. The
value of fc1 is determined by the high pass filter and fc2 by low pass filter.
Their values are given by
fc1 = 1 / 2R1C1
and
fc 2= 1 / 2R2C2
EQUIPMENT
Function generator
Jumper wires
Oscilloscope
Two resistors as per design
Probes
Two capacitors as per design
Bread board
42
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Draw the circuit diagram as per designed values of capacitors and resistors.
Also write your design calculations.
PROCEDURE
generator and note the peak to peak output voltage from oscilloscope.
3. Increase the frequency of input waveform gradually from the function generator and fill
the table shown below.
5. Mark the cut off frequencies on the graph.
6. Determine the bandwidth of the filter.
RESULTS
Sr.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Peak to peak
value of input
voltage
Frequency of input
voltage
(Hz)
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
5 Vp-p
10
50
100
150
200
300
500
600
800
1000
1200
Peak to peak value of

output voltage from
oscilloscope
20.log(V0/Vi)
db
43
12
5 Vp-p
1400
13
5 Vp-p
1600
14
5 Vp-p
1800
15
5 Vp-p
2000
16
5 Vp-p
2200
17
5 Vp-p
2400
18
5 Vp-p
2600
19
5 Vp-p
2800
20
5 Vp-p
3000
21
5 Vp-p
3500
22
5 Vp-p
4000
Practical Bandwidth =
Graph between 20log (V0/Vi) and Frequency
DISCUSSION
44
Experiment No. 10
BAND STOP FILTER
OBJECTIVE
To observe frequency response of a band stop filter.
THEORY
It is a filter that attenuates a certain band of frequencies and allows all other frequencies to
pass. This stop band is known as the bandwidth of the filter. The series resonance circuit can
also be used as a band stop filter. The center frequency of the circuit is given by
EQUIPMENT
Function generator
Jumper wires
Oscilloscope
Resistor: 680
Probes
Capacitor:10nF
Bread board
Inductor: 100mH
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE
45
2. Apply sinusoidal input voltage of 1 V rms with center frequency from function generator.
At center frequency output voltage would be minimum.
3. Decrease the frequency of input waveform less than center frequency from the function
generator and note the frequency when output voltage becomes 70.7% of the input
voltage. This frequency is called f1.
4. Increase the frequency of input waveform less than center frequency from the function
generator and note the frequency when output voltage becomes 70.7% of the input
voltage. This frequency is called f2.
5. Draw the graph between output voltage (db) and frequency.
6. Determine the bandwidth (f2-f1) of the filter.
RESULTS
Sr.
No.
RMS value of
input voltage
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
Frequency of input
voltage
(Hz)
RMS value of output

voltage from
oscilloscope
20.log [Vout]
db
fc=..
46
24
25
1V
1V
f1=
f2=..
Practical Bandwidth (f2-f1) =

Graph between Output Voltage (Vo in dB) and Frequency (Hz)
(Use logarithmic graph paper)
DISCUSSION
47
Experiment No. 11
SINUSOIDAL STEADY STATE RESPONSE
OBJECTIVE
To observe sinusoidal steady state response of an electrical network.
To determine complex impedance, and power factor of a network.
To grasp the concept of active, reactive and apparent power.
THEORY
If a sinusoidal source is connected to a network of linear passive elements, then every voltage
and current in that network will be sinusoidal in the steady state, differing from the source
waveform in amplitude and phase angle. The input and steady state output of a physical
circuit is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Sinusoidal Steady State Response
Impedance and admittance values of common circuit elements are shown in the following
Table 1.
Table 1: Parameters for Network Elements
A passive RC network is shown in Figure 2. The input impedance of a circuit is defined as the
ratio of input voltage to input current. Mathematically,
48
If is the phase difference between V IN and IIN then is called the power factor and different
powers consumed in the network are defined as,
Active Power:
P = VIN (rms)IIN(rms) Cos
(Watts)
Reactive Power:
Q = VIN(rms)IIN(rms) Sin
(Vars)
2
2
Apparent Power:
S = VIN(rms)IIN(rms)=(P +Q )
(VA)
S = P+jQ= (1/2)(V)(I*) = VrmsI*rms = I2rms Z = V2rms/Z
In complex form,
Figure 2: RC Network
If waveforms of the VIN and IIN are simultaneously observed on the oscilloscope as shown in
Figure 3, then phase difference between VIN and IIN can be found as
Figure 3: Measuring Phase Difference between Two Waveforms
EQUIPMENT
Function generator
Jumper wires
Oscilloscope
Resistor: 1k
Probes
Capacitor: 1F
Bread board
Resistor:1
49
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE
2. Apply sinusoidal input voltage of 3 V rms with 50 Hz frequency from function generator.
Take VIN as refrence i.e. VIN= (2)(3) 00.
3. Measure the peak values of input voltage and current from the oscilloscope. Also measure
the phase difference between the said waveforms.
4. Note the readings in the table.
5. Save the waveforms displayed on the oscilloscopes in your flash RAM (USB) and insert
in your manual after taking the printout.
6. Now see waveforms of voltage across 1 k resistor (VR) and its current (IR)
simultaneously on oscilloscope and save in your USB to insert in manual.
7. Now see waveforms of voltage across 1 F capacitor (VC) and its current (IC)
simultaneously on oscilloscope and save in your USB to insert in manual.
8. Note the readings in the table.
9. Repeat the same procedure at 200 Hz, 500 Hz and 1 kHz.
RESULTS
Input Voltage
Phase Difference()
between VIN and IIN
(360.T/T)
Input current in polar
form
Input Impedance in polar
form
50 Hz
4.24 00
200 Hz
4.24 00
500 Hz
4.24 00
1 kHz
4.24 00
50
Power factor (Cos )

Leading /Lagging
Active power (P)
Reactive Power (Q)
Apparent Power (S)
At 50 Hz frequency
Graph between input voltage and current saved from oscilloscope
Vector representation of input voltage and input current
Graph between 1 k resistor (VR) and its current (IR) saved from oscilloscope
Vector Representation of VR and IR (Take VR at horizontal axis)
Graph between 1 F capacitor (VC) and its current (IC)) saved from oscilloscope
Vector Representation of VC and IC (Take VC at horizontal axis)
At 200 Hz frequency
At 500 Hz frequency
At 1 kHz frequency
51
DISCUSSION
1. Define susceptance?
2. Suppose an electrical network draws 1A rms current. Write this current in polar form if
p.f. is (i) 0.8, lagging (ii) 0.8, leading (iii) unity
3. Suppose an inductive network draws 1 kW and 2 kVA. What will be power factor and
reactive power drawn by the network? Also write apparent power in P jQ form.
52
Experiment No. 12
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
OBJECTIVE
To differentiate between reciprocal and non-reciprocal networks.
To verify reciprocity theorem.
THEORY
Any network composed of linear, bilateral elements (such as R, L and C) is reciprocal. The
reciprocity theorem states that if an emf E in one branch of a reciprocal network produces a
current I in another, then if the emf E is moved from the first to the second branch, it will
cause the same current in the first branch, where the emf has been replaced by a short circuit.
The ratio E/I is known as transfer resistance or impedance (Z) in AC networks. The
reciprocity theorem is applicable only to single-source networks containing no time varying
elements.
When applying reciprocity theorem for a voltage source, following steps must be taken: Voltage source is replaced by a short circuit in original location.
Polarity of source in new location is such that the current direction in that branch remains
unchanged.
Figure 1: Reciprocity Theorem
EQUIPMENT
Function generator
Bread board
Oscilloscope
Jumper wires
Probes
Resistors: 1k, 2 k, 4.7k
53
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Figure 2: T-Network
Figure 3: T- Network
PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Connect the components on bread board according the circuit diagram shown in Figure 2.
Apply the 5V dc supply and measure the current I1.
Connect the components on bread board according the circuit diagram shown in Figure 3.
Apply the 5V dc supply and measure the current I2.
Compare the readings of I1 and I2 .
If I1=I2, reciprocity theorem is satisfied.
RESULTS
Measured values for Network of Figure 2
E
I1
E/I1
Measured values for Network of Figure 3

E
I2
E/I2
DISCUSSION
1. Differentiate between unilateral and bilateral elements.
54
2. Does transformer networks with linear elements are reciprocal? If yes give a supporting
example. If no, give a contradictory example.
3. Draw any non-reciprocal network in the space below.
55
Experiment No. 13
NETWORK ANALYSIS USING PSPICE
OBJECTIVE
To learn DC analysis, AC analysis and transient analysis of electrical networks using
PSpice.
BACKGROUND
1. SPICE stands for Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis
2. SPICE was originally developed at the Electronics Research Laboratory of the
University of California, Berkeley (1975). As the name implies, SPICE was originally
developed for designing integrated circuits. However, it can be used to analyze
discrete circuits as well.
3. PSpice is a PC version of SPICE (Cadence) and HSpice is a version that runs on
workstations and larger computers.
4. PSpice is case insensitive i.e. typing r or R will not be any different in PSpice.
5. All analysis can be done at different temperatures. The default temperature is 27c.
6. PSpice can do several types of circuit analysis. Here are a few:
DC analysis: Calculates the DC transfer curve.

AC analysis: Calculates the output as a function of frequency. A bode plot is
generated.
Transient analysis: Calculates the voltage and current as a function of time
when a large signal is applied.
Noise analysis: Analyzes noise at the input or output of the circuit.
Fourier analysis: Calculates and plots the frequency spectrum.
7. A PSpice circuit can contain components like:
AC & DC voltage and current sources

Resistors and Variable Resistors
Capacitors and Variable Capacitors
Inductors and Variable Inductors
Operational amplifiers
Switches
Diodes
Bipolar transistors
56
Transformers etc
Getting started with PSpice

Go to Start Menu, then Programs, then PSpice Student and then Schematics
The following schematic editor window will appear:
57
Drawing the Circuit

Following is the circuit we will use to begin our understanding about how PSpice works:
A. Getting the Parts
The first thing is to get some or all of the parts you need and place them on your
Schematics Workspace.
This can be done by
o Going to "Draw" and selecting "Get New Part...", or
o
Clicking on the 'get new parts' button

, or
o Pressing "Control+G"
Once this box is open, select a part that you want in your circuit. This can be done by
typing in the Part Name or the first alphabet of the part name, or scrolling down the
list until you find it.
Upon selecting your parts, click on the Place button. Then click where you want it to
be placed on the schematics workspace. Don't worry about putting it in exactly the
right place, it can always be moved later.
58
Once you have all the parts you think you need, close that box. You can always open it
again later if you need more parts.
Get Recent Part Bin: PSpice keeps track of the most recent parts used and lists them in
the Get Recent Part bin. You can save time by selecting items from this bin. Simply double
click the item then place as described above.
B. Libraries in PSpice
The parts in PSpice are arranged in the form of libraries. You do not have to worry about
including the concerned libraries before you actually select Parts because PSpice
Schematics Version 9.1 automatically includes all the libraries, when the Get Part
button is pressed.
Few common libraries are:
analog.slb: Contains resistors (R), capacitors (C), inductors (L), dependent sources (E,
F, G and H) etc.
source.slb: Contains various independent voltage and current sources.
port.slb: contains elements such as ground etc.
Hands on Exercise 1
Get all the parts you need to draw the circuit given, on your Schematics workspace?
Find out what specific libraries contain those parts?
59
C. Placing the Parts

You should have most of the parts available in your schematics workspace that you need
at this point.
To put them in the places that make the most sense (usually a rectangle works well for
simple circuits), just select the part and drag it where you want it.
To rotate parts so that they will fit in your circuit nicely, click on the part and click Edit
"Rotate" or simply click "Ctrl+R"
To flip them, click Edit "Flip" or "Ctrl+F".
If any parts are left over, just select them and press "Delete".
Hands on Exercise 2
Place the parts that you have selected in Exercise 1 in a proper order on the
Schematics workspace?
D. Connecting the Circuit
Now that your parts are arranged well, you'll have to connect them with wires.
Go up to the tool bar and
o Go to "Draw" and select "Wire", or
o
Select "Draw Wire"

, or
o Click "Ctrl+W"
With the pencil looking pointer, left click on one end of a part. When you move your
mouse around, you should see dotted lines appear. Drag the mouse to the next part in
the circuit. This will attach the other end of the wire to the next part that you want to
connect and then left click again to release the wire
Repeat this until your circuit is completely wired.
If you want to make a node (to make a wire go more than one place), click somewhere
on the wire and then click to the part (or the other wire). Or you can go from the part
to the wire.
To get rid of the pencil, Right Click on the mouse.
If you end up with extra dots near your parts, you probably have an extra wire, select
this short wire (it will turn red), then press "Delete".
If the wire doesn't look the way you want, you can make extra bends in it by clicking
in different places on the way (each click will form a corner).
Hands on Exercise 3
Connect the parts using the wire that you have placed in Exercise 2.
60
E. Changing the Name of the Part
You probably don't want to keep the names R1, R2 etc., especially if you didn't put the
parts in the most logical order. To change the name, double click on the present name
(C1, or R1 or whatever your part is), then a box will pop up (Edit Reference
Designator). In the top window, you can type in the name for the selected part.
Please note that if you double click on the part or its value, a different box will appear.
Hands on Exercise 4
Change the names for the parts in your circuit to the names that were shown in the
original figure of the circuit given.
F. Changing the Value of the Part
To change the value of the part (e.g. by default the value of all the resistors is 1K
ohms), you can double click on the present value and a box called "Set Attribute
Value" will appear. Type in the new value and press OK.
If you double click on the part itself, you can select VALUE and change it in this box.
61
The list of units as PSpice accepts them is as follows:

F,f
femto
10-15
P,p
pico
10-12
N,n
nano
10-9
U,u
micro
10-6
M,m
milli
10-3
K,k
kilo
103
MEG,meg
mega
106
G,g
giga
109
T,t
tera
1012
Hands on Exercise 5
Change the values for the parts in your circuit to the values that were shown in the original
circuit given.
G. Saving
If you have not done so, now is a good time to save your schematic. Choose a name
that will help you identify which problem this is. To save the circuit, click on the save
button
on the tool bar (or any other way you normally save files).
H. Electric Rule Check

Perform an electrical rules check to be sure your circuit schematic will simulate properly.
(Analysis menu, Electrical Rule Check). If all goes well, you will see a small window flash
62
on the screen and nothing else. If no errors are reported in your schematic, proceed to the next
step. If there are errors, fix them now.
63
Hands on Exercise 6
Do the Electrical Rule Check and Save the circuit that you have drawn?
I. Simulating the Circuit

Now you will simulate your circuit. Do this by going to the Analysis menu and
choosing Simulate or Press
on the Toolbar.
When simulation is done, a new PSPICE window will appear.
Look at the Lower Left corner of the window for the results of simulation.
This is what you are going to see:
What does PSpice mean by Floating Nodes?

Why was the Simulation Aborted?
J. Making Sure You Have a GND
This is very important. You cannot do any simulation on the circuit if you don't have a
ground. If you aren't sure where to put it, place it near the negative side of your voltage
source.
K. Reading the Output
Select View in this window, and examine Output File. Scroll down towards the bottom
of the file until you come to a series of headings that say Node Voltage.
The voltage at each circuit node should be reported. Identify which node voltages are
associated with which circuit elements and note them down.
Scroll further down the output file. Note that the source current and total power
dissipation for the circuit is also reported.
The voltage source current is reported as -2.500E-04 A.
64
Hands on Exercise 7
Find out the value of the current in the circuit manually by using the analytical methods
you have learned in the BEE class so far. Check if the answer agrees with PSpices?
L. Netlists
A netlist is the original way we interacted with SPICE.
The netlist contains description of the circuit that describes the parts of the circuit and the
nodes with which they are connected.
When PSpice creates a circuit description from your schematic, it numbers nodes, and for
each component, lists the nodes to which it is connected as well as the value of the
component.
For example, Node 1 is designated $N001, node 2 as $N002, etc.
These designations do not appear on your schematic screen but instead they reside in a
file as a netlist.
To view the netlist, click Analysis, then Examine Netlist.
In the netlist, the 1 end of a component is connected to the first indicated node.
Hands on Exercise 8
Examine the Netlist for your circuit and compare these node numbers with the circuit
you have drawn.
M. PSpice File Extensions

PSpice file
extension
Description
.SCH
Schematics diagram file.
.CIR
Control file generated by Schematics. ASCII.
.NET
Netlist (circuit description) generated by Schematics.

ASCII.
.ALS
Alias file generated by Schematics. Needed for PSpice

simulation.
.PRB
Control file for Probe plots. Contains settings from last

run, scaling, etc.
.DAT
Complete output file generated by PSpice; input to

Probe. Not readable; Normally a large file
.OUT
Readable ASCII output file from PSpice simulation.
65
Contains dc levels, etc.
N. Shortcut to find Bias Voltage and Current from the Toolbar

You can use the Enable Bias Voltage Display
or Enable bias current display
buttons on the Schematics workspace toolbar to find out the Bias Voltage and
Currents directly instead of reading them down from the output file.
Hands on Exercise 9
Find out the bias voltages and currents for the circuit you have drawn using the above
said buttons on the Schematic Window Toolbar.
O. Printing
To print your schematic circuit, you must first use your mouse to make a rectangle
around your circuit; this is the area of the page that will be printed. Then select print as
usual. (You can select
).
P. Meter Elements IPRINT, VPRINT1 and VPRINT2

These are general purpose metering components that you can use to measure voltage and
current. To determine their readings, you must examine the output file. (Click Analysis,
Examine Output, then scroll until you find them.) Note that IPRINT and VPRINT1 have a
terminal marked with a sign that corresponds to the COM terminal on a real physical meter.
You must wire them into your circuit as you would a real meter, taking into account where
you want the COM terminal. In addition, you must configure them for the type of
measurement (dc or ac) that you wish to make.
66
Hands on Exercise 10
Place the above mentioned metering elements in the circuit below and show the results.
Q. Dependent Sources
Voltage controlled voltage source
Current-controlled current source
Voltage controlled current source
Current-controlled voltage source
A controlled voltage source is one whose output voltage is controlled by (depends on) the
value of a voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit. A current controlled voltage source
obeys the relation vo=ki, where i is the controlling current and k is a constant having the
units of resistance: k=vo/i volts per ampere, or ohms.
Similarly, a controlled current source produces a current whose value depends on a voltage or
a current elsewhere in the circuit. A voltage-controlled current source obeys the relation io=kv,
where v is the controlling voltage and k has the units of conductance: k=io/v amperes per volt,
or siemens.
All four types of controlled sources, voltage-controlled voltage source, current-controlled
voltage sources, voltage-controlled current sources, and current-controlled current sources,
can be modeled in PSpice.
67
Hands on Exercise 11
The circuit shown in Figure below has a current controlled voltage source with the gain of 3.
This circuit can be constructed in PSpice using part H as shown in figure below:
Click the part and enter gain =3. Save and simulate it.
Learn to perform ac analysis and transient analysis using PSpice

Setting-up Analysis
You can select and specify a PSpice analysis.
To add up analysis, select set up to display analysis setup dialog box, or click the
button.
You can make your required selections from here.
When you are done, select the check boxes of the analysis you want to use.
Click the close button.
68
Bias Point Detail

Bias Point Detail writes the detailed bias information to the simulation output file.
The information reported to the output file includes:
(i)
Node voltages
(ii)
Current through Voltage sources
(iii)
Total power
DC Sweep
The DC analysis causes a dc sweep to be performed. The dc sweep analysis calculates
the circuits bias point over a range of values.
The DC sweep allows you to do various different sweeps of your circuit to see how it
responds to various conditions.
For all the possible sweeps,
o voltage,
o current,
o temperature, and
o model and global parameter
You need to specify a start value, an end value, and the number of points you wish to
calculate.
For example you can sweep your circuit over a voltage range from 0 to 12 volts. The
main two sweeps that will be most important to us at this stage are the voltage sweep
and the current sweep. For these two, you need to indicate to PSpice the component
name you wish to sweep, for example V1 or V2.
Voltage and Current Markers
These are important if you want to trace the voltage at a point or the current going
through that point.
To add voltage or current Marker, go to the top tool bar and select Voltage/Level
Marker
or Current Marker
or press Ctrl+M. Also you can go to Markers
on tool bar and select either Mark Voltage Level or Mark current into pin.
69
Probe
(a) Before you do the Probe

You have to have your circuit properly drawn and saved.
There must not be any floating parts on your workspace (i.e. unattached devices).
You should make sure that all parts have the values that you want.
There are no extra wires.
It is very important that you have a ground on your circuit.
Make sure that you have done the Analysis Setup and specify the values you want
enabled.
(b) To Start the Probe
Click on the Simulate button on the tool bar

(or Analysis, Simulate, or F11).
It will check to make sure you don't have any errors. If you do have errors, correct
them.
Then a new window will pop up. Here is where you can do your graphs.
(c) Adding/Deleting Traces
If youve placed the voltage/current level markers, PSpice will automatically put the
related traces in. You can change them or add to them.
Go to Trace, then Add Trace or click

on the toolbar. Then select all the traces
you want. Do not forget to add a new Y-axis if the two plots have different y-axis
scaling.
To delete traces, select them on the bottom of the graph and press Delete button from
keyboard.
(d) Doing Math
In Add Traces, there are various mathematical functions that can be performed. These
will add/subtract (or whatever you chose) the traces together.
Select the first output then click the function that you wish to perform.
There are many functions here that may or may not be useful. If you want to know
how to use them, you can use PSpice's Help Menu.
(e) Labeling
Click on Text Label
on top tool bar.
Type in what you want to write.
Click OK
You can move this around on your graph by single clicking and dragging.
(f) Finding Points
There are Cursor buttons that allow you to find the maximum, minimum or just any
point on the line. These are located on the right side of the toolbar.
Select which curve you want to look at and then select Toggle Cursor
.
70
(g) Saving
To save your probe you need to go into the tools menu and click Window. Now click
display control. This will open up a menu, which will allow you to name the probe
file and choose where to save it. You can open previously saved plots from here as
well.
(h) Printing
Select Print in File menu or click
on the toolbar.
Print as usual.
Another excellent feature of the DC sweep in PSpice is the ability to do a nested
sweep. A nested sweep allows you to run two simultaneous sweeps to see how
changes in two different DC sources will affect your circuit.
Example 1
For the following circuit we will dc sweep the voltage source from 0V to 10V and
observe the trace of VR1 and VR2.
Draw the circuit in your schematic workspace.

Label the nodes a and b as shown in the diagram above.
Go to Analysis, then setup and select DC Sweep from the dialog box.
Sweep var. Type is set to voltage source by default. We are providing dc sweep
to voltage source so we will not change it.
Write the name of voltage source i.e. V1 in place of Name.
Enter start and end values i.e. 0 and 10 and give any convenient value of
increment e.g. 1.
Leave the Sweep Type set to its default value i.e. linear.
Place a voltage level marker at node b.
Save and simulate your circuit.
A new probe window will open with the trace of voltage across R2.
To add the trace of voltage across R1, go to Trace menu and click Add Trace.
Enter trace expression V (a) - V (b) and enter.
You can observe that at each point sum of both voltages is equal to the value of
V1. Hence Kirchhoffs voltage law is proved.
71
Also add the trace of current through R1. If the current trace turns out to be zero, find
out the parameter that needs to be adjusted.
Example 2
Prove maximum power transfer theorem using global variable dc sweep
This circuit models a source (VS, RS) and a load RL. The problem is that the source is
given, and we want to determine the value of RL for which the power absorbed by the
load PL = (VL)2/RL is a maximum.
We will simulate and obtain a graph of PL versus RL, and determine the value of RL at
maximum value of PL
Draw the circuit on your schematics workspace.
From Get New Part place PARAM anywhere on your workspace.
Double click on the part PARAM after placing on the schematic workspace and
set NAME1 to RL_val and VALUE 1 to be equal to1.
Go to ANALYSIS and then SETUP and click on DC SWEEP.
In the SWEPT VARIABLE TYPE select GLOBAL PARAMETER.
Write the NAME as RL_val. This will be the swept variable.
Set the SWEEP TYPE to OCTAVE.
Set START VALUE to 10, END VALUE to 100k and INCREMENT to 10.
Save and simulate.
Do not forget to change the attribute value of RL to RL_val enclosed in curly
brackets.
On the display window, go to TRACE and then ADD TRACE.
In the ADD TRACE window, enter the following expression (-VL x I(RL)).
Find out the value of RL for which the power is maximum. Also find out the
value of the maximum PL that is transferred.
This must verify the maximum power transfer theorem, which states that
maximum power is transferred from source to load when RL = RS
Exercise
For the given circuit trace the voltage across R2 by sweeping dc current source from 0
to 10 Amp. Also on the probe mark points at VR2 for I1=5 Amp.
72
Transient Analysis
In transient analysis, we determine voltages and currents as function of time. Typically

time dependence is demonstrated by plotting the waveforms using time as independent
variable.
Two very important parameters in the transient analysis are:
o print step: It specifies time interval used for printing and plotting the results of
transient analysis. It refers only to results written to output file. It has no effect on
probe data file.
o final time: This specifies ending time for which the circuits behavior is
calculated.
Example
Draw the following circuit in PSpice
Open the attribute window for the capacitor and set IC=0. Dont forget to save the
attributes after changing them.
Place a Voltage Marker at node vout to find out the voltage across it.
Run the probe.
Add the trace for Vout i.e. the voltage across the capacitor.
Above results can be achieved by using VPULSE in place of VDC as shown:
Exercise
Trace the current through the capacitor in the above circuit.
Observe the behavior of inductors for dc circuits by setting the IC for inductor equal to
0A.
73
D) AC Sweep
Ac steady state analysis is facilitated by the use of phasors. PSpice can perform ac
steady state simulation, outputting magnitude and phase data for any voltage or current
of interest at any frequency.
Additionally PSpice can perform an ac sweep in which the frequency of sinusoidal
sources is varied over a user-defined range. In this case simulation results are the
magnitude and phase of every node voltage and branch current as a function of
frequency.
In the AC sweep menu you have the choice of three AC sweep types:
o Linear
o Octave
o Decade.
These three choices describe the x-axis scaling of the trace. For example, if you
choose decade then the scale of x-axis will be logarithmic i.e. 10Hz, 1 kHz, 100 kHz,
10 MHz, etc. Decade option is used to see the behavior of any circuit over large range
of frequencies.
You now have to specify at how many points you want PSpice to calculate results, and
what the start and end frequency will be. That is, you choose range of frequencies to
simulate your circuit.
In the AC sweep you also have the option of Noise enable in which PSpice will
simulate noise for you either on the output or the input of the circuit. These noise
calculations are performed at each frequency step and can be plotted in probe.
Example
Simulate the given circuit at a frequency of 60 Hz.
Single Frequency AC Simulation

Draw the circuit in your schematics workspace. The AC source, VAC, is in the source
library.
To set up the AC source for simulation, double click on the source symbol and open its
ATTRIBUTES box.
The DC attribute is the dc value of the source for dc analyses. The ACMAG and
ACPHASE attributes set the magnitude and phase of the phasor representing Vin for ac
analysis.
To specify the frequency for simulation, select Setup from the Analysis menu and go
to AC sweep.
74
Set all fields for 60-Hz simulation as shown in the figure below:
Since simulation is performed at only on frequency, 60 Hz, graphing the simulation

results is not a very attractive option. So to write the magnitude and phase of the
phasor Vout to output file, use VPRINT1 part from SPECIAL library as shown below:
After placing VPRINT1 part and set its attributes. The VPRINT1 part can be
configured to meter the node voltage in any kind of simulation: dc, ac, or transient.
Since an ac analysis is specified in the setup, the values of AC, MAG, and PHASE
attributes are set to Y, where Y stands for yes.
When an AC sweep is performed, PSpice, unless instructed otherwise will attempt to
plot the results using the probe plotting program. To turn off this feature, select Probe
Setup in the Analysis menu and select Do Not Auto-Run Probe.
Simulate the circuit and select Examine Output from the Analysis menu to view the
data. At the bottom of the file we will find the desired results.
Exercise
Simulate the above circuit at a frequency of 50 Hz to find the current through the
circuit using IPRINT part and display the results in the output file.
Variable Frequency Ac Simulation

To sweep the frequency over a range, 1 Hz to 10 MHz, for example, return to AC
SWEEP AND NOISE ANALYSIS box. Change the fields to the desired values as
shown below:
75
Since the frequency range is so large, choose a log axis for frequency with 50 data
points in each decade
We can now plot the data using probe utility. This procedure requires two steps. First,
remove VPRINT1 part. Second, return to PROBE SETUP window and select
Automatically Run Probe After Simulation.
Save and simulate the circuit.
To plot magnitude and phase of Vout on the probe window, select Add from the trace
menu. For magnitude of Vout, select V (Vout) and click OK.
Before plotting phase, select Add Y axis from Plot menu. Now go to add traces and
add the expression P (Vout). Click OK.
Exercise
Also plot the magnitude and phase of current through the capacitor in the above circuit
over a frequency range of 100 Hz to 600 kHz.
E) Parametric Sweep
One of the more useful aspects of SPICE is the ability to run a number of variations on
a basic circuit and compare the results by plotting them on the same graph.
For our example it might be interesting to see how changing the resistor value affects
the frequency response and make comparison with the first simulation.
A hard-nosed way of doing that might be to select the circuit, make a copy, start a
new project with all of the same settings, paste the circuit into the new project, make
the desired parameter changes, run the simulation, and then add the new trace to the
old graph.
This might seem like a lot of goofing around, but indeed there is a simpler approach.
Instead, you can use the parameter sweep feature of spice. A parameter sweep allows
you to specify a number of values for a particular parameter and then perform a
complete analysis for each value.
Example
Draw the following circuit:
76
Double-click on the resistor value and change its value from 10k to {RA}. (Make sure
that you are changing the value and not the name.) The curly brackets are important.
Go to the ANALYSIS menu and choose SETUP.
Now choose PARAMETRIC.
In the new window, under the SWEPT Var. TYPE, select GLOBAL PARAMETER
and in the "Parameter name" entry box type in RA
In the "Sweep Type" section, you could enter start, stop, and increment values for R1.
Since we want only a few values, we will use a VALUE LIST option on the LHS
menu.
Click the button next to "Value List" and enter 1k 10k 100k (no commas separating
the values).
Thus, we are planning to run the simulation 3 times with those three values for R1.
Click OK.
We need to add one more part to the schematic so that PSPICE can handle the
parameter sweep properly.
Go to GET PART and select the part named PARAM. Place it any where on the
schematic workspace.
Double-click on the "Parameters:" part to bring up the "Property Editor" window.
Type RA for NAME 1 and 1k for VALUE 1.This shows that 1k will be the first value
used in the parameter sweep.
Finally, click on CHANGE DISPLAY and select BOTH NAME and VALUE. You
should see the schematic workspace that is something like the one below:
Set the AC sweep settings over a range of frequencies 10 Hz to 100 kHz and
10pts/decade (Dont forget to select decade in the ac sweep type). Now Simulate your
circuit.
77
Assuming there are no errors, when the simulation is finished, you should see a
message saying that three separate files are available. You can choose any or all of
them for plotting. In this case choose "All" and click OK.
From the TRACE menu choose ADD TRACE in the dialog, choose "DB( )" from the
math function list and then choose V(Vout) from the circuit variables list.
Click OK and a graph will appear, showing three different frequency responses for the
three different values of resistor.
F) Sensitivity
Sensitivity causes a DC sensitivity analysis to be performed in which one or more

output variables may be specified.
Device sensitivities are provided for the following device types only:
o resistors,
o independent voltage and current sources,
o voltage and current-controlled switches,
o diodes, and
o bipolar transistors.
You would use the sensitivity settings for discovering the maximum range of circuit
performance and the causes of extreme operation. These techniques are used to
identify effective changes to improve the quality of circuit operation.
This isn't as important for us in the lab, but some day when you are constructing real
circuits that need to function under various conditions this will be useful.
G) Temperature
The temperature option allows you to specify a temperature, or a list of temperatures

(do not include commas between temperature values) for which PSpice will simulate
your circuit.
For a list of temperatures that simulation is done for each specified temperature.
H) Digital Setup
In addition to letting you simulate analog circuits, PSpice provides a number of digital
parts that can be used in a homogeneous digital circuit, or a heterogeneous
analog/digital combination.
The digital analysis option allows you to specify the timing of your circuit, by running
the gates at their minimum, maximum and typical values.
A superb feature allows you to test the worst-case timing of your circuit to see how it
will operate under these extreme conditions.
You also have the option of setting the value of any flip flops you have in your circuit
to predefined states which is good to simulate any startup conditions for finite state
machines that you are simulating.
78
DISCUSSION
1. What are the powers of PSpice those you have explored in this lab?
79
Experiment No. 14
ELECTRICAL NETWORK MODELING IN MATLAB SYMBOLIC
TOOLBOX
OBJECTIVE
To learn modeling of electrical networks in frequency domain using Matlab symbolic
toolbox.
THEORY
Consult MATLAB documentation to get help for each of the following command(s) if you
dont understand.
EQUIPMENT
Computer with Matlab & Simulink installation
PRACTICE
The following example illustrates the difference the between a standard MATLAB data type,
such as, double and the corresponding symbolic object.
Example 1:- Enter the following commands and observe the difference.
>> clear
>> sqrt(7)
>> a = sqrt ( sym(7))
>> 3/8
>> sym (3)/sym (8)
>> 1/5+2/3
>> sym (1)/sym (5) +sym (2)/sym (3)
Example 2:- sym command lets us construct the symbolic variables and expressions as below;
>>clear
>> x = sym('x')
>> a = sym('a')
>> x = sym( '(1+sqrt(5))/2')
>> f = x^2 x -1
80
f =(1/2+1/2*5^(1/2))^2-3/2-1/2*5^(1/2)
The expression returned by f is complex to read. Enter the following command.

>> simplify(f)
Example 3:- This example describes another way to declare the symbolic objects.
>> clear
>> syms a b c x
We may construct quadratic equation using above variables.

>> f = sym ('a*x^2 + b*x + c')
Note: - To create a symbolic expression that is a constant, you must use the sym command.
For example, to create the expression whose value is 5, enter f = sym ('5'). Note that the
command f =5 does not define f as a symbolic expression.
findsym informs about symbolic variable of an expression.
>> findsym (f)
Observe the difference between the following commands.

>> subs ( f, 2)
>>subs(f, a, 2)
Example 4:- Example illustrates creation of real and complex variables.

>> clear
>>x = sym('x', 'real');
>>y = sym('y', 'real');
or more efficiently
>>syms x y real
>>z = x + i*y
>> z*conj (z)
>> simplify (z*conj (z))
Example 5: - Symbolic toolbox has the power to solve derivatives.

81
>> clear
>> syms x
>> h =sin(2*x)
>> diff(h)
To take second derivative we use

>> diff(h,2)
or
>> diff (diff (h))
Example 6: - Let us find derivative of functions having more than one variable.
>>clear
>>syms x y
>> f = exp(x*y)
Observe the output of each of the following commands.

>> diff (f)
>> diff (f,x)
>> diff (f,y)
>>diff ( f,y,2)
>> diff(f,2)
Your Task ???
You have studied command for differentiation. Is there any command for integration? If yes,
find the following and write those commands beside.
3
5tdt
1
Electrical Network Modeling in Frequency Domain

Example 7:- Following example shows power of symbolic toolbox to calculate Laplace
transform. (Make an M-file and having finished delete it).
>> clear
>> f =2*exp(-t) 2*exp(-2*t)
>> pretty(f)
>> F = laplace(f)
>> pretty(F)
82
>>simplify(F)
>>pretty(F)
Example 8: - The inverse Laplace transform is also possible to calculate.

>> clear
>> syms s
>> F = 2 / [(s+1)*(s+2)];
>>pretty(F)
>> f = ilaplace (F)
>> pretty (f)
Example 9:- In the following example, we use Cramer Rule to solve following circuit in
Symbolic toolbox.
I1
I2
Figure 1: Electrical Network
In Laplace domain loop equations become;

(sL + R)I1 R I2
-RI1 + (1/sC+R)I2
Ls
R
R
R
1
sC
= Vin
= 0
I1
Vin
R I2
Using Cramer Rule we find

Vin
I1
R
1
0 R
sC
Ls R
R
1
R
R
sC
and
83
Ls
I2
Ls
R Vin
R
R
0
R
1
R
sC
Where I1 is current in first loop and I2 is current in second loop.

Following is the code to solve the circuit using Symbolic toolbox.
>> syms Vin L R C s
>> A = [s*L+R -R ; -R
>> A1 = [Vin -R ; 0
(1/(s*C))+R];
( R+1/(s*C))];
>> I1 = det(A1) / det(A);

>> simplify (I1)
Similarly find I2 in s domain.
RESULTS
For the above network the time domain solution for the loop currents will be
i1(t)=..
i2(t)=..
DISCUSSION
1. Find Laplace transform of the following time functions manually and by using Matlab
commands;
a) f
b) f
5t 2 cos(3t
5t e
2t
45)
sin(4t
60)
2. Find inverse laplace of the following functions using Matlab commands.

1000
a)
3
s 40s 2 300s
s 2 6s 5
b).
s( s 2 4s 5)
84
3. What you have learnt in this lab?
4. Plot the following functions using Matlab commands. Draw the sketches and write
commands in space below. (See Matlab help..)
a) i(t ) 5 cos(3t )
b) i (t )
3e
2t
sin t
85
Experiment No. 15
TWO PORT PARAMETERS
OBJECTIVE
To determine two port network z parameters.
To determine two port network y parameters.
THEORY
A general two port network is shown in Figure 1. The Z parameters are also known as open
circuit impedance parameters. The Z parameters of a two port network are Z11, Z12, Z21 and
Z22 and these are given by
Z11 = V1/I1 when I2 = 0 i.e. secondary is open circuited.
Z12 = V1/I2 when 11 = 0 i.e. primary is open circuited.
Z21 = V2/I1 when I2 = 0 i.e. secondary is open circuited.
Z22 = V2/I2 when I1 =0 i.e. primary is open circuited.
Figure 1: A Two Port Network
The Y parameters are also known as short circuit admittance parameters. The Y parameters of
a two port network are Y11, Y12, Y21 and Y22 and these are given by
Y11 = I1/V1 when V2 = 0 i.e. secondary is short circuited.
Y12 = I1 /V2 when V1 = 0 i.e. primary is short circuited.
Y21 = I2/V1 when V2 = 0 i.e. secondary is short circuited.
Y22 = I2/V2 when V1 =0 i.e. primary is short circuited.
EQUIPMENT
DC power supply
Digital multimeter
86
Jumpers wires
Resistors: 1k (2), 2.2 k, 1(2)
Breadboard
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Figure 2: For Z11 and Z21 where I2=0
Figure 3: For Z12 and Z22 where I1=0
Figure 4: For Y11 and Y21 where V2=0
87
Figure 5: For Y12 and Y22 where V1=0
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the components on bread board according the circuit diagram of Figure 2.
2. Observe and note values of V1, V2 and I1 by using oscilloscope or multimeter.
3. Find Z11 and Z21.
4. Now connect the components on bread board according the circuit diagram of Figure 3.
5. Observe and note values of V1, V2 and I2 by using oscilloscope or multimeter.
6. Find Z12 and Z22.
7. Connect the components on bread board according the circuit diagram of Figure 4.
8. Observe and note values of V1, I2 and I1 by using oscilloscope or multimeter.
9. Find Y11 and Y21.
10. Now connect the components on bread board according the circuit diagram of Figure 5.
11. Observe and note values of I1, V2 and I2 by using oscilloscope or multimeter.
12. Find Y12 and Y22.
RESULTS
For Figure 2,
V1=
V2 =
I1=
Z11 = V1/I1 =
Z21= V2/I1 =
For Figure 4,
V1=
I2=
I1=
Y11= I1/V1=
Y21= I2/V1=
For Figure 3,
V1=
V2=
I2 =
Z12= V1/I2 =
Z22 = V2/I2 =
For Figure 5,
I1=
V2 =
I2=
Y12= I1/V2=
Y22= I2/V2=
DISCUSSION
1. Find impedance and admittance parameters theoretically and compare the values with
practical results.
88
2. What are different two port parameters? Are these are interrelated?
89

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Network Analysis Lab Manual

TABLE OF LAB EXPERIMENTS

To observe effect of source and load resistance on efficiency.

To verify Thevenin theorem.

To draw Thevenin equivalent of a passive resistive network.

To analyze response of 1st order RC differentiator network for

To analyze response of 1st order RC integrator network for different

To study the transient response of a series RC circuit.

To study the characteristics and frequency response of passive high

To observe resonance phenomenon in electrical networks and study

To determine the resonant frequency and bandwidth of the given

To observe sinusoidal steady state response of an electrical network.

Network Analysis Lab Manual

To determine complex impedance, and power factor of a network.

To verify reciprocity theorem.

To learn DC analysis, AC analysis and transient analysis of electrical

To learn modeling of electrical networks in frequency domain using

To determine two port network z parameters.

To determine two port network y parameters.

Additional Tasks as per Lab Instructors Desire

Network Analysis Lab Manual

Network Analysis Lab Manual

General Lab Instructions

Network Analysis Lab Manual

Network Analysis Lab Manual

Figure 1: Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Figure 2: Graph Illustrating Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Network Analysis Lab Manual

Resistors (1k, 1.5 k, 2 k, 2.7

Connect the components on bread board according the circuit diagram.

Graph between RL and PL

Network Analysis Lab Manual

Network Analysis Lab Manual

Resistors: 10K (3), 4.7 K, 1 K

Figure 1: Actual Network

Network Analysis Lab Manual

Figure 2: Measuring VTH

Figure 3: Finding RTH

Figure 4: Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

Network Analysis Lab Manual

Network Analysis Lab Manual

KVL equation for the network will be,

Network Analysis Lab Manual

Network Analysis Lab Manual

Network Analysis Lab Manual

KVL equation for the network will be,

Network Analysis Lab Manual

Network Analysis Lab Manual

3. A passive integrator circuit is energized by a square wave signal with peak-to-peak

Network Analysis Lab Manual

Figure 1: RC Series Network

Figure 2: Capacitor Charging

The discharge voltage for the capacitor is given by

Network Analysis Lab Manual

Figure 3: Discharging of Capacitor

Figure 4: Capacitor Charging

Network Analysis Lab Manual

Network Analysis Lab Manual

Graphs for Charging

Network Analysis Lab Manual

Graphs for Discharging