ENGLISH

GRAMMAR
UNIT 1: BASIC CONCEPTS
Module 3: Negation and Expansion

English Grammar - Unit 1

MODULE 3: NEGATION AND EXPANSION

THE FINITE OPERATOR
English language uses finite operators to form negative and
interrogative clause structures.
The operator is a verb of one of the following types:

primary (to be & to have)

modal (can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, ought)
the do operator

In the case of the lexical-auxiliaries based on the primary verbs be (be about to,
be sure to, be going to, etc) and have (have to, have got to), the primary verb
functions as a normal operator.

The semi-modals dare and need are used as modals in negative and interrogative
clauses.
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CLAUSAL NEGATION
Different ways of negating a clause:
1. By using a finite operator with the particle not
(is not, cannot, isnt, cant).
2. By using the particle not with a non-finite verb in a dependent
clause (not wishing to disturb them).
3. By using a non-verbal nuclear negative word
(nobody, nothing, no, never)
or not-negation + any
(I havent any money / I have no money).

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CLAUSAL NEGATION

Interrogative clauses
Interrogative clauses invert the operator with the subject:
Positive-interrogative
Is that man the Secretary?
Negative-interrogative
Isnt that man the Secretary?
There are two types of interrogative clauses:
1. The yes / no type, which asks for an answer in terms of yes or no
(as in Did he take the car?).
2. The wh-type, which asks for the information represented by the
wh-words what? who? where? and so on.
Exception for the subject-operator inversion:
when who functions as subject
Who loves Ed? vs. What does Ed do?
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ASSERTIVE VS. NON-ASSERTIVE WORDS

Standard English does not favor cumulative negation and once a
negative item is used, it is followed by one or more nonassertive items (any, ever, yet) throughout the rest of the
clause (Examples: I havent any money or I have no money).
ASSERTIVE VS. NON-ASSERTIVE WORDS
Assertive forms (some and its compounds, already, still, a lot)
have a factual meaning and typically occur in positive
declarative clauses (I have some money).
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ASSERTIVE VS. NON-ASSERTIVE WORDS

Non-assertive words are associated with non-factual meanings
in the sense of non-fulfillment or potentiality, which is a feature
of negative(1), interrogative(2), conditional(3) and comparative
clauses(4), and semi-negative words(5) such as without and
hardly, among others. Examples:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Negative > I dont have any money.

Interrogative, non factual > Did you say anything?
Conditional, non factual > If you want any more coffee, you must
make it yourself.
Comparative, non factual > This coffee is better than any I have ever
tasted.
Semi-negative words> Hardly anyone knew his name.
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ASSERTIVE VS. NON-ASSERTIVE WORDS

Summary of assertive and non-assertive items:

Determiners / pronouns

Adverbs

Assertive

Non-assertive

Some

Any

Someone

Anyone

Somebody

Anybody

Something

Anything

Somewhere

Anywhere

Sometimes

Ever

Already

Yet

Still

Any more /any longer

A lot

much

The use of assertive and non assertive words will be further developed in Unit 5.
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THE SCOPE OF NEGATION

By the scope of negation we refer to the semantic influence that a negative
word has on the rest of the clause that follows it.
When we use non-assertive words such as any, the scope of negation
extends to the end of the clause:
He didnt reply to any of my letters.
However, when an assertive word is used, it must be interpreted as
outside of the scope of negation:
He didnt reply to some of my letters (some of the letters received a
reply).
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THE SCOPE OF NEGATION

The scope of negation is closely related to the function of
Adjuncts. See in the following examples what happens when the
Adjunct clearly is situated in different parts of the clause:
She didnt explain the problem clearly. > Within the scope of negation
She clearly didnt explain the problem. > Outside the scope of negation

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LOCAL AND TRANSFERRED NEGATION

Groups, words and non-finite clauses can be negated by not, without the
entire finite clause being negated. Observe these three statements:
She was admitted into hospital not long ago.
Not realizing the danger, she walked in the dark towards the edge of
the cliff.
She would prefer not to go on a Mediterranean cruise for a holiday.

Transferred negation consists in displacing the negative element from its

logical place in the reported clause to negate the verb in the main clause:
I think she wasnt a Londoner > I dont think she was a Londoner

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EXPANDING LINGUISTIC UNITS: COORDINATION,

SUBORDINATION AND EMBEDDING
Some general concepts:

Sentence is the term traditionally used to denote the highest

grammatical unit on a scale of rank. However, in this subject we will use
the term CLAUSE to refer to an independent unit.

We use the term compound sentence for units of two or more

coordinated independent clauses (if necessary, see again Module 2 for
independent vs. dependent clauses).

Complex sentence refers to units containing dependent clauses or

dependent and conjoined clauses.
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EXPANDING LINGUISTIC UNITS: COORDINATION,

SUBORDINATION AND EMBEDDING
COORDINATION
Coordination is the linking of units of equal status carried out by the coordinating
conjunctions (and, but, or).
1. Morphemes in a word:
pro- and anti- abortists
2. Heads or nominal groups:
books, papers and magazines
3. Modifiers in a NG:
a more beautiful and astonishing sight
4. Modifiers in an AdjG:
He says he is really and truly sorry for that.
5. Adjuncts in a clause:
You can come now or in a months time.
6. Independent clauses:
She had breakfast and went out to work.
7. Dependent clauses:
I ll go when the course is over and if I pass
the exam.

If the various conjoined clauses share the same subject or operator, these are
regularly ellipted as in sentence 6 (She had breakfast and she went out).
Ellipsis similarly occurs in group structures as in sentence 3 (a more beautiful
and more astonishing sight).
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EXPANDING LINGUISTIC UNITS: COORDINATION, SUBORDINATION

AND EMBEDDING

SUBORDINATION AND EMBEDDING

It is not always easy to see the differences between Subordinated clauses and
Embedded clauses . Subordinated clauses are dependent clauses, but when
the subordinated clause functions as a constituent of another clause or group
(Subject, Object, Complement), it is said to be an Embedded clause.
Examples:
As soon as she got home, Ann switched on the television.
If we observe again this Circumstancial, we see that as any other
circumstancial adjunct, As soon as she got home can be syntactically
omitted. This would be a example of subordination.
I dont know why she left so abruptly.
But in this second example, since the dependent clause funcions as an Object,
it is synctactically necessary. Therefore it is an embedded clause.
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SUMMARY
In module 3 we have seen
1. THE FINITE OPERATOR
2. CLAUSAL NEGATION
3. ASSERTIVE VS. NON-ASSERTIVE WORDS
4. THE SCOPE OF NEGATION
5. LOCAL AND TRANSFERRED NEGATION
6. COORDINATION, SUBORDINATION AND
EMBEDDING

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