ISBN 0 0?

13qAlh 0

PRESTADOPOR 24 HO

BIBL IOTE C AC E N TR A L

PRESTADOPOR 24 HO

BIBLIOTECACENTRAL

OtheBooksby Larry Reirhmaier

MACH I andBeyond-The I usrrated
cuide to
High SpeedFlghr
AvtonandSpaceDiclionary
AircraftRepairManual
PrivatePilot'sCuide
Instrument
Pilot'sGuide

StandardAircraft
Handbookfor Mechanics
and Technicians
6th Edition

RelatedMccrsw-Hill AviatonTtes
Atanced Ainrofr S.tstetxr-Dvid A. Lombardo
Aircru"fSf stens-Dayid A. Lomoilroo
Airplute Maitenanc?(ntd Repir: A Manual lbr Oxnen.
Builders, Technicians.ar plos-Dougtas S. Crmody
KitpktteConstnrcb,t,SecondEdition-Ronald J. Wanrraia

EDITED BY LARRY REITHMAIER

$r!o)

EB
McGraw-Hlll
Botol
xd Yort s.n F.nc.co w..hhgron, o.c,
^ucrl.nd..
c.G..
u.bor Lodon M.drid M.rlcocry
lrolrr
N4 o.lhl sr Ju.f slc.po6
sydy Toryo lqoto

l,lbmry of Cons6

Callolrg.ln.PublctlonDe(

srnndrd aiEruft hadbmk lo rchoics lnd rdhnici.ns / ednedby

rjny R.ithmoir.irh.d

Contents

ISBN {tO7 1383-0

I AitlmFMinrcn!rc d rcDi-Hdb.ots. meuls,ec.
2 Airplres De\isnndcon\ruclion-HandbaksMuak.clc
I RehmrerL.w (Lr*Eme w ) ltc

TL 67r 2E 56941999
99-29590
ctP

McGraw-Hill
AD"hbn ol'D MeAw H aNti.5
Copyi8hlO 199, 199l, 1986,1980.1958.1952by Thc Mccaw-HillComponier,
lnc All righbEseFed Prinrcdin rhcUncl SlalesoiArrcricaExcep'!sFemn@d
underLheUniredSraksCoprrighrAcr r 1976,no pM olrhis ublicarionry bc rcFbduccd or disibtdin ny lom or by any mos, or rGd tn a drb be or Erricvalsyst.n. virho rhcpri rnrc Fmission ofrhc Fublisber
90

DOC/DOC O4

sBN 0{)?, |}rl {)

lorthis bok wdsshcllct Ingm Cr edni.Esup.diso
Thspdrsone.dtro
esAndEw Yod.r,andfic producrion
sup.disorwsPamelA Pckon tssst
in Tifts Romo by Lie M Mcllotrhrcu8hc sniccs of Sany E Brcwn
(Bmtcr-Eiine. Dsig nd Preduclion)
Printdd bourdby R R, Donn lly & sonsCopa6y.
McCs Hill b@ks&e avlille rrprcidlquanrnydioonrsto ue s pEnius
andsalesponodons,or fo. u IncAqurc lrining'rorEms Fo. d inrofmrion,plca. erne to e DircctofSpccialStrl.s.Mccmw-Hill.Polessiml Puts
lishing,T*o Pc.. Plq Ncw Ydk. NY l0 | 2 | -2298 Or conroctyour laol bmkloE

Acknowledgments
Preface
Intmduction

vltr
ix
I
3

LocalionNumberirgSysrems
Empennage
or TailAssembly

Tools and Their Pmper Usc

5
6

ShopEquipment

7
7
E
l4
20
25
21

Matrislsand Fabricting

33

AluninumandAlumnumAlloys
Chmcre.isrics
of AlminumAIloys

33
17
42
4J

Ceneral-PuTose
Hdrd T@ls
Metl{unineT@h
ljy@r and M.asirg Tools

FomingAluminunAlloys
Bla}jng
Bending

45
StlchForming

Tbk bok ispinl.d on rccyclcdlcid'lEc plpc conlininsa

mininu df 50* ycl.d dc.intcdfilr

Inlomion co.biftd in hn wort hs tdn obri.cd try The McCEw-Hill

Compdics.rc- ( McCBw-Hill ) lrom buEcs b.li.vcd ob. Eliablc-HoqrL n.nh.r Mccns.Hil M ns auhogarua dF uy d com
plereftssoft inrari@ publish.dhcrcnandrcirlEr Mccnw-Hill ror
isaum shllb. rcsp.riblerd anyc@N, omhsio.i.or dmag$ si.e
outofus of is inlomarionThis workn publishrdwnh dF undcBranding
ar Mccnw-Hll andis auh6 m supplyin8infdroton bur@ not ts
r.mprins o Endr engrains d dhcr p.ofcsional sryias If sucheryies
aE quid,rhashrnc.orM rppmritcprof.ssiql shouldbc eughr

Roll FominS
Fleble-D FomiDt
Machinng
Drillng
Tunet l-athesmd Scrcw Machines
MllirB
RourinB
ForBit
Casng
ChemiclMillig
Making Strithr Lin Brds

48
49
50
50
50
5l
5l
52
53

Standard Aircraft Handbook

MaeesiDndd Musnesum
Alloys
'tan'um andTilaniDAlloys
workingwith Titarum
FermusArrcEftMetah

Drilling and Countersnking

RiverHolekep.ao
Drillrg Opemdons
Shav'ntFlushHedFsLeners

Rivting

Contcnts
60
62
5
61
7l
77
11
E3
E8
94
95

ElectricalWrng and Installation

l0

r0l
Hand Ri!elinE

Blind Rivels
Pin (H''Shee) Rivers

Boltsand ThreadedFastnN
Close'TolerceBohs
ClasincadonoiThreads
InstallatioofNuLsandBolrs
CouerPinSaletying
Installaion.Bolts,Washers,
Nurs,nd CoucrPins
Miscellaneous
ThrcadedFastcner
s
Hi-Lok andHi Lok/Hi-TiqueFastenes
In \r J I I c r ' on
ot Hi Lo l J n dH i -1 ,.1 /H i .T i qF
u JL' re n e ,'

Aircraft Plumbing
PlumbigConrecrions
InstallineRigidTubinB

Control Cables
CableTensionAdjust'rerr

l t4
l t5
|7
It8
t25

137
I18
139
139
l 4l
t46
\17
I5I
t52
t53
t5
t5
t6l

169
l9
170
174
180

1t5
I85
rE 9
t92

wircGrcupsnd Bundle\
BondngandGounding

Aircraft Drawings

2tl

O.rhoeraphic
Prcjccrion

2lt
2t2
2t4
2t4
2t4
215
215

The Lineson DrwinB

RivetSymbolsUsedon Dr,win8s(Blucprinlt

99

ll

l2

Non-Destructve
Testing(NDT)
or Non-DestructiveInspection(NDI)
NDTBeyondvisurl
EddyCurem (ET) NDT
Ma8neroOpricEddy-CurenrmaSint

219
2t9
220
222
224

CorrosionDetctionand Control

229

DirectChcmcalAtlact
Ele.tochemicdlAuuck
lspectionReqnemenrs
(NOI)
Nondestruclive
Inspecrion
Corosion-Removal
Tcchiques
SurlaceDmdgeby Corosbn

l3

195
t95
I9E
201
207

TirleBlock
Othe.Da6

99

vii

StndardPartr
SrndardPal1
s Iderrillclrion
Srandard
Parts Illurra(ions
AddilionalSlandard
Pns(Prenrcd)

230
230
230
231
231
233
234
231
235
236
237

239
239
240
267

Appendix

279

Glossary

2t3

Index

289

Acknowledgments

Extensiveusewasmadeofdata,informatioD,
illustrations,
and
photographs
suppliedby:
LockheedCorporation
RockwellIntemational,
NAAO
Federa
AviationAdminstration
Hi.ShearCorporation
Snap-OnTools
L.S Slarrett
TheAlumnumAssociation
U.S.IndustrialTool& Supply
Lufkin Rule
Townsend
Textron(Boots,ChenJ fasteners)
Aeroquip
CenturionNDT Inc.
PRI Research
andDevelopment
Corp.
LPSLaboratories
Inc.
Panssupplers
catalogs

Preface
The StandardAircraft Handbookfor Methanicsantl Technicirrris presented
in shoptermsfor the mechanics
and tech_
ncans
engaged
n building,maintaining,
overheuling,
and
repairingall-melal aircraft.Il is also usefulfor the student
mechanic,
who mustacqure
thebasicmechanical
skillsfundamentalto everytechnicalspecialty.
Athoughthishadbookis'lool-box size,"ir is a relarively
copleteguideto all basicshoppractices.suchas the useof
b\clools,drilling,riveting,sheet-metl
forming,useof thrcaded
fastenersand installarionof plumbing,cablesand elecrical
winng. Additionalpracticalinformatonis presented
on aerospacenalerialsandstandard
pafs, Chapters
onnon_qestrucuve
lestrng(NDT) and corrosiondetectionand conrol providea
guideto advanced
technologyinspectionanddetectionequipment.techniques.
andprocedures,
The informarionpresenled
in rhishandbookwas obtaned
from techniques
andprocedures
developed
by vaiousarcmft
and equipmentmanufacturers
and are in generalcompliance
with manufacturing
speificatons.
This handbookis not intendedto replace,substiture
for, or
supersede
any FAA regulations,
shopad quality_control
srandardsof an aircraftmanufacturer,
repairstation,or the manufacturer'smarntenance
manuals.

CRAFTSMANSHIP
Thereis no substitute
for craftsmanshipl
Regrdless
of the
amountof engineering,
planing,or designthatmightgo into
rnaircmft,the ultimatequalily of that arcraftdependsupon
thoscwho buldandmaintaint.

Introduction

Many aircraft configurationshave been built, such as flying

wing, tailless,canard,andbiplane,however,the basicaiplane
configuation consistsof a monoplanewith a fuselagead tail
assembly.
SeeFigs.l-l and 1-2.

Fig. l-1. Majot codponentt oJa pbto|-e|gine-powercl tight aplane-

Intrcduction

StandardAircraft Handbook

Indesigninganaircraft,everysquareinchofwint andfuselage,everyrib, spar.andeachmetalfitringmustbeconsidered

in relationto thephysicalcharacteristcs
of the metalof which
it is made.Everypartof the aircraftmustbe plannedto carry
theloadto beimposeduponit. Thedetermination
of suchloads
is calledrtr.er.r
dnI}Jir.Althoughplanningthedesignis notthe
functionof theaationmechanic,
it is, nevertheless
important
thatheunderstand
andappreciate
thestresses
involvedrnorder
to avoidchangesin the originaldesignthroughimproperrepairsor poorworkmanship.

FUSELAGESTRUCTURE

v.dl.cl

shbllrbr - Fn

2l

Fig,l-2.

P*.

Plt & N.116

(singleshell)fuseage
The monocoque
reiesargelyon the
strengthof th skin or coveringto carrythe primarystresses.
Most aircraft,however,usethe semimonocoque
designinas
much as the monocoquetype doesnot easilyaccommodate
loadpoints,suchaslndinggearfrttings,powerconcenrrated
plantattachment.
wing fittngs,etc.
(Fig. l-3) is construced
prifuselge
The semimonocoque
marilyof aluminumalloy,although
steelandttaniumarcusedin
areasof high tempemtures
and/orhigh stress.Primaryloadsare
takenby the longerons,which usuallyextendacrossseveml
pointsof supportThelongerons
aresupplemented
by otherlongitudmalmembers,
called.itrirgr Stringers
aremorcnumerous

MaJ.t co,hport\ oo tutbtlorerc.l t ti r

are,or havebeen,used,
methods
Althoughotherconstuction
andplastics,
thebasuchaswood,fabric.steeltube,composites,
with steel
sic all-metalluminumalloy structurepredominates
locations
or high-temperaure
and./or
titaniunin hrgh-stress
laious pafs
comPosed
of
are
The arframecomponents
ribs,formlongerons,
c^lledslruclwalne,nbe,ir(i.e.,stringers,
arcjoinedby riv
andskins Thesecomponents
ers,bulkheads,
are
ets,bolts,screws,andweldingAircraftstructuralmembers
of
A
single
member
designedto carrya loador to resiststress.
ofstresses.
1()a combinanon
couldbesubjected
thestrucrure

FiE l-J. T|pi.altrtselose

sttrcfitk

SbndsrdAiftrafi Handbook

lntroduction

andusuallyactasstiffenandlighterin weightthanlongerons
ers,The verticalstructuralmembersare refeed to as blkheads,frames, andformers. The heaviestof thesevertical
loads
membersare locatedat intervalsto carfy concentrated
andat pointswherefittingsareusedto attachoer units,such
as thewings,powerplants,
ad stabilizeIs.

With sucha system,e stabilizerframescanbedesignated

as
beingso manyinchesrightor left of theaircraftcenterline

LOCATIONNUMBERINGSYSTEMS
Variousnumberingsystemsae usedto facilitate the location of specificwing frames,fuselagebulkleads,or anyother
stfuctural memberson an aircraft. Most manufacturersuse
somesysteof statioomarking;for example,the noseof the
zerostation,and all otherstations
aircraftmay be designated
in inchesbehindthezerostaarelocatedat measured
distances
rion.Thus,whena blueprintreads"fuselage
framestationI 37,"
paticula
that
framestationcanbe located137inchesbehind
the noseof the aircraft. However,the zero stationmay not be
thenoseof ihefuselage,
asin Fig. 1.4.

ssRes
c

$ R9BF

F c

a
4

EA

n
c

1 . Fuselage
stations(F.S.)arc numbeedin inchesfrom a
referenceor zeropoint kow asthereferencedatum T1le
eferencedatumis an imaginaryverticalplaneat or near
thenoseof theaircaftfrom which all horizontaldisrances
Thedistance
aremeasued.
to a givenpointis measured
in
inchesparallelto a centerline extendingthroughtheaircraft from thenosethroughthecenterof the tail cone.
2 . Buttockline or butt line (B.L.) is a width measurement
left or right of, ard parallel to, the venical centerline.
3. Waterline (W:L.) is the measementof heightin inches
perpendicular
from a horizontalplanelocateda fixed number of inchesbelow thebottomof theaircraftfusolaee.
Chapter10,Aicraft Drawings,providesadditionalinformation regarding aircraft drawings generalyrefened to as
blueprints.

WING STRUCTURE

F S

!a
ta

il
ft

FiE t-4. Ttpi.alftvins shotsiaeJus.lase ains. me noseoJth

airplanetu! not n.sdri\ be stotionzerc Riret.Iushneilrequire'
nens out.tbe speciedfot eoch2one

To locarestrucrures
to therigh! or left of the centerline of
an aircmft, many manufacturersconsiderthe center line as a
zem stationfor structumlmemberlocationto its right or left.

The wingsof mostaircraftareof cantileverdesign;thatis,

they are built so that no extemalbracing is neededThe skin is
part of the wing structuread carriespaIt of the wing stresses.
(stsuts)
Otheraircraftwingsuseexternal
bracings
to assistin suppodng the wing and carrying e aerodynamicand lading
loads.Aluminumalloy is primailyusedin wing construction.
The intemal structureis madeup of sparsand stingersrunning
spanwise,ad ribs andformersrunningchordwise(leadingedge
o traiingedge).SeFig. l-5. The sparsaretheprincipalstructuml membersof the wing. The skin is attachedto e intemal
membersand can carry part of the wing stresses.
During fllght,
appliedloads,which are imposedon the wing structure,areprimarily on the skin.Fromthe ski, they aretasmiftedto theribs
and from the ribs to the spars.The sparssupportall distributed
knds,aswell asconcentrated
weights,suchasfuselaSe,
landn8
and.
on multi-engine
aircmft,thenacelles
orpylons.
8cJf.

St{ndard Aircraft Hondbook

Toolsand
How to UseThem
Eig.l-5.

A -rrlaltnnklt

ith thcni.allr illel chakrls

Variouspointson lhe wing ae locatedby stationnumber

Wing station0 (zero)is locatedat thecenterline of the fuselage,ad all wing stationsare measured
outboardfrom rhar
point,in inches

EMPENNAGEOR TAIL ASSEMBLY

Thefixedandmovablesurfaces
ofthe typicalrail assembly
(Fig. l-6) areconstnicted
smilarlylo rhewing.Echsuuctural
memberabsorbs
someofthe stressandpasses
theremainder
lo
othermembers
and,eventually,
lo lhe fuselage.
VERNCAL
SIABILIZEN

STRIT{OER

SAFETYCONSIDERATIONS
work on an aitcraft,personalsafetymust
Beforecommencing
becomehabit.Puttingon safetyglasses
musrbeasmuchapat
of theactofdrilhng a holeaspickingup thedril motor
The responsibilityfor this alttudelis with th mechanic,
goesfunher A mechanics faily needs
but this responsibility
him whole,with botheyesintacl.bothhandswith all fingersintacl,andaboveall, in goodhealth.
Safetyglasses
or faceshieldsmustbewom durngall ofrhe
followingoperations:
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Drilling
Reaming
Countersinking
Driving rivers
Buckingrivets
Operatingrivet squeezer
Operatinganypowertool
Nearflyingchipsor aroundmovingmachnery

Ear plugsshouldbe usedas protectionagainstrhe harsh

noissof the ivet gun andgeneralfactorydin. If highernoise
levelslhan the rivet gun areexperienced,
a fulfear-coverage
earmuffshouldbe usedbecaus
it is a highlysound-absorbent
Fig.l-6.

T\pil v n.al iabili.et n nktr stndurc

Standard
AircaftHandbook

Tools and How to UsThem

For peoplewith longhai,a snoodtypecapthatkeepsthehair

fromentaglingwith tumingdills shouldbewom.Shirtsleeves
shouldbeshoftandlongsleeves
shouldbeolledupatleastto e
elbow Closed{oe,low-heelshoesshouldbe wom. Opentoed
shos,
sandals,
balletslippers,
moccasins,
andcvas{ypeshoes
for feetandshouldnotbewomin the
offerlittleor noprotechon
shopor factory Safetyshoesarerecommended
air shouldnot be used to cleanclothesor
Compressed
equrpment,

mer shouldbe usedto stnke hrdenedsteel.Ifa soft hammeris

not available,a piece of copper,brass,fiber, or wood material
should be placed on the hardenedsteel ad struck with the
hammer,not the hardenedsteel

GENERAL-PURPOSEHAND TOOLS
Hammers
Hammersincludeball peenand soft hammers(Fig. 2 l)
Theball-peen
hammeris usedwith apunch,with a chisel,or as
a peening(bending,indenting,or cutiing)tool-Wherethereis
dangerof scratching
or maningthe work, a soft hamner(tbr
with
example,brss,plastic,or rubber)is usedMostaccidents
hammersoccurwhen the hammerhead
loosens.The hammer
bandlemustfit the headtightly.A sweatypalm or an oily or
greasyhandlemight let thebammerslip Oil or greaseon the
hammerface might causethe headto slip off the work and
causea painfulbruiseStrikinga hardened
steelsurfacesharply
with a ball peenhammeris a safetyhazard Smallpiecesof
sharp,hardenedsteelmight breakfrom the hammerand also
breakfromthehardened
steelTheresultmightbeaneyeinjury
ordamageto theworkor thehammer.Anappropriate
soflham-

FiE.2-1.

Ball-pan md \Jt-u

hnnot

Screwdrivers
\crew.
i. roolfor drivingor removing
Thescreudrirer
include
thecommon.
cros\poinl.
Frequentl)
usedscrewdrivers
bitsthataedeandoffset Also in useaevariousscrewdriver
signedto fit screwswith speciaheads.Thesespecialscrcwdriversarecoveredin Chapter6.
A commonscrewdrivemustfill at least75 percentof the
is thewrongsrze,it will
screwslot(Fig.2-2) lf thescrewdriver
A screwdnver
slot,
making
it
worthless,
cut andburr thescrew
with a wrong sizeof blademight slip and damageadjacent
partsof the structuresThe commonscrewdriver
is usedonly
areusedon aircraft,
whereslottedheadscrewsor fasteners

RIGHf

lig 2-2. Scftv.LiNrc an.l theiruses.

St{ndardAircraflHandbook

l0

ToolsandHow10UsThm

headscrewsarethePhillipsand
Thetwo commonrecessed
theReedandPrince.As shownin Fig. 2-2,theReedandPrince
usedwith
headformsa perfectcross,Thescrewdriver
recessed
Phillips
screw
has
the
thisscrewis pointedon theend.Because
is
a sightlylargercenterin the cross,the Phillipsscrewdriver
nol interchangeable
bluntontheend.ThePhillipsscrewdriveris
with theReedandPnnce.Theuseof lhe wrongtypeof screw_
ddver resultsin mutilatonof the screwdriverand the scew.
shouldnotbeusedfor chiselingor prying.
head.A screwdriver

11

dikesareusedto performsuchwork ascuttingsafetywire and

pliers,which haveextraremovingcotterpins. Water-pump
longhandles,
areusedto obtaina verypowerfulgrip.Vise-grip
piers(sometimes
referedto avisc-gripwtenr)havemany
^s work asa portablevise,to reuses.Examples
areto hold small
movebrokenstuds,andto pull cotterpins
tool,Theyarenot to beusedas
Pliersarenotanall-purpose
a wrenchfor tighteninga nut, for example.Tighteninga nut
with plierscauses
damageto boththenut andtheplierjaw serAlso,pliersshouldnot beusedasa prybaror asa hamratrons.
mer

Pliers
The moslfrequentlyusedpliersin aircraftrepairwork inwater-pump,
clude the slip-jon,longnose,diagonal-cutling,
andvise-griptypesasshownrn Fig. 2-3.Theszeof pliersindicatestheiroveralllength,usuallyrangingfrom5 to l2 inches
I repairwork,6-inch,slip-jointpliersarethepreferedsize.

SL IP - J O I NT P L IT R S

w^ rE F-P UtaP P Lt t n S

Punches
Punches
areusedto stalholesfordrilling;to punchholesin
sheetmetal;lo removedamagedrivets,pins,or bolts;ad to
align two or morepans for boltinglogetherA punchwith a
mushroomed
headshouldneverbe used.Flying piecesmight
usedby theaircraftmechanic
causean injury.Typicalpunches
areshownn Fit. 2-4.

{D
Cqd

LOtGTOS PLrf.RS

VIS [-G R IP

9c[

Pt pBh

P L II FS

Altbs FGI'

DI A GOf{ A L -C U IIII{ G

P L IIIS

Fis,2-3. TrpesoI plr!

Slip joint pliersare usedto grip flat or roundstockand to

plers
Long-nose
bendsmallpiecesof metalto desrredshapes.
are usedto reachwherethe fingersalonecannotand to bend
pliersor diagonalsor
smallpiecesof metal.Diagonal-cutting

FiA. 2-4. T-tpi.a I ?rnchs.

Wrenches
wrenchesare tools usedto tightenor removenuts andbolts.
The wrenchesthat are most often used are shown in Fig 2-5:
oplrn-end,box-end,adjustable,socket,andAllen wrenches All
h ve special advantagesThe good mechanic will choose the

Slndard Airrft Httrdbook

t2

F-4
coraf^rrc

|ilxcH

r----

S==.-=--g#

r\Jrry
ftg
l*r".Tl

Toolsrnd How to UseThe

l3

Proper rorquingof nurs and bols is impofant. Overtorquingor undetorquing

mighl set up a ha;ardous
condition. Specillcdtorquevaluesand procedures
shouldalways
be observed.
TorqueWrenches
The threetnoslcommonlyusedtorquewrenchesre the
flexblebeam.rigid, andralcherrypes(Fig 2-6).Whenusing
lheflexible-bcam
nd rigid-frametorquewrenches,
the torque
valueis readvisuallyon a dial or scalemountedon thehandle
of the wrench.To ensurethai the amountof toroueon the fastenersis coect, all torquewrenchesmust be ie\led at easl
onceper month(or moreoften,if necessary),

so.tr

(rbiGd
FiA. 2-5. Wrcchsdn fuk.6

onebestsuitedfor rhejob at haDd.Socketsare usedwith the

b s
varioushandles(ralchel,hinge,andspeed)ndextensron
bascomein variouslengths
areshownin Fig. 2-5.Extension
Theratchethandleand speedwrenchcanbe usedin conjunc
typescrewdriver
bitsto
andvanor'ts
tion with suitableadaDters
quickly install or removesPcialyp screws.Howevr,rf
scre\lsmust be torquedto a specifictorquevalue,a torque
shotrldbeusedonly
wrenches
wrenchmustbeused.Adjustable
prevent
roundingoff the
To
whenother wrenchesdo not fit.
comersofa nut.properlyadjustthewrench.Thewrenchshould
alwaysbe pulled so thal lhe handlemovestoward the ad_
justablejawAwrenchshouldalwaysbe
Pulledll is dangerous
used
lo increasewrench
be
to pushon it. A pipe shouldnot
Doing so mighl breakthe wrenchA wrenchshould
leverage.
neverbeusedasa hammer

aEAr

OIDFnAME t/l TCITEY

FiC, 2-6. 7 h'\'.. nnn,t

d k)ryrc Mk h6
^pcs

Thestandardtorquelablepresented
in Chapter6 shouldbe
usedas a guide in tighteningnuts,studs,bohs.and screws
wheneverspecifictorquevaluesarc not caledout in maintenanceprocedures

l4

Standard Aircraft Handbook

METAL.CUTTINGTOOLS
HandSnips

cuve The othetypesareusedto cut the insideof cuvesor

radii.Snipsshouldneverbeusedto cut heavyshermetal.

ToolsandHowto UseThem

15

snipsareavailablein two types,thosethatcutfrom rightto lef!

andthosethatcut from left to right.

Hacksaws

mountedwith theteethpointingforward,awayfrom thehandle.

Eig, 2-a. P isal -ehp hacksa||

Fig.2-7. Voriour

.,J snips
^Jpes

Tools and IIow to UseThem

Standard Aircraft Handbook

t1

170'

Thepitchof a bladeindicatesthenumberof tethperinch.

Pitchesof 14, 18,24,and 32 teethper inch arc available.See
FiE.2-9.

Fig.2-10.Cels.
Flg,2-9. T!"picalrsesorrnous pith h.ktr bldes.

Chisels
A chiselis a hrdsteelcuttingtool thatcanbe usedto cut
andchipanymetalsofterthanthechiselitself.lt canbeusedin
rivets,orsplitting
restricted
areasandforsuchworkasshearing
seizedor damaged
nutsfrom bolts(Fig.2-10).
The sizeof a flaI cold chiselis determined
by the width of
the curtingedge.Lengthswill vary, but chiselsare seldom
fewerthan5 inchesor mo.ethan8 incheslong.
A chiselshouldbe heldfirmly in onehand Wththe other
with a ball-peen
hand,thechiselheadshouldbestrucksquarely
hammet,
Whencuttingsquaecorne(sor slots,a specialcold chisel,
calleda capechisel,should
beused.It rslike a flal chisel,except
thatthecuttingedgeis very narrow.It hasthesamecuttingangleandis heldandusedin thesamemannerasanyotherchisel.
groovesandcomersthathavefilRoundedor semicircular
lets shouldbe cut with a roundnose
chisel.This chiselis also

used to recentera drill that has moved away from ils intended
cenlea
The diamond-point chisel is taperedsquareat the cutting
end, then ground at an angle to provide the sharp diamond
point. It is used to cut or for cutting groovesand inside sharp
angles.

Files
Filesaresedto squreends,file roundedcorners,remove
burrs and slivers from metal,straightenunevenedges,file
holesand slots,and smoothroughedges.Commonfiles are
shownin Fig.2-11.
Files are usuallymadein two styles:singlecut and double cut The single-cutfile has a singlerow of teethexteding acrossthe face at an angleof 65 degreesto 85 degrees
with thelengthof thefile. Thesizeofthe cutsdependson the
coarseness
of the file. The double-cutfile has two rows of
teeththatcrosseachother For generalwork, theangleof the

IE

StandardAiltroft Handbook

Tootsand How lo UsThem

Hrnd - laper width,

parall
thickOss.

f:1-_-i

M,i,i- raperwidth.
para gtthicknss.

l rf -ir--.---iil--'---

Prifrr
- taperthtcknss,
parall
widtn.

l E'tt7-::t,-':l----

Wadhg- muchtapsrwdth,
parallellhickness

r-r:----i-1_

The following melhodsarc recomrhendedfor using

files:

aa

lengle- lerEj

L_:-'--::..--:-..-

Knile - taor.
Y,xer. peratletedgs
andsides

| ff:.:r,.t:-:-

I(((ffiKffiffift(((((ffi(=
br rghg

Cunhgngr.

br fnbhhg

Fia,2-rr. Dicrcdrtte!.Dep,
crneistc.. tu,thf t.,r(h)\u )haw
Pn^'enDnsttuslacro^fot ftins aruit@

fisl row is 40 degreesro 45 degees.

The first row is genealy referredto as overcut;the secondrow is called
p.
cur. The upcutis somewhatfiner and nol so deep as
the

t9

20

StandardAircraff Handbook

Toolsand How to UseThem

2l

Paficles of metal collect between the teeth of a file nd

migh( make deep scratche\in c material being filed. When
theseparliclsof melal dre lodgedtoo fifmly betweenthe teerh
and cannol be removedby tappingthe edgeof lhe file, remove
them with a file card or wire brush. Draw the brushacrossthe
file so rhat the bristlespassdown the gullet betweenthe teeth

Drilling and Countersinking

in Chapter
4
techniques
arecovered
DllingadcoDntersinking

Reamers
arecoveredin Chapter4
Reames
andreamingtechnique

LAYOUT AND MEASURING TOOLS

Layoutandmeasuring
devicesareprecisiontools Theyare
carefullymachned,accuratelymffked, and, in many cases,
consistofvery delicalepals. when usingthesetools,be carewill
ful notto drop,bend,or scratchthem Thefinishedproduct
or
the
layout;
no
more
accurate
lhan
lhe
fieasurements
b
how to read,use,
lt is very importantto understand
therefore,
andcarefor thesetools,

Fie.2-12. Steel tules arc avktbl l1t ttiq^

CouresyLS Staftl Company

ten-thousandths
ofan inch),or morecommonly,
twevendone(seedecimalequivalents
halfthousandths
chaton page308).
RulesaremanufactDred
with two presentations:
dividedor
markedin commonfractions;dividedor markedin decimalsor
dlvisionsof0.01".A rulecanbeusedeitherasa measuing
tool
or asa straightedge

Combination Sets
The combintionset(Fig 2-13),as its nameimplies,is a
tool with severaluses,It canbe usedfor the samepurposes
as

Rules
Rulesremadeof steelandareeitherigid or flexible.The
flexiblesteelrule will bend,bul it shouldnotbebentintention
it couldbebrokenrathereasily(Fig.2-12).
ally because
mostcommonlyusedis
ln aircraftwork,theunil of measure
intosmallerparts
by meansofeirheinch Theinchis separared
The
thercommonor decimalfractiondivisions. fractionaldivi
sionsfor anincharefoundby dvidingtheinchintoequalpms:
(26),thirty sechalves(l), quarers(Z), eghths(X), sixteenths
onds(X:),andsixty-foulhs(). Thefractionsofan inchcanbe
in decimals
calleddecimalequivalents
ofn inch.For
expressed
(one
as 0 0125
hundredtwenlyjive
example,X" is expressed

terg f.

FiA.2-13. A conbination lel

CouresyLS Sraftr Copany

22

StandardAlrrroft Hsndbook

Toolsand How to UseThern

anordinry tisquare,but it difreE from the trisqusrein rharthe

hcdslidesalong the bladc and can b clapcd at ry desird
place.Combinedwith the squEor stockhead a level aud
sciber The head slides in a cental goove on the blade or
scale,which can be usedsparatelysa rule.
The spirit level in the stock head makes t convenientto
squirea pieceof marerialwilh a srfaceand,at the sametie,
know whetheroneo theotheris plub or level.Theheadcan
be usedaloneas a simple level.
The combinaonof squaEheadand bladecan also b usd
8s a making gauge(to scribear a 45-degreeanglc),as a dpth
gauge,or as a heighrgauge.

Scriber
Thescriber(Fig.2-14)is usedro scribeor maklineson
met.|surfaces.

Fl3.2-14- S.riber

FlgLlS.
Tlpict outsideand id calipcrs.
Courdy L,S,SrR Cmpy

The G to l-inch outsidemicromlc. (Fig. 2-16) is usdby

the chanic morEofien tha ay orhertype. It cDbc usedto
measurethe outside dirDnsionsof shafts, thickess of slF.t
merIstock,diameteof dills, andfor malyotherapplications.

Diders and Callpers

Dividers haverwo legstapercdto a needlepoint andjoined
at the tip by a pivot, They areusedto scribecirclsandto trEnsfer messucmnts
ftom the rule to the work.
Clipersae usedto reasu diametersad distarceso to
compae distancesatrd sizes. The most common types of
ca.lipe$aetheinsideandtheoutsdecalipes(SccFig. 2-15),
Mlcrcmcicr Cslipers
Four micrometercalipersare each designedfor a specific
use:outside,insid, dep. ad thrad. Micrometersarc availblein a v'iety of sizes,eier 0- !o ,frch, G. to I -inch, I - to
2-inch,2- to 3-inch,3- to 4nch, 4- to s-inch,or 5- to Ginch
sizes,Lagersizesaeavailable,

I|Vz-l.
On..ih outsitlictu..
Cdn6y LS SldCoDdry

The smallest meiurementthat cal be made with a stel

auleisonesixty-fou ofan inchin conrnonfractions,andone
one-hun&dth of an irch in decimal fractions. To measure
moecloselythanis (in thousandths
andten-thousandths
of

24

Tools and How to UseThem

StandardAircraft Handbook

an inch),a micrometer
is used.If a dimensiongivenin a common ffactioris to be measured
with the micrometer,
the faction mustbeconvetedfo its decimalequivalent.
Readnga rnicrorneterBecause
the pichof thescre\rthread
on the spindleis /-" (or 40 tkeads pr inch in micrometers
graduted
1()measure
in inches),onecompleterevolutionof the
thimbleadvancesthe spindlefaceto\.vardor away from the
anvil facepreciselyj/4",0025 inch.
Thereadinglineon thesleeveis dividedinto40 equalparts
by verticallinesthatcorespond
to thenumberof threads
on the
spindle.Theefore,eachvenical lne designates
or
';' 0 025
inch,andeveryfourthline,whichis longerthntheothers,designateshundreds
ofthousandthsForexamplertheline marked
"l " represents
0.200
0.100inch,thelinemarked"2" represents
inch,andtheinemrked"3" represenrs
0.300inch,etc
The bevelededgeof the thimbleis dvidedinto 25 equal
pals with eachline representing
0.001 inch and every line
numberedconsecutively.
Rotalingthe thimble from one of
theselines to the next movesth spndlelongitudinallyI of
0.025 inch, or 0001 inch; rotatingtwo divisionsrepresents
0.002inch,etc.Twenty-fivedivisionsrndicte completerevolution,0.025"or l/a,of aninch.
To readthemicrometer
inthoDsndths,
multiplythenumber
of verticaldivisionsvisibleo thesleeveby 0 025 inch;to this
add,the nulnberof thousandths
indicatedby the line on the
thimblethatcoincideswith thereadingIineon thesleeve.
Example:Referto Fig. 2-l7
The "1" lineon thesleeveis visible,representing
0 100".
Threeadditionallinesarevisible.eachrepresenting
0.025"

Rig.2-17. Reoittqa rtkbtttr

5|.tEVr

rrora ta'

TAPSAND DIES
A tapis usedto cut threadson theinsideof a holeanda die
is to cut extemalthreadson roundstock.Tapsand dies re
steelandgroundto anexaclsize Four
madeof hard{empered
tapsanddies:nationlcoarse,
threadscanbe cut with standard
nationalfine,nalionalextrafine,andnationalpipe.
Handtapsareusuallyprovidedin setsofthreelapsfor each
diameterand threadseries.Eachsetcontainsa tapr,a Plug,
anda bottomingap The tpsin a setaredenticalin diameler
and crosssection;the only differenceis the anount of taper
(Fis.2-18)

Fie.2-la. Hon.l'dta.

3 x 0 025"= 0.075"
Line3 on thethimblecoincideswith thereadingllne on the
sleeve,eachline representing
0 001".
3x0.001"=0.003"
Themicrometer
readingis 0 17E".

it
Thetapertapis usedto beginthetappingprocessbecause
a
comthreads.
This
tp
cuts
back
for
six
to
seven
is tapered
pletethreadwhenit is neededto tapholesthatextendthrough
the tapertap tor tapThe plug tap supplements
thin sections.
pingholesin thick stock.

26

StandardAircraft Handbook

The bottomingtap is nol tapered It is used to cut full

threadsto thc bottomofa blindhole.
Dies cn be classifiedas adjustableroundsplil and plain
roundsplit(Fig.2-19).Theadjustabe-split
diehasanadjusting
screwtht can be conlrolled.Solid dies are not adiustable:
thereibre.severalrhredfits cannotbecut.

Toolsand How to usc Them

27

SHOPEQUIPMENT
Only rhe simplemetalworkingmachlnes,
suchas usedin
the servicefield, ae pesented
in this manual.Thesernclude
thepowerednd nonpowered
metal-cutting
machines,
suchas
powered
the varioustypesof saws,
and nonpowered
shears,
(bothpowerandnibblcrsAlsoincludedis fbrmingequipment
drivenandnoDpowered),
suchs brakesandformingrolls,the
bar 1blder,and shrinkingnd stretchingmuchinesFactory
equipment,such as hydropresses,
drop forge machines,and
sparmills,
for example,arenotdescribed.

Holding Deyices
FlC.2-19. Die ?!l

Many wrenchesturn tapsnd dies:T-handle,adjustable

tap,anddiestockfor roundsplirdies(Fig.2-20)arecommon
lnformationon threadsizes,firs, types,and the like, is in
Chapter6

Vjsesandclampsareusedto holdmate.ialsofvariouskinds
on whichsomctypeofoperationis beingperfomed.
Theoperationandthematerialthatis helddetermines
whichholdingdevlceis usedA typicalviseis shownin Fig 2-21.

lig.2-21. A nnchittesriv

T A PW i EX C H S

SquaringShears
Sqaringshearsprovidea convenient
meansof cullingand
squaringmetal.Threedistincrlydiff-erent
operations
canbeperformedon the squaingshears;
. cuttingto line
. sqanng
. multiplecuttingto a specificsize
Fg.2-20. D,r.rtr,/,/'zx.r.

A squring
shearis shownin chapter
3

Standrd Aircraft Handbook

Toolsand How to useThem

Th()rrltcssshears(Fig 2_22).lre best used to cut 10-8auge

steel The
mild carbonsteelsheetmetaland l2-8au8esitinless
shear gcls ils narne from its construction. it aclly has no
throl. lt has no obslructionsduring cutting becausethe liirme
is rhorrtcssA sheetol any len8lhcnbe cul.ndthemetalcan
be turnedin any dectionto cul ilregularshaPesThe cuttlng
blade (top blade) is operaledby a hand lever

Fig. 2-22. Thtuat. I nia^

FIE 2-2!. tt'lwll! otnlhtt lt'tl

Bar Folder
The bar folder (Fig 2-23) is desiSnedto makebendsor
folds alongedgesof sheelsThis machineis best suiledfbr
foldrng small hems.tlanges,sems.and edBeslo be wrred
havca capacityli)r netal plo 22grugethlck_
Mostb r tblalers
nessrnd :12incheslon8-

Sheet-MetalBrak
The sheet-meulbrake (Fi8 2-24) hasa much greaterrnge
of usefulnessthiln thc bar folder Any bend fbrmed on 'l bll
foldercan b madeon the sheFDlelalbrale- The bfffoldercan
form a bendor edgeonly as wide as the depthof lhejaws ln
conrprison,the sheel-metalbrake allows the \heet lhat is lo bc
folded or forntcd rc pass throuBhthe jaws fiom fronl to rear
without obstuclion

fig'.2-U.

sh.4

.kll hrdLr

29

StandardAlrcruft Handbook

30

Toolsand How to UsThem

3l

Slip Roll Former

The \lip roll former(Fi8. 2-25)rs manuallyopratedand
base.anda handleThe
consists
of lhreerolls.lwo housings.
handletumsthe two front rolls througha systemof gearsen
closedin lhe housing.By properlyadjustingtherollerspacing.
melalcilnbe formedinlo curve,
FiA.2-26.BPLh
slirl?

[iA.2-8.

Slip
^

t,nw.

Grinders
A grinderis a cuttin8toolwith d largenumberof cutting
edgesarangedso that whentheybecomedull lhey bfeakoff
andnewcuttingedgeslakethcir place
used
Siliconcarbideandaluminumoxidearetheabrasives
rn mosrgrindngwheels.Siliconcarbdeis hecuttrngagentto
grindhard,brittlematerial.suchs cstiron h is alsousedto
grindaluminum,
brass,
bronze,
nd copperAluminumoxideis
thecuttingagentto grindsteelirndothermetalsof hightensile
strenStn.
particlesLlsed
in Snndingwheelsis
Thesizeof theabrasive
indicatedby a numbrthar coresponds1()the numberof
meshesper linearinch in the screen.throughwhichthe panlcleswll pass.As anexample.a #30 abrasivewrll passthrough
a screenwith 30 holesper linearinch,but wll trerelainedby a
smallerscreen.with morethan30 holesperlinearinchA commonbenchgrinder,fbund in most metalworkrng
shops,is shownin Fig. 2'26.This grindercanbe usedto dress

mushroomedheads on chisels, and points on chisels, screwdrivers, and drils, It can be used to removeexcessmetal from
work and to smooth metal surfces.
As a rule, it is not good practiceto grind work on the side of
an abrasivewheel, when an abrsivewheel becomeswom. lts
cuttlng efciency is reducedbecauscol- a decreasein surface
speed.when a wheelbcomeswom in this manner.ir shouldbe
discardedand a new one installed.
Before usinga benchgrinder,the bras;vewheelsshouldbe
checkedto be surethat they arc linj)ly hcld on the spindlesby
the flange nuts. IfaI abrasivcwhccl flie\ off or becomesIoose,
it could seriouslyinjure the operutor.in addition to ruining the
gnndef,
Another hazardis loose tool resls,A loos tool rest could
casethe tool or pieceofwork lo bc "grabbed"by the abrasive
wheelandcausethe opertor's hnd locome in contactwth the
wheel
Goggles should always be worn when using a grinder
even if eye shieldsare attachedk) it Cogglesshould fit tlrmly
againstyour faceand nose.This s the only way to protectyour
eyes from the fine piecesofstecl.
The abrasivewheelshould bc checkedforcracks beforeusng the grinder.A crackedabrasivewheel is likely to fly apan
when tuming at high speeds A grinder should never be used
unlessil is equippedwith wheel guards

3
Materials
and Fabricating
Many differentmaterialsgo into the manufacture
of an aerospacevehicle.Someof$ese mate.ialsae:
.
.
.
.

AluminumandAluminumalloys
TitaniumandTitaniumalloys
Magnesium
andMagnesium
alloys
SteelandSteelAlloys

ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOYS

Aluminumis oneofthe mostwidelyusedmetalsin modem
aircraftconstrLrction.
I( is ligbt weghl,yet someof its alloys
greaterthonthatof stfucturalsteel.It hashigh
havestrengths
resislaceto corrosionunderthemajorityof serviceconditions.
Themetalcaneasilybe workedinto anyformandit readilyacceptsa widevarietyofsurfacefinishes.
Beingightweightis perhaps
aluminum'sbst-known
charp.
acleristic.The metalweigbsonly abou(0.1 f,ound
cubic
inch,ascomparcdwith 0.28for iron.
purealuminumhasa tensilestrength
Cornmercally
ofabout
13,000poundspesquareinch.Its usefulness
asa structural
marerial in is form, thrs,is somewhatlimired. By workint the
metal,asby coldrolling,ils strength
canbeapproxmately
doubled.Muchagerincreases
in sFength
canbeobtained
by alloy-

SlandardArcraftHandbook

MaterialsandFabricating

of oneor moreothermetngaluminumwith smallpercentages

orznc Lke
als,suchasmangaese,
silicon,coppet,magesium,
purealuminum,thealloysarealsomdestronger
by coldworkandhardened
by
ing.Someoflhe alloysarefurtllerstrengthened
heattretments.
Today,luminumalloyswith rensilestrengths
poundspersquareinchareavailable
approachrng
100,000
or tempers,is
A wide varietyof mechanical
charactenstics,
of
availablein aluminumlloys throughvariouscombinaons
cold work andheattrelment.
In specifyingthetemperfot any
givenproduct,thefabricalingprocessand theamountof cold
work to whichit will subjectthemetalshouldbekeptin mind.
In otherwords,the temperspecifiedshouldbe suchthat the
amountofcold work thatthemetalwill receiveduringfabricain the finished
tion will developthe desiredcharcteristics
products.
a
Whenaluminumsurfaces
areexposedto theatmosphere,
thin invisrbleoxide skin forms immediatelythat protectsthe
charactenstic
metalfrom fulher oxdation.Thisselt--protecting
to coffosio. Unlessexgives aluminumits high resistance
posedto somesubstance
thisprotecor conditionthatdestroys
tive oxidecoating,the metalremainsfully protectedagainst
corrosion,Somealloysarelessresislantto corrosionthanothalloys Such alloys in
ers, paficularly certainhigh-strength
from th majorityof
someformscan be effectivelyprotected
surface
corrosiveinfluences,
however,by claddingtheexPosed
pure
with
alumnum
or
oneof
a ihin layerofeither
or surfaces
the more highly corrosionresistantalloys.Tradenamsfor
someof thecladalloysareAlclad atd Pureclad.
The easewith which aluminumcanbe fabricatedinto any
form is oneof its mostimportantassetsThemetalcanbe cast
it canbe rolledto any
by any methodknownto foundry-nrcn;
desiredrhicknessdown ro foil thinnerthanpaper;aluminum
sheetcan be stamped,d'awn,spunor roll-lbned.The metal
alsoca behammercd
or forged.Thereis almostno limit to the
differentshapesn whichthemetalmiShtbe extruded.
The easeandspedthataluminmcanbe machinedis one
of theimDortant
factorscontributinsto theuseof finishedalu-

minumpafs. The metalcan be tumed,milled,bored,or machinedat the maximumspeedsof which the majorityof machinesarecapable.
Anotheradvantageof its flexiblmachining
characteristics
is thataluminumrodandbarcanreadilybeused
in thehigh speedmanufacture
ofpafs by atomaticscrewmacnlnes,
Almost ay methodofjoining is applicableto aluminum,
riveting,welding,brazing,or soldering.
A wide varietyofmechanicalaluminumfasteners
simplifiesthe assemblyof many
products.
Adhesivebondingof aluminumpartsis widely used
in joining aircmftcomponents

34

35

Alloy and TemperDesignations

Aliminum alloys are availablein the cast and wrought
form.Aluminumcastingsareproducedby pouringmoltenaluminu aloy into sand or metal molds.Aluminum in the
wroughtform rs obtainedree ways:
. Rollingslabsof ho! aluminumthroughrolling mills that
producesheet,plateandbar stock.
. Extrudinghot aluminumthoughdies to form channels,
angles,T sections,
etc.
. Forgingor hammering
a healedbillerof aluminumalloy
betweena maleandfemaledie to fbrm thedesredpalf.

Castand WroughtAluminum
Alloy DesignationSystem
A systemof four-digitnumericaldesignations
is usedto
identifywroughtaluminumandwoughtaluminumalloys.The
first digit indicatesthealloy group,asfollows:
AJuminum,
99.00percentminimumandgreater
lxxx
Aluminumalloysgroupedby majoralloyingelements
Copper
zxxx
Manganese
3xxx

36

Mteials and Fabricstins

SlandardAircrafi Handbool'

Silicon
Magnesium
Magnesiumand Srlicon
Zinc
Other element
Unusedscries

4xxx
5xxx

f..ry
rlr

dtr dr

b sn'

Sxxx
9xxx
{d'ddoidcFrcj

of theoriginalalThe seconddigf indicatesmodifications

loy or impurity limits Tbe last two digits identify the aluminumalloyor indicateheluminumpuritr.

Alumnum
In thefirst group(1xxx)for minimumaluminumpuritiesof
99 00 percentandgreater,the lasttwo of thefour digitsin the
Becauseof its
designation
indicatethe minimun percentage.
purealuminumis seldomusedin aircraft.
low strength,

6'dld.H4b'.IFo

Aluminum Alloys
In the 2xxx tbroughSxxxalloy groups,the lasttwo of the
but
four digitsin thedesignation
haveno specialsignificance,
alumium
alloys
in
the
serveonly to identify the different
group.Theseconddigit in thealloy desrgnation
indicatesalloy
is zero,it
modications.
If the seconddigi in thedesignation
indicatestheoriginalalloy;integersI through9. whichareas
indicatealloy modifications.
signedconsecutively,

TemperDesignationSystem
followsthealloydesigWhereused,thetemperdesignation
a
2024-'14,
naionand is sepaated
from it by d^sh:70'15-T6,
consisrsof a letterthat indicates
etc.The temperdesignation
the basictemperthat canb morespecificallydefinedby the
areshownin Fig
additionof oneor moredigits.Desigations
3-l.

Fig.3J.

Alrt'imn-allo\

t.ntp?t .st:"1irt .ha n.

CHARACTERISTICSOF
ALUMINUMALLOYS
In high-pu.ityform,aluminumis softandductile.Mostaircraft ses,however,requiregreaterstrengththan pure aluminum ffbrds.This is achieved,D aluminumfirst by the
additionof otherelementsto producevariousalloys.which
singlyor in combinationimpal strengthto the metal.Further
strengthening
is possibeby meansthat classrlythe aloys
roughlyinto two categories,
nonheattreatableand heattreat^ble-

38

Mat{ials and Fabricating

Standard Aircral Handbook

Nonhat-Tleatabl
Alloys
Theinirialstrengthof alloysin thisgroupdepends
uponthe
hardening
efftct ofelements,suchasmanganese,
silicon,iron,
and magnesrum,
singlyor in variouscombinations.
Tbe nonhealtret^blealloysare usuallydesigated,therefore,in the
1000,3000,4000, or 5000 series.Becausethesealloys are
work-hurdenable,
further strengthening
is madepossibleby
vriousdegrees
of cold woking,denotedby the"H" seriesof
tempersAIloyscontaiingappreciable
amountsof magnesium
whensuppliedn strain-hardened
tempersareusuallygrvena
final elevated-remperature
treatment,
calledri?bilizing,
fo ensurestabilityof propeties

Heat-Tieatable Alloys
The initial strengthof alloysin this groupis enhanced
by
theadditon
of suchalloyinB
elements
ascopper,
magne\ium,
zinc. andsilicon.Because
theseelementssinglyor in various
combintionsshow increasingsolid solubiliy in aluminum
with increasingtemperature,
it is possibleto subjectthemto
themal treatments
thatwll impanpronounced
strengrhenng
The first step,calledattreatnento sohttionhe.t treatmnl,is an elevated-temperatue
processdesignedto put the
solubleelementor elementsin solidsolution.This is followed
by rapid quenching,usually in water, which momentarily
"freezes"thestructureand,for a shorttime,rendersthe alloy
very workable;selectedfabflcatorsretainthis more-workable
srructureby storingtbe alloysat below-freezing
temperatures
until initiatig the formationprocess.
Ice box rivetsarea typical example.At roomor elevatedtemperatures,
the alloysare
quenching,
precipitation
unstableafter
howevet and
of the
constituens
from thesuper-saturated
solutionbegins,
After a periodof severaldaysat roomtemperature,
terned
agingor toonenperaurcprecipiaion,
the alloyis considerablystrongerManyalloysapproach
a stablecondtionat room
temperature,
but selectedalloys,particularlythosecontaning

39

andzinccontnueto ageandsiliconormagnesium
magnesium
hardenfor longperiodsof timeat roomtemperature.
tempera_
By heatingfor a specifiedtimeat slightlyelevated
propelis
possible
and
arestais
tures,evenfufher strengthening
bilized, calledartiflcial aBhg or prccipitationhardening.By the
quenching,
cold
propercombination
of solutionheattreatment.
reobtained.
working,andartificialaging,thehigheststrengths

Clad Alloys
alloysin uhchcopperor 7ncaremajor
Theheal-trelble
arelessresistantto corosiveattackthan
alloyingconstituents
thecorroalloys.To increase
themajorityof nonheat{reatable
sionresisrance
ofthesealloysin sheetandplaefbrm, theyare
oftenclad with high-purityaluminum,a ow magnesium-srliconalloy,oran alloythatcontainsI percentzinc.Thecladding,
on eachside.
usuallyfrom 2t ro5 percentof rhetotalthickness
of ils own nherently
not only protectse compositebecause
but alsoexels a Salvaniceffect
excellentcorrosionresistance.
thatfufher protectsthecoremateral

AnnealingCharacteristics
All wrought aluminumalloys are availablein annealed
form.In addition,it mightbedesirableto annealan alloy from
any otherinitial temper,afterworking,or betweensuccessive
stagesof working,suchasdeepdrawing.

Qpical Usesof Aluminum and Its Alloys

Variousaluminumalloysareusedfor aircraftfabrication:
. 1000series Aluminumof99 percentorhigherpurityhas
These
practicallyno application
in theaerospace
industry.
alloysarechamcterized
by excellentcorrosionresistance,
low mechanical
highthermalandelectricalconductivity,

4n

StandrdAiraft Handbook
propenies,
andexcellentworkability.Moderateincreases
in strength
canbeobiainedby strainhadening.
Soft.I100
rivetsareusedin no[structural
applications
2000xries Copperis thepincipalalloyingelementin
thisgroup.Thesealloysrequiresolutionheattreatment
to
obtainoptimumproperties;
in thehealtreatedcondition,
propertiesare simrlarto, and sometlmes
mechanical
exceed,thoseofmildsteelIn someinstnces,
anificialaging
is usedto furiherincrease
themechanical
properties.
This
yieldstrength.
trcatment
materiallyincreases
Thesealloys
in theform ofsheetareusuallycladwith a highpuriryaf
loy.Alloy 2024is pehaps
thebestknownandmostwldely
usedaircraftalloy.Mostaircraftrivetsareof alloy2117.
J000s,r Mangaese
is themajoralloyingelemen!of
alloysin thisgroup,whichregenerally
nonheat-treatable.
Oneof theseis 3003,whichhaslimiteduseasa generalpurposealloy for moderate-strength
applications
that re
quiregoodworkability,suchascowlingsandnonstructuml
pafs. Alloy 3003is easy!o weld.
4000series This alloy seriesis seldomusedin the aerospaceindustry
5000series Magnesiumis oneof themosteffectiveand
widelyusedalloyingelementsfor aluminum.Whenit is
usedas the majoralloyingelement,or with manganese,
the resul!is a moderate-to high-strength
nonheat-treatable alloy Alloys in this seriespossessgood welding
charactefistics
andgoodre\i\lanceto corToson
in various
atmospheres.
It is widelyusedfor thefabricationoftanks
andfluid lines.
000 series Alloys in this group containsilicon and
poportionsto folfn magnemagnesium
in approximate
siumsilicide,thusmakingthemheat-treatable.
Themajor
alloyin thisseiesis 6061,oe of themostversatileof the
heat-treatable
alloys.Althoughlessstrongthanmostof
(or mag
the2000or 7000alloys,the magnesium-silicon
nesium-silrcide)
goodfomability andcor
alloyspossess
with mediumstren$h
rosionresistance,

Materialsand Fabrica.ing

4l

. 7000sedes Zinc is the major alloyingelementin this

group.Whencoupledwith a smallerpercentage
of magalloys with very
nesium,the resultsare heat-treatable
suchascopperand
highstength.
Usuallyotherelements,
chromium,ae alsoaddedin smallquantities.The outstandingmemberof this groupis 7075,which is among
the highest-strength
alloysavailableand is usedin airpafs.
andfor highlystressed
framestnrctures

Heat TFeatmentof Aluminum Alloys

in Fig.3-2.
Thehettseatsnent
of alunnumalloysis summarized

Fia. 3-2. Conditionsfor hetratha oJatuninu ollols. rot inJonhotion

on. No to be 6ed far artul hea! trcate. Heotihq tinex vtt, eith lp
ptoduct,OpeoJumace,nd hicknessoJoteial. Quenchinssnonu! in
coll wote. atthoughh aer ar on blosire can be usejot bulk! vctont.

Identilication of Aluminum
To providea visualmeansto identrfythevariousgradesof
aluminumand aluminumalloys, these metalsare usually
Specification
Nummarkedwith suchsymbolsasGovemment
ber,thetempeo conditionfumished,or thecommercialcode
marking.Plateandsheetareusuallymarkedwith specification
six inches
numbersor codemarkingsin ows approximately
apa!.Tubes,bars,rods,andextrudedshapesaremarkedwith

42

Stndird Ainrft Handbook

specification
numbersor codemarkingscontinuously
or at intervalsof 3 to 5 feetalongrhelengtbof eachpiece.Ttecommercialcodemakingconsistsof a numberthat idendfiesthe
paticularcomposilionof rhealloy In addition,lettersuffixes
designate
thetemperdesignaron.
SeeFig. 3-3.
t0* otl
6' CftrB5 ||r

zriDo |
3DnoYr
I
lsf Rotfri
rPElED
I
2X0ru{ i
EITID I
3i0 o{ '
itPuTEo

ConnEl

43

. Do not stacksheesof metaltogetherunlessinrerleaved

with a neutralkafi paper
. hevent moisturcfaomaccumulating
betweensheets
. Proteclmaterial,as necessaryt
to preventdamagewhen
transporting
on "A" frames.

FORMING ALUMII\IUM ALLOYS

Formngat the Factoy

$T nowJ

I-t&l-3.

Materlls snd FbricrinS

crl.

m*in9 oldt@inuh

sheet, tu. tha1es,a tub?s

HANDLING ALUMINUM
The surfaceof "clad" aluminumalloy is very soft ad
scratches
easily.Specialcaremustbe usedwhenhandlinsthis
aterial.Somesuggestions
include:
. Keepwork arcaandhblesclea.
. Lift mateialfrom surfaceto moveit. Do not slidematerial.
. Keeploolsandshaq)objectsoff thesurfaceunlessnecessaryfo timming,drilling,orholdirt.

Presenl-day
aircraftmanufacturers
maintanservicedepafmentslhat includecompletesparepats inventories.
Detailed
partscatalogsareavailableforall aircraft,includngindividual
wing ribs and pilot-drilledskin panels,for example.For this
.eason,it is normallynot necessay
for thefield mechanic
to be
skilledin all phasesof sheet-meta
forming.It is morecosteffectiveto procurepats from the factory,rathethanfabricate
themfmm scratch.
Althoughthefield mechaicmighlno(berequiredto fabricaeindividualpans,he shouldbe familiarwith the forming
processes
usedby the factory Also, however,he will be requiredto fabricatecompletassemblies
from factory-supplied
partsduringrepairoperatons.
Partsare formedat thefactoryon largepresses
or by drop
hammers
equippedwith diesof thecorect shape.Everypaft is
plannedby factoryengineers,
who setup specifications
for e
materialslo be usedso tharthefiishedpartwill havethecorrecttemperwhenit leavesthemachines.
A layoutfor eachpat
is preparedby factory draftsmen.
Theverb/onmeansto shapeormold ntoadfferentshape
or in a paticularpaircm,andthuswouldincludeevencasting.
However,in most metal-workingterminoogy,"forming" is
generallyunderstood
to meanchangingrhe shapeby bending
anddeformingsolidmetal.
In tbecaseofaluminum,thisis usuallyt roomtemperature.
In metal-woking,
"forming"includesbendng,
brakeforming,
stre(chforming,roll forming,drawing,spinning,shearforming,flexibledie forming,andhigh-velocilyforming.

44

Mlerfsls nd Fbrlcdng

Stdad Aircr'ft HDdbook

Other"forming" methods,suchas achinig, extruding,

forging,ad castingdo chngete shapeof themetal.by metal
removalor at elevatedtemperatufes.
However,theseprocesses
usedifferenttoolint and/orequipment.
Manufacturers
form aluminumby rollint, drawing,extruding, and forSingto createthe basicaluminumshapesfrom
which the metalworker,
in rum, makesall typesof end products.As a group,thealuminumproductsfabricated
fmm ingot
by theproducers
arecalledmill ptoducls.
The principalmill productsutilizedby the metalworkerin
formingarc sht,pate,rod, bar,wire, ad tube.Sheeticknessrangesfrom 0.006through0.249inch:plateis 0.250ich
or morc; rod is *-inch diameteror greater;bar is rectangular,
hexagonal,
or octagonalin crosssection,havingat leastone
perpendiculrdistancebetwenfacesof rl inch or greater Wire
is 0.374inchor less.
Most pats aeformedwithout alnealingte metal,but if extensiveformingoperations,
suchas deepdaws(largefolds)or
themetalis in thedead-soft
complexcurves,areplanned,
or anneledcondition.Duririgtheformingof somecomplexparts,op
erationsmight haveto be stoppedald themetalannealedbefore
the processcar be continuedor completed.Alloy 2024 in the
"O" conditioncan beformedinto almostany shapeby the common formingopemtions,but it mustbeheattreatedafterward.

45

leaf brake, comice brake, bar folder, or foldinq brake (see

Chapter2). More complex shapesarc formed by bending on
pressbrakeslltted with properdiesandtooling.
Allowaces must be madefor springbackin bendingagehardenedor work-hadened
aluminum.Soft alloysof a.luminum
havecompaativelylide springback-Wherespringbackis a facby 'bverforming" or bendingthe marerial
tor, it is compensated
beyonde limils actuallydesirdin e nal shape.Thick material springsbacklessan thiMer stockin a givenalloy andtemper
Theproperamountofoverformingis generallydetermined
by trial, thencontroled
by themetalworker
in handor trending
brakeoperations.
In press-brake
bending,springbackis compensated
for by dieandothertooldesign,useofadjustable
dies,
or adjustmenl
oflhe brakeaclion.

PRESS-BRAKEFORMING
Hydraulicand echanicalpressesare usedto form aluminum (and other meuls) into complex shapes.Recisely
shapedmatingdiesof hdened
tool stee,arernaden suitabe
lengtbsto produceshapes
inoneor morestepsorpasses
through
the prcss.The diesarechangedas required.SeF9. 3-4.

BLANKING
Blankingis a cuttingopemtiontharproduces
a blankofrhe
proper size and shapeto form the desired product. Sawing,
milling, o routing,arc generallyLrsedto producelarge or
heavy-gauge
blanks.Routingis themostcommonmethodusd
in theerospace
industryto produceblanls for forming.

BENDING

Chonnel
lorming

Jo99le

Ollsel
Iormrnq

Light-gauge
aluminumis easilybentinto simpleshapes
on
theversatilehand-opemted
bndingbrke.This machinealsois
commonfylown by severalother names,inclding apmn or

Flg,34. Tlpicatnotinspuchs
nddieslo. prcss.brak\|otk:cnsssection ol thlomd shapeit indicat d or ea.h operatio^ Punchand d ore
as long at requredot workpie.and pres .opacirl\

90. ogt Acuta-ogte

v bad
v bend

StandardAircraft Handbook

Materialsand Fabricating

Bendsmadeon pressbral(esusuallyaredoneeirherby the

air-bendingor by the bottomingmetbod.In air bending,the
punchhnsanacuteaDglebetween30 and60 degrees,
thuspro
vidingenoughleewayso thatfo manybeDdssprinBback
com
pensationcan be madeby pressadjustments
alone.SeeFig.
3-5. The term air bendineis denvedfrom the fact that the
workpiecespalrsthegapbetweenthenoseofthe punchandthe
edgesof thegrounddieFiC.J-6. Oherypafrufchlbtnihe vlerc ttu wtkix lt"tchedowralp

Fomingof nonheat-treatable
alloysusuallyis donein the
softO temper;hear-treatables
in W O, or T4 tempers.

HYDRO PRESSFORMING
Air-beddres

Eollomingdres

Fig.3-5. Ai\bentlandbailonnry
des
In bottoming, the workpleceis in contactwith the complete
working surfacesof both punch and dre, and accurateangular
tolerances
ran thus be oblained.Botlomingrequifeslhree to
five times greaterpressurethan air bending.

STRETCH FORMING
Compoundcu es,accDrate
dimensions,
miniDum reduction in matenalthickness,
closelycontrolledprcpeties,
wrin
kle free shapes,and sometimescost savingsover builFup
components
canbeachieved
in a siglestretchbeyondits yield
point Airplaneskinsaretypicalstretch-fomed
prcductsin aluminum.SeeFigure3-6.

Seamless,
cuplike aluminumshapesare formedwithout
wdnkles or drasticallyalteringongiral metal thickness,on
standadsingle-action
presses
for mostshallowshells,andon
double-action
pressesfor deeperand more difficult draws.
Bothmechanical
or hydraulicpoweris used,thelatteroflering
morecontrol,whichis particulrlyadvantageous
for deepand
somecomplexshapesThe partis formedbetweena maleand
fmaledie attachedto hydropressbed or platenand tbe hy
draulicactuated
ram,respectively.

ROLL FORMING
A seriesof cylindlcal dies in setsof two-male ndfe
male-called roll rsareanangedin theoll-bending
machine
so thatsheetor plateis progressively
formedto thefinal shape
in a continuousoperation.SeeFigute 3-7. By changingroll
sets,a widevanetyofaluminumproducts,
includinganglesand
channels,suchas usedfor stringers,can be producedat high
productionratesof 100feetperminuteandfaster.

48

MaterialsatrdFabricatins

StandardAircraft Handbook

49

Guldo

sEcfloN

of srocf
Irr PASS 2nd PASS 3rd PA55

4rh PASS

Elon

Plqi.;
SErt

tl

lott-to|,rED

Finbh

FiA. 3-L Fle\blp ie-fonnnry ptu rs fonrc pans usin. nbber pd

"pnvh" it lare h\rulit presssransi't8 ro t){n lo to,0{p tos tapo.r. Note ubbetpis reaurthe die n.tdeptttohithan\ pdrt.dr
bJ,n is a jdion of thc'ttick'$of thpatandnwtr o,er \nrobt"s

SHA'E
5d' PASS ih PASS 7*r PASS 8rh PASS
fiq. 3-7. E!httion.'f nll sltap..

FLEXIBLE-DIE FORMING
Underhigh pressure,
rubbeand similarmaterialsact as a
hydraulicmedium,exertingequalpressue
in all directions.In
drawing,rubberservesas an effectivefemaledie to form an
aluminumblank arcuoda punchor folm blockthat has been
contouredto thedesiredpattem Therubberexerts(transmits)
thepressure
because
it resistsdeformatlon;
this servesto control localelongatlonin the aluminumsheetbelngformed.See
Figure3-8
Useof rubberpadsfor the femaledie greatlyrcducesdie
costs,simplifiesmachinesetup,rcducestool wearandeliminatesdie markson thefinishedproductldenticalparts,but ln

different gauges ofmaterial, can be made without maling tool

changes,

Severalflexible-dieprocesses
areusedto form aluminum
Athoughthe operatingdetailsvary, rheseprocesses
can be
classifiedundertwo broadcategories:
. Shallow-drawmethod: rer'y on the pressureexerted
againstthe rubberpad to hold theblankas well as forn
thepart.
. Deeperdrawmehodsh^ve independent
blank-holding
mechantsms,

MACHINING
Lthes,drills,milling cuttes,andothermetal-removal
machinescommonlyfoundin metalworkingshopsare routinely
usedto shapealuminumalloys

Standard Aircraft Hondbook

For alumrnum,cuttingspeedsare generallymuch higher

thanfof othermetals;thecuttingforcerequiredis low, the ascut finish is generallyexcellent,the dimensionalcontrol is
good.andthetool lite is outstandinS.
In
Singlepointtoolsareusedto tum,bore,plane,ad shap.
generally
is rotatedwhilethecutting
tumingandboring,thework
on a
toolremains
stationary;
howevetwhenbonngis performed
millingmachineor boringmill, the tool rotatesandthework is
whrlethetool
stationry.
In planing,thewokmovesandindexes
m shaping,
theworkis fixedandthetoolmoves.
is stationary;

DRILLING

DrillinBsco\eredin delailin Ch3pter

TURRETLATHESAND SCREWMACHINES
Muhi-operation
machiningis caried outin apredetermined
andsimisequence
on tuffeflathes,automaticscrewmachines,
gene.ally
nearor at upper
lar equipment.
Speedsandfedsare
fbllowlimitsfor eachtypeofcutting,with eachnewoperation
ing ln rapidsequence
theonejustcompleted.
Automaticscrewmachinesmassproduceroundsolld and
fed
hollowpafs (threaded
and/orcontoured)
fromcontinuously
(andsome
barorrod,usingasmanyaseigh!ormoresuccessive
turrets,
operations
ona varietyofcomplex-tooled
simultaneous)
andstock-feediog
devices
cross-slides,
cuttingattachments,

MILLING
Aluminumis oneof theeasiestmetalsto shapeby mrlhngHigh spindlespeedsandpoperlydesignedcutters,machines,
xtures,and powersourcescan makecutsin rigid aluminum
workpieces
at highratesof speed
Milling machinesrange in size from small, pedestalmountedlypes to sparand skin mills with multiple cutling

Maierialsand Fabrcating

5l

headsand individualmotordrives,mountedon gantriesthat

run on theentire200-to 300-footlengthofthe machines'beds.
Theselattermachinesare tape-controlled
and are capableof
complexcontourmillingwhile holdingremarkably
closetolerancesoverentirelengthsof thepart.

ROUTING
Routercusedfor machiningaluminumhaveevolvedfrom
similarequipmentoriginallyandcurently usedin woodworking.Thesemachines
incudeportablehandroutes,hingedand
radial routers,and profile routers.Both plain and carbdetippedhigh-speed
steeltools,rotatingar20,000rpm(or faster),
areused.
The principalouter pplicationsfor aluminumare for
edge-profiling
shapes
from singleor stackedsheetor plate,and
fbr arearemovalof any volumeof metalwhen the routeris
usedasa skinor sparmill

FORGING
Hammeringor squeezinga heatedmetal into a desied
shapeis one of the oldest metalworktngprocedues;sDch
"forging" was one of the first fabricatingprocesses
usedfor
makingthingsof aluminum.
Die forgings,alsocalfedclosedieforyings,arcprodrcedb!
hammeringor squeezing
the metlbetweena suitablepLnch
anddie set.Excellentaccuracyanddetailareattainedandadgrain-flowpattemsareestablished,
vantageou$
impafing maximumstrengthto thealloy used.
Consder,as an example, the manufactureof an airplane
landinggearpartirom alloy7075.This alloybasicallycontains
5.5%zinc,2.sqam gnesium,
and1.57
copper,andis agehardenable.
Referto theflow chart(Fig.3-9).Thealloy is prepared
by
melting,and an ingot is cast.The ingot is homogenized,
and

StandardArcraft Handbook

cor

lsol

Y
I

Hortoo
I

53

with smoothsurfaces.Dimensionalaccuracyof the finished

partis closeto thtofa die-castpart.
Die castingu\esa permanent
mold,wherebymoltenmetal
is forcedinto lhe die caviryunderpressureIt producesa dimensionally
accurate,
thin-sectioned
part
andsmooth-surfhced

MolrialsandFabricating

CHEMICALMILLING
la4nnLe
FiE. 3-9. fnbitrttitu
Jr a oirykt ltndnt! r.!.

Y
I

Y
rhenhot lbrgedbetweenlwo dresof thedesiredshapeThefin_
ishedlorgingis solutionheattreatedat abut 900'F and
quenched
rn watet
at about250"F.
it is agehardened
Aflersolulronheattreating,
thepaftandit is ready
completes
So,nefinal surlcemachinng
on theairplane.
to assenlble

Chemicalmillingis a dimnsional
etchingprocesslor metal
removal.In workingaluminum,it is thepreferredmethodofremovinglessthan0 125inchfrom large,intricatesfces,such
\ integrallyslilfenedwingskinsfor high,perfbrmance
aircrafl.
Sodium-hydroxide-base
or othersuitablealkalinesolutionsitre
generallyusedto chemicllymill alumrnum.Process
is crried
out at elevaredtemperrres
(dissolurion)
Metal remova
is
controlledby masking,rateof immersion,dumrionol inmer.
sion.andthecomposttion
andlemperaure
of ba(h
Dissolution
of a 0.0l,inchrhickness
of aluminumDcr
minuteis a typical removalrate,FJonomicsdictalesthe rcmoval of thicknesses
greaterthan 0 250 inch by mechanical
means,The choiceo[ methodbetweenthe aforementtoned
0.I25.and0 250-inch
metal-removal
thickness
deDnds
on lhe
fillet ratioandweigh!penal!y.

MAKING STRAIGHT-LINE BENDS

CASTING
are:sandcasting.permanenl
Threebasiccastngprocesses
anddiecasdng.
moldcas(rng,
Sndcastrngusesa moldmadefrom sand,basedon theuse
of a pattern.The mold is desroyedwhenthe castpart is reruns.The nmoved.Sundcastingsareusedfor small-quantity
u\uirlly
requires
some
a
rough
surface
and
ishedcastinghas
machining.
mold of iron
mold castingutllizesa permanent
Permanent
A finishedpa is produced
or sleelthtcanbeusedrepeatedly

Formngat lhe factory(ascoveredin theprev'ousreclion)

Involvesspecialized
equpment
andrechnques
Therefbrc,il is
beyond
the
scope
ofe field mechanic.
However,an
Senerally
exampleof straight-lne
bendsis approprialc.
Whenformingsrraightbends,rhethickness
of thematerial,
its alloycomposirion,
andits tempercondrtionmusrbeconsidered.Generallyspeaking,
thethinnerthemterial,thesharperit
(the
canbe bent
smallertheradiusof bend),andthc softerthe
material,the sharperthebend.Otherfctorsthatmuslbe consideredwhen makingstraight-linebendsate bendallowance,
selback,andthebrakeof sightllne.

54

Malrials and Fabricting

StsndardAircraft Handbook

is theradiusof the
Theradiosof bendof a sheetof mAterial
Theminbend,asmeasurcd
ontheinsideof thecurvedmalerials.
curve,
imumradiusof bendof a sheetof materialis thesharpest
or bend,to whichthesheetcanbebentwithoutcriticallyweakeningthemetalatthebend.Iferadiusofbendis toosmall,stresses
andstrainswill weakenthemetalandcouldresultncrcking.
A minrmumradiusof bendis specifiedfor eachtypeof airand temper
crafrsheetmetal.The kind of material,thckness,
condrionof the sheetarefactorsthat affectth minimumradius. Annealedsheetcan be bentto a radiusapproximately
steeland2024-Taluminumaleqlralto its thicknessStainless
loy requirea fairly largebendradius
A generalrule for minimumbendMdti is:

r
I
I

-1

. I x /,ticknerrfor O temper
. 2il x hctnss
for T4 temper
. 3 x t,icfrrssfor T3 temper
riq,3-lO.

Ba' ollo at.., <N' b-

BendAllowance
thebendalWhenmakinga bendor fold in a sheetofmetal,
lowancemustbe calculated.
Bendallowanceis the lengthof
materialrequiredfor the bend.This amountof metalmustbe
addedto theoveralllengthof thelayoutpatternto ensureadequatemetalfbr thebend(Fig.3-10).
thematerialon theinsideof the
Bndinga stripcompresses
curveand strctchesthe materialon the oDtsideof the cuve,
However,at somedistancebetweenthesetwo extremeslies a
spacethat is not affectedby eitherforce This is knownas the
neutralline or neutral(uis. It occursat a distanceapproxi
(0.455x I) fromtheinmately0.145
rimesthemetalthickness
sideofthe radiusof thebend.
when bendingmetalto exactdimensions,
thelengthof the
so tha!sufficientmaterialcan
neutralline mustbe determined
thebendalbeallowedfor thebendTo savetimein calculating
radii of bends,
lowance,formulasandchartsfor variousangles,
materialthicknesses,
andotherfactorshavebeenestablished.

By experimenting
with actualbendsin metals,aircraftengineershavefound that accuratebendingresultscould be obIainedby usingthe fbllowingfomulafor any degreeof bend
from I degreeto 180degreesl
= (0.01743x R + 0.0078x 7) x N
Bendallot,tance
where:n = Thedesiredbendradius,
Z = Thickessofthe material,and
N= Numberof degrees
of bend.
This formula can be used in the absenceof a bendallowancechaf To determinethebendallowancefor any degreof bendby useof thechan(Fig.3-11),find theallowance
perdegrcefor thenumberof degrees
in thebend.
Theradiusof bendis givenasa decimalfractionon thetop
lineof thechart.Bendallowance
is givendirectlybelowtheradiusfigures.Thetopnumberin eachcaseis thebendallowance

Stndard Aircrf t Handbook

r i

'

;E

il

a:i :

!:

il

il

!i

s
I E

f,

:
I

q5
I

E 8

it

t;

9; i t

il

!l
s

t
c

!_6

ii 'i

.I

ri ::

it

!
:
E

ff

! i i

i
i

:! :!
I

ri

Mafrils andFabricting

.!

57

for a 90' angle,whereas

thelower-placed
numberis for a I' angle. Mateial thicknessis given in the left column of the chaf.
To flnd the bend allowance when the sheet ickness is
0.051",theadiusof bendis tl " (0.250")andthebendis to be
chat,find
90'. Readingacrossthe top of the bend-allowance
the columnfor a radiusof bendof 0.250".Now find theblock
in thiscolumnthatis oppositethegaugeof0.051in thecolumn
at left. The uppernumberin the block is 0.428,the coect bend
allowance
in inchesfor a 90" bend(0.428"bendallowance)
If thebendis to be otherthan90', usethelowernumberin
theblock(e bendallowacefoa 1") andcomputethebendallowance.Thelowernumberin thiscaseis 0.0M?56.Therefore,
ifthebendis to be 120',thetotalbendallowance
in incheswill
whichequals0.5?0?".
be 120x 0.004756,
Whenbendinga pieceof sheetstock,it is necessaryto know
the stafing and endingpoints of the bendso that the leryth of
the "flat" of the stock can be determined.Tlvo factors are importantin deteminingis: theradiusof bendandthe thickness
of the material.
Notice that setbackis the distanceiom e bend tangent
line to themold point.Themold pointis thepointof intersectio of the lines that extendfrom the outsidesufaces,whereas
the bend tangentlines are the starting and end points of the
bend Also notice tiat the setbackis the samefor the vertical
flat andthehorizontalflat.
To calculatethe setbackfor a 90" bend,merely add ihe insideradiusof the bendto the thicknessof the sheetstock:
Setback
- R +T (Ftg.3-12)
To calculatesetbackfor angleslarge or smaller than 90",
consultstandard
setbackchansor the1(chaf (Fig. 3-13)for a
valuecalled K. and thensubstitutethis value in the forrnula:
Serback=K(R+T).

Slndord Aircraft Handbook

Materials atrd Fabdcating

E EN D
fAi O E NTLIN E S

:6:::8a:

!i i r i i l

!;t:::!::a

: ' I i i f I i i ': : i i i : : : f

sET!ACX

t.rl lx

n*"rq*
sETBACK
(R+r,

:E:i !5 i :i i ai ;i i i i :!i

Fig. 3-12. Sbdck,90" ben.!.

iisiqr!i

la-6;t.aa;

;s;: i i ti

i i ! i !

: t l' 4 i: llt t l

:!i!t!ii

:!:iittit

i: iE : i ; ii
The value for K varies wi the numberof degreesin tlrc
bend Forexample:
Calculaterhesetbackfor a 120"bendwtha radiusof bend
of0 125"for a sheet0.032"thick;
Setback=K(R + T)
= |.'7320(0.125+ 0.032)
= 0.272"

Brake or Sight Line

The brakeor sightlneis themalk on a flat sheetthatis set
evenwith the noseof the radiusbar of the comicebmkeand
servesasa guidewhenbending.Thebrakeline canbe located
by measuring
out oneradiusfrom thebendtangentline closest
to theendthat is to be insefedunderthenoseof thebrakeor
againstthe radiusform block.The noseof thebrakeor radius
ba.rshouldfall directlyoverthebrakeor sightline,asshownin
F i g . 3- 1 4 .

arai;a

t
s E : : E :8
:i:
S:!:!
t

: i '3i I i : f f t : i ! i I i t b : :3i i ! ! t t
! i: if
: 3 ^ !
. E : ! E !
: i .'-r.-

( !i

:;ii3:iA
6e:!:::n:5

ii:tri'!"
iii:il:i:i

1' -' -

!.i t

-' -.!

r,' -|i

t.nr.-t:

ii

il

StandardAircraft Hadbook
S I O HTL IX E

Molerialsand Fabricsting

SroHT
r,rE
!EIOT A OE N T III{E

EI O I A G ENf I I NE
OI{E AOIUs OF BETID

lEoattowacE

ot{E
RAOIUS
l Eo A L IOW A N C E

Fig.3-14. BtukP rirht li,e

NEIIEF XOIET

MAKING LAYOUTS
It ls wiseto makea layoutor patternofthe partbeforeforming it This techniquereduceswastedmaterialand allowsa
greaterdegreeof accuracy
in lhefinishedpart Wheres(raight
anglebendsare concerned,
cotectallowancesmustbe made
for setbackandbndallowance

ReliefHoles
Wherevertwo bendsintersect,
materalmustberemovedto
makeroomfbr thematerialcontainedin theflangesHolesare
thereforedrilled at lhe intersection.
Theseholes,calledrelief
(Fig.
prevent
oles
3-l5).
strainsfrom beingsetup at theintersectionof the inside.bend
tangentlines thal would causethe
metalto crack.Reliefholesalsoprovidea neatlytrimmedcoF
nerfrom whichexcessmaterialcanbe trimmed.
Thsizeofa reliefholevaieswith thethlckness
ofthe mateial.The size shouldbe not lessthan X" dimeterfor aluminum alloy sheetstockup to nd including0.064"thick; it
shouldbe l1;' for stockrangingfrom 0 072" to 0.
thick'28"
nessThemostcommonmethodofdeterminingthediameteof
pro
a reliefholeis to usetheadiusofbendfor thisdimension,
videdthatit is notlesslhantheminimumallowance
(X").

Fig. 3^15. LotiIu t!li4 holes

Relief holes must touch the intersectionof the inside-bend

tangentlines. To llow for possibleerror in bending.make the
relief holes so thal they extend Xr" to :l;' behind the insideend
tangentlines. The intersectlonofthese lines should be usedas
the centerfbr the holes The line on the insideofthe curve is cut
at an angletowrd the rcliefholes to allow fb. the stretchingof
the insideflange.

Miscellaneous
ShopEquipmentand Pocedures
piecesof shopequipment
arepresented
rnChapter
Selected
brakcfor bendrngsheet
2 Figure3-16showsa hand-operated
metal.Largerbrakesarepoweroperated
design,like a sheelmetalrib
Bendsof a morecomplicated
havingflangesaroundits contour,shouldbe mddeovefa tbrm
blockshapedto flt theinsidecontourofthefinishedpart Bending theflangesoverthisdiecanbeaccomplished
by handforming, a slow (butpractical)methodfor experimental
work (Fig
3-t7)

StandardAircraft Handbook

Matenals and Fabricating

63

hl
FiA. 3-16. Hnnd-operateJ

Rig.3-17. Si plefom blckan| hol.l-.lownpltfar handlbmns A

speedietand bttrpnluction is heuseoJth h!.Lopress

Machininginvolvesall fomsofcuttlng,whetherperformed
or exfusions,andinvolvessuchoperon sheetstock,castings,
(Fig
3 l8), sawing,routing,and latheand
ationsas shearing
mllwork, and suchhandopeationsas dilling, tapping,and
reaming

MAGNESIUM AND MAGNESIUM ALLOYS

Magnesium,the world'slighteststructuralmetal,is a sil_
very-whitematerialthatweighsonly two{hirdsasmuchasalllsufflclentstrengthi its
minum,Magnesiumdoesnot possess

FiE 3-ra. Forope't

lhar bryershBare powetoperak.L

purestatefor structraluses,but whenalloyedwiih zinc,aluit produces

a alloyhavingthehighesl
minum,andmanganese,
strength-to-weight
ratioofany of thecommonlyusedmetals.
Someoftoday'saircraftrequire in excessof one-halftonof
wing panthismetalfor usein hundreds
ofvital spotsSelected
els arefabricatedentirelyfrom magnesium
alloys.Thesepanels weigh 18 pecentlessthanstandardaluminumpanelsand
haveflown hunlreds
of satisfactory
hoursAmongthe aircraft
partsthathavebeenmadefrom magnesium
with a substantial
savingsinweightarenosewheel
doors,flap coverskins,aileron
coverskins,oil tanks,floorings,fuselageparts,wingtips,engine nacelles,instrumentpanels,radio antennamasts,hydraulicfluid tanks,oxygenbottlecases,ducts,andseats.

64

StndardAircraft Handbook

Magnesiumalloys possessgood castingcharacteristics.

Therr propelies comparefavorablywith thoseof cast aluminum.In forgrng,hydraulicpressesare ordinarilyused,alforgingcanbe accomplished
though,undercertlinconditions,
presses
of with drophammes
in mechanrcal
asanneal
alloysresubjectto suchtreatments
Magnesium
agin8,
and
stabilizing
soluionheattreatment,
ing. quenchlng,
areanealedat (hetollingmill. The
Sheetandplatemagnesium
solutionheattreatmentis usedto put as muchof the alloying
ingredients
aspossiblenrosoldsolution,whtchresultsin high
tensrlestrengthand maximumductility Aging ls appliedto
castingsfollowing heattreatmentif maximumhardnessand
yield strengtharedesired.
na
Magnesiumembodiesfire hazardsof an unPredictable
makes
conductivity
high themal
ture.WlteniD largesections,
it difficult 10ignteand preventsit from burninS;it will not
whrchis 1204'F Howbum until themehingpointis reached,
chrps
can
bei8ntedeasilyPredust
and
fine
ever,magnesium
cauhons
mustbe takento avoidthis,ifPossible.If a fire occurs,
powder,suchas
with an exhnguishing
it can be extinguished
powdered
soapstone
or graphitepowder.Wateror anystadard
causemagneslumto lrum
liquid or foam tlre ext'nguishers
moreraprdlyandcancauseexplosions
in theUnitedStatesconsistof
Magnesiumalioysproduced
magnesiumalloyedwith varying proportlonsof aluminum,
by a letterof
andzinc.Thesealloysaredesignated
manganese,
purity
andmaxwith thenumberI indicatinghigh
thealphabet,
fesrstance,
imumcorrosron

Heat Treanent of MagnesiumAlloys

Magnesiumalloy castingsrespondreadily to heat treat
usedin aircraft
ment,andabout95 percentof the magnesium
is in the castform. Heattreatnentof magnesium
construction
alloy castingsis similarto theheattreatmen!of aluminumalthe lwo typesof heattreatmentaesolutronand
Ioysbcause
(aging) Magnesium,
however,developsa negliprecipitation

Mlrials and Fabricatins

6s

giblechagein its propenieswhenallowedto agenaturallyat

roomrcmperatures,

TITANIUMAND TITANIUMALLOYS
In aircraftconstructon
andrepait titaniumis usedfo fuselage skins,engineshrouds,firewalls,longerons,frames,fit
tings, air ducts, and fasteners.Titanium is used to make
compressor
dsks,spacerrings,compressor
bladesand vanes,
tfuoughbolts,turbinehousingsand liners,and miscellaneous
hardware
for turbineengines
Titaniumfalls betweenalrminumand stainlesssteelin
termsof elasticity,density,andelevatedtemperarure
stength.
It hasa metingpoint of from 2730 to 3155"F, low thermal
conductivity,and a low coefficientof expansion.
It rs light,
strong.and resistantto stresscorosioncracking.Titaium is
app.oximately
60 percentheavierthanaluminumandabout50
percentligh(erthanstainless
steel.
Because
of hehrghmeltingpornrof titanium,high-temperaore propr(ies
aredrsappornting.
The ultimateyield strength
of titamumdropsrapidlyabove800' F Theabsorption
ofoxygen and nitrogenfrom the air at temperatures
above1000"F
mates the metal so brittle on long exposurethat it soonbecomesworthlessHowver.titanjumdoeshavesomemeitfor
short-timeexposureup to 3000'R whrestrengthis not important.Aircraftfirewallsdemandthisrequirement.
Titaniums nonmagnetic
and has an electricalresistance
compamble
to thatofstainlesssteel.Someof thebasealloysof
litaniumarequitehard.Heattreatingand alloyingdo not developthehardness
oftitaniumto thehighlevelsofsomeof rhe
heat-treated
alloysof steelA heat-treatable
titaniumalloy was
only recentlydevelopedPriorto thedevelopment
of thisalloy,
heatingandrolling wastheonly methodof formingthatcould
be accomplished.
However,it is possibleto form thenewalloy
in thesoftconditionandheattreatit for hardness.
Iron,molybdenum,
andchromiumareusedto slabilizetitanium and producealloys that will quenchhardenand age

66

StandardArcrafaHadbook

harden.The additionofthese metalsalso addsductlity The fatigue resistanceof tilanium rs greaterthan lhat of aluminum or
steel

Titanium Designations
oftitaniumalloyswasestablished
TheA-B-Cclassificarion
andsimplemeasto describ(rtanium
to providea convenient
threebasiccrysalloys Titaniumand titaniumalloyspossess
(bera),
(combined
(alpha),
and
alpha
andbla),that
rals:A
B
C
havspecificcharacerstics:
. A (alpha) All-aroundportbrmance,
Sood weldability,
toughandstrongbothcold andhot, andresistantto oxidation.
. B (beto) Bendability,excellentbend ductilrty,strong
to contaminatron.
bothcold andhot. burvulnerable
. C (cornbined alpha and beta ot conprontse perfor,trrrcer)Strongwhencold and warm.but weakwhen
hot: good bendabilitylmoderateconlaminationress(nce;andexcellentforgeability.
Tltniumis manufactured
for commercialusein two basic
pureand alloyed.A-55 s an exconpositions:commercally
ampleof a commerciallypuretitanium;it hasa yield strength
gradefor modof55,0001o80,000psi andis a general-purpose
usedfof nonstructuml
erateto severefoning. It is somelimes
applicaaircraftpansand for all typsof codosion-resrstant
tions,suchastublng
TypeA-70titaniumis closelyrlatedto tyPeA-55,buthasa
yield strengthof 70,000to 95,000psi. It is usedwherehigher
strengthis required,and it is specifiedfor many moderately
it ls
stessed
aircraftpans,For manycorrosionapplications,
Type
A.55
and
typeA-70
with typeA-55.
usedinterchan8eably
areweldble.
alloysis C-l l0M.It is
Oneofthewidelyusdtitanium-base
used for primary structuralmembersand aircraft skin, has

Moterlolsand FabricatinC

67

110,000psi minimumyield strength,and contains8 percent

manganese,
TypeA-l l0AT is a titanumalloy that contains5 percenr
aluminumand2.5percenttin. It alsohasa highminimumyield
strengthat elevatedtemperatures
with the excellentwelding
characteristics
nherent
in alpha{ypetitaniumalloys.

CormsionCharacteristics
The corosionresistance
of ttaniumdeserves
specialmention-The resistance
of the metalto coFosionis causedby rhe
formahonof a protective
surfacefilm ofsrableoxideor chemiabsorbedoxygen.Film is often producedby the presence
of
oxygenandoxidizingagents.
Titaium corrosionis uniform.Thereis liltle evidenceof
pittingorothersciousfo.msoflocalizedaltack.Normally,it is
not subjeclto sfesscorrosion,corrosionfatigue,inlergranular
corrosion,or galvaniccorrosion,Its corrosionresistanceis
equalor superiorto lE-Estainless
sreel.

Tieatmentof Titanium
Titaniumis heattreatedfor thefollowngpurposes:
. Reliefofsrresses
setupduringcodformingor machining.
. Anealingafierhot workingor cold working,or to providemaximumductilityfor subsequent
cold working.
. Themal hardening
to improvestrength.

WORKING WITH TITANIUM

Unlikefamiliarmetals,suchasaluminumandsteel.which
generallyequireno specialtechnques
andprocedures
for machining,drilling,tappingorforming,workingwith titaniumrequiresconsideration
of its specialcharacteris(icsTherefore.a
more-detailed
discussion
of ritamum'sworkabilityis norder.

Msterislsrnd Fabrisllng

StandardArcrafi Hsndbook

68

Machiningof Titanum
Titaniumcan b economicallymachinedon a routineProare set up to allow for the
ductionbasisif shopprocedures
commonto the metal.The factorsthat
physrcalcharacteristics
arenot complex,but theyafeval
mustbegrvenconsideration
hadling
of
titanium.
to rhesuccessful
Most importantis lhal differentgradesof titanium (re-'
pureandvriousalloys)will not all haveidenicommercially
steel,thelow elLike stainless
machining
charactenstics.
cal
ofheatwithin
dissipation
inhibits
mal conductivityof titanim
application
of coolants
eworkpiecei6elf,tltusre4uiring
Proper
by
Generally,
SoodoolIife andworkqualitycanbeensured
useof a goodcoolanl,sharpandproper
rigid machineset-ups,
andheavierfeeds.Theuseof sharPtoolsis
tools,slowerspeeds,
heatbuild-uplo cause
dull toolswilt accentuate
vital because
tool failure
uduegallingandseizing,leadingto premature

69

costs.Consequently,it is advisableto try both casl-alloy and

carbrdetools to determinethe betterof the lwo for eachmrlling
job. The usofa water-basecoolant is recommended

Tirrning
pureandalloyedtitaniumcanbetumedwith
Commercially
for tumlittle difficulty.Carbdetoolsarcthemostsatisfactory
carbidegradesofstandard
ingtltanium.The"straight"tungsten
as
MetalCarbidesC-91and
such
through
C4,
C1
designations
similartyps,providethebestresultsCobalFtyphigh-sPeed
steelsappearto be lhe bstof the many typesof high-speed
Rex'
steelavailable.Casl-alloytools,suchasStellite,TantunS,
when
and
nol
available
is
when
carbide
alloy,etc. canbe used
steelsarnot satisfactory
thecheapr high-speed

Drilling
MiUng
The milling of titaniumis a more-difticultoperationthan
thatof tuming The cuttermills only pan of eachrevolution,
ad chiDstendto adhercto the teethduringthatponionof the
revolutionthal eachtoothdoesnot cut On the ext cotacl,
whenthechrpis knockedoff, tbetoothcouldbedamaged.
This problemcan be alleviatedto a greatextentby uslng
milling. In this typeof
climb milling, insteadof conventional
ihinnestportionof the
wiih
lhe
in
contact
milling,thecutteris
chipas it leavesthecut, minimizingchip "wlding."
For slabmillinS,th work shouldmovein the samdirec_
tion as the cutting teeth.For face milling' th teethshould
emergefrom lhecut in thesamedirectionasrhework is fed
In milling titanium,whenthecuttingedgefails,it is usually
ofchipping.Thus,theresultswith carbidetoolsareof'
because
thanwilh cast'alloytools Theincreasen
ten lesssaosfactory
cuttingspeedsof 20 ro 30Eo,which is possiblewith cabide'
for the additronaltool-Srinding
doesnot alwayscompensate

with ordinaryhighdrillingcanbeaccomplishcd
Successful
speedsteeldrills.Oneof the most-impolantfactorsin drilling
ritaniumsthelengthof theunsupPoledsectionof thedrill.
This Dof(tonof thedrill shouldbe no longerthannecessary
to drill the requireddeplhof holeand slill allow lhe chiPslo
throughhe flutesandout of the hole This
flow unhamprcd
pemits the applicationof maximumcuttingpressure'as well
to clearchips,without
as rapid removaland re-engagement
drill
of
"Spiro-Point"
Use
drill breakage.
Srindingis desirable

Tapping
The bestresultsin tappingtitaniumhavebeenwith a 6570
thread Chip removalis a problemthat makestaPpingoneof
rhe more-difcultmachiningoperationsHowever,in tapplng
this problemcanbe simplifiedby usinga gun_
through-holes,
rypelap with whichchipsarepushedahedo[the taP.Another
problemis thesmearof tihnium on (helandof the taP,which

70

StandardAircraft
Handbook

MatcrialsandFabricating

can resultin the tap freezingor bindingin lhe hole.An activa@dculting oil, suchas a sulfurizedand-chlorinated
oil, is
helpfulin avoidingthis.

(hydropress,
powerbrake,stre(ch,
by oneoffour basicmethods
or drophammer),usingsomewhat
moregradualapplication
of
pressure
thanwith steel.Titaniummill productsaregenelly
shippedin the annealed
condition,ad thusre in their mosr
workableconditionfor forming,asreceived.
Initial formingoperations-thepreparation
of blanks are
much like thoseusedfor 18-8 stainlesssreel:shearing,die
blanking,nibbling,andsawingareall satsfactory.
To prevent
cracksor ears duringformingoperations
of titanium,blanks
shouldbe dcbuedro a round,smoolhedBe

Grinding
The popercombinaton
of grindingfluid, abrsivewheel,
andwheelspeedscanexpdfethis form of shapingtitanium.
Borhalundumandsiliconcrbidewheelsareused.Theprocedurerecommended
is to useconsiderably
lowerwbeelspeeds
thanin convenional
grindingof steels.A water-sodium
ninite
mixtureproduces
excellent
rsuhs
asa coola,However,
thissolutionca be verycorosiveto equrpment,
unlesspropelptecautionsareused,

Sawing
Slow speeds(in the 50-fpm range)and heavy,consrant
bladepressureshouldbe used Srandard
bladesshouldbe regroundto provideimprovedcuttingefficiencyandbladelife.

CleaningAfter Machining
It is ecommended
thatmachined
pafs thatwill beexposed
to elevatedtemperatures
shouldl,e thoroughlycleanedto remove all tracesof cuttingoils. An acceptable
recommended
solventis methyl-ethyl-ketoDe
(MEK).
It s advisablenot lo uselow,flash-pont
cuttingoils becausethehighheatgenerated
duringmachiningcould
causethe
or1to ignite.Water-soluble
oils or cuttingfluids wth a high
flashpointarerecommended.

Shop-FormingTitanium
Titaniumsheetmaterialcanbecoldorhot formed,although
the latteris usuallypreferableFormingis bestaccomplished

7l

StressRelief
As an aid to cold forming,it is suallynecessary
to stress
relievewhcremorelhan one stageof fabricationis involved.
For example,a par shouldbe stressrelievedafterbrakeforming prior to stretchrng
nd alsobetweenroom-temperature
hydropressforming slages After cold-fonningoperationsare
complete,heat treatmi]ntis necessaryto relieve residual
stresses
inrposedduringforming

FERROUSAIRCRAFT METALS
Frloll.! appliesto the group of metals having rron as their
principal constituent.

Identification
If carbonis addedo iron,in percentages
rangingup to approximatelyI percent,the productis vastlysuperiorto iron
aloneand is classifiedas carbonsteel.C^tbonsteelformsthe
baseof thosealloy steelsproducedby combiningcarbonsteel
with otherelements
knownto improvetheproperties
ofsteel.A
quantities
basemetal,suchasiron,to whrchsmall
ofothermetals havebeenaddedis calledan dllo),.The additionof other
metalschanges
or improvesthechmicalor physicapropefies
of thebasemetalfor a particularuse.

72

StsndardArcraftHandbook

The steelclassification
of the SAE (SocietyofAutomotive
Engineers)rs usedin specificarions
for all high-gradesteels
usedin automotive
andaircraftconstnictionA numericalindex
systemidentiesthecomposirion
ofSAE steels.
EachSAE numberconsistsof a groupof digits: the rst
digit represents
thetypeofsreel;the secod,thepercentage
of
the pricipal alloyingelemenr;ad, usually,the last two or
tbreedigits,thepercentage,
in hundredths
of I percent,of carbonin lhealloy Forexample,theSAE number4130indrcates
a molybdenumsteelcontainingI percentmolybdenumand
0.30percentcarbon
Typeof Steel
Classification
Carbon
Nckel
2xxx
Nickel-chromrum
3xxx
Molybdenum
Chomrum
5xxx
Chromiumvanadrum
6xxx
Tungsten
Txxx
Sihcon-mangaese
9xxx
SAE numericalindex
Metal stockis manfactued
in severalforms and shaDesincludingshet\.bars.rods.rubings.extrusions.
torgings,and
castings.Sheetmetalis madein a numberof sizesand thicknesses.
Specifictions
designate
thicknesses
in thousandths
of
an inch Barsandrodsaresuppliedin a varietyofshapes,such
as round.square,rectangular,
hexagonal,
and octagonalTub
lng canbe obtainedi round,oval,rectangular,
or streamlined
shapes.
The sizeof tubingis generallyspecifiedby oulsidediameterandwall thicknessThe sheetmetalls usuallyformedcoldin suchmachiesas
presses,
bendingbrakes,drawbenches,
or rols.Forgingsare
shapedor formedby pressingor hammeringheatedrnetalin
dies Castingsre producedby pouringmolten metal into
molds Thecasfrngis finishedby machining

Mateals and Fabricating

73

rypes,Characteristics,
and UssofAlloyed Steels
Steelthatcontainscarbonin percentages
rangefrom 0 l0 to
0.30 percentrs consideredlow-carbonsteel The equivalent
SAE nmbersrangefrom l0l0 to 1030 Steelsof thisgradeare
usedto makesuchitemsas safelywire, selectednuts,cable
bushings,
or threaded
rodends.Thissteel.in sheetform,is used
for secondary
structumlpartsandclamps,andin tubularform
for moderately
stressed
structuralpas,
that rangefrom
Steelthat containscarbonin percentages
0 30 to 0.50pecentis considered
mdirm-carbon
steel.This
steelis especiallyadaptablefor machiningor forging,and
wheresurfacehardness
is desirable.
Selected
rodendsandlight
forgingsaremadefrom SAE 1035steel.
Steelthatcontainscarbonnpecentages
mngingfrom 0.50
to I .05percentis hlg-carbonsteel.The
of otherelc^ddlLion
mentsin varyingquantities
addto thehardness
of thissteel In
the fully heat-treated
condition,it is very hard,will withsland
high shearandwear,and will haveminor deformation.
It has
limitedusein aircraft.SAE 1095in sheetform is usedto make
flar \pringsnd in wire form to ma-ke
corl \prings.
Thevariousmckelsteelsareproduced
by combningnickel
with carbonsteel.Steelscontainingfrom 3 to 3.75 percent
nickelarecommonlyused.Nickelincreases
the hardness,
tensilestrength,andelasticlimit of steelwithoutappreciably
decreasingtheductility.It alsointensifiesthehardening
effectof
heatteatment.
SAE 2330steelis usedextensivelyfor aircraft
parts,suchasbolts,terminals,keys,clevises,andpins.
Chromiumsteelhashigh hrdness,
strength,
andcoosionpropefies,andis paficularlyadaptable
resistant
forheat-treated
forgingsthatrequiregreaterroughness
andstrengththancanbe
obtainedin plaincarbonsteel Ckomium steelcanbe usedfor
suchaficles astheballsandrollersofantifrictionbearings.
Chrome-nickel
{stainess)
steelsae thecorrosion-rcsstant
metals.The anticonosive
dgreeof thissreelis determined
by
the surfacecondirionof the metal,as well as by thecomposition,temperature.
andconcentration
ofthe corrosiveagent

74

StndardAircsft Handbook

Theprincipalalloy of stainless
stelis chrormum.
Thecorrosionresistantsteelmostoftenusedin aircraftconstruction
is
knownas l8-E sleelbecause
it is lt percentclfomium and8
percentnickel.Onedistinctrvefeatureof l8-8 steelis that its
strengthcanb increased
by coldworking.
Siainlesssteelcan be rolled, drawn, bent,or formedto ary
shape.Becauseese steelsexpandabout50 percentmoe than
mild steelad conductheatonlyabour40 percent
asrapidly,they
aemoredifficultto weld.Stainless
seelcanbeusedfor almost
anypartof anaircraft.Someofi6 commonappcations
arein the
fabricationof exhaustcollecbrs. slacksandmanifolds.structua.l
andmachinepats,springs,casrings,tie rods,ad cotol cables.
Chrome-vanadium
steelsare madeof approximately18
percentvlnadium
and aboutI percentchromium.When heat
treated,theyhavestrength,toughness,
andresisrance
to wear
and fatigue.A specialgradeof this steelin sheetform can be
coldformedinto inticateshapes.
h ca befoldedandflafened
withoutsignsofbreakingor failure-SAE6150is usedfor mak
ngsprings,whilechrome,vaadium
with high{artroncontent,
SAE6195,is usedfor ball a-ndrollerbearings.
Molybdenumin smallpercentages
is usedin combination
with chromiumto fbm chrome-molybdenum
steel,whichhas
varioususesin aircraft.Molybdenumis a strongalloyingelementlharraisestheuliimatesEengthof steelwithoulaffecting
ductilityor workability.MolyMenumsteelsaretoughandwear
resisbnr,and theyhardenroughou(whenheattrealed.They
are especiallyadaptable
for weldingand,for is reason,are
usedprincipallyfor weldedstructuralpans and assemblies.
This typeof steelhaspracticallyeplacedcarbonsteelin the
fabricaonof fuselagetubing,enginemounts,landinggears,
and other stuctumlpans.For example,a heaFeated
SAE
4130 tube is approximately
four timesas srongas an SAE
1025tubeof thesameweighrandsize
A seriesof chrome-molybdenum
sleelmostusedin aircraft
construction
contains0.25to 0.55percentcabon,0.l5to 0.25
pecentmolybdenum,and 0.50 to LlO percentchromium.
Thesesleels,whensuitablyheatrea(ed,arc deephadening,

MalriLsand Fbricating

75

easilymachined,
readilyweldedby eithergasor electricmethods,andareespecially
adapted
to high{emperature
service.
lnconelis a nickel-chromium-iron
alloy thatcloselyresembles stainlesssteelin apparance.
Becausethesetwo metals
look very muchalike,a distinguishinttestis oftennecessary.
Onemethodof identification
is lo usea solutionof l0 gramsof
cupricchloridein 100cubiccenttmeters
of hydrochloricacid.
Wi a medicinedopper,placeone dropof the solutionon a
sampleof eachmetalto betestedandallowit to remainfor tr,!o
minutesAt theendof thisperiod.slowlyaddthreeor fourdrops
ofwaterto lhesolutionon themetalsamples,
onedropat a time;
en washthesamples
in clearwateranddry them.If themetal
is stainless
steel,thecopperin (hecupricchloridesolulionwill
be deposited
on themetalleavinga copper-colored
spo!.If the
samples inconel,a new-lookingspotwill be present.
Thetensilestrengthof inconelis 100,000psi annealed,
and
(o satwa125,000psi, whenhrdrolled.It is highlyresistan(
terad is able(o wthsEndtemperarurcs
ashighas I 00' F.Inconelweldsreadyandhasworkingqualitiesquiresmilarto
thoseof corosion-esislan
I steels,

IIat Tleatmntof FerrousMelals

The first imponantconsideration
rn thehealrreatment
of a
steelpartis to knowits chemicolcomposition.
This,in tum,determinesits uppercriricapoint.Whenthe uppercritcalpoint
is lown, thnextconsideration
rstherateofheatngandcooling to be used.Caryingout theseoperations
involvesthe use
of Dniformheatingfumaces,propertemperture
contros,and
quenching
suitabe
mediums
Heat trea(rngrequiresspecialtechniquesand equipmen(
that are usualyassocialed
with manufactures
or largerepair
stations Becausetheseprocesses
are normalybeyondthe
scopeofthe field mechanic,
rheheatrreatmenr
ofsleelalloysis
not covered,However,the heattreatmentof alloy steelsincludeshardenng,
tempering,
annealing,
normalizing,
casehardening,carburizing,
andnitriding

4
Drilling
and Countersinking
Althoughdrillngholesseemsa simpletask,it requtresa great
andskill to do it properlyandin accordance
dcalof knowledge
I[ is one of e mostimportantoperations
with soecificalions.
wlh enoughstudyand a
performedby rivercrsor mechanics.
practically
anyonecan learn
practice.
ionsidembleamountof
to perform the opera(ion.

RIVET HOLE PREPARATION

requiresmore thanjust
Preparingholesto specifications
runninga drill througha pieceof metal.This chapteroutlines
of preparingproperholes,primarilyfor all
the fundamentals
however,the informatypesof rivetsand rivel{ype fasteners;
rin is alsogenerallyapplicableto bolts,pins,or anyolherde'
drlledholes.
vicesthatrequircaccurately
holesfor cer'
is anotherphaseof Preparing
Countersinking
andotherreCountersinking
taintypsoffasteners.
Procedures
lateddataarealsoincludedin thischapter

D lling and Countersinking

StndardAircraft Handbool,

78

Rivet Hole Location

to knowwheretodrill
Beforednllinganyhole,it is necessa.ry
done
by
any
one
or
a
combinirtron
of thefollowit Thiscanbe
ing methods:
By pilot holespuchedwhile thepartis beingInadeon a
punchpressandenlarging
iheholes10full sizeonassemby
By useof a template.
dnllbushings
By drillin8through
najig on assembly
By usinga "hole findei to locateholesin theo[ter skin
overthepilot or predrlledholein thesubstructure
from a
By layngout the rivet parternby measuements
When
rt
is
necessary
to mrkholelocations,a
bluepflnl.
coloredpencrlthat containsno lead,or a wtersoluble
finepointfIl penshouldbeused.Thecfbonin leadpenwith alumrnumandshouldnot
cils is highlyincompatible
Never
use
a
scriber
beused.
or othersimilarobjectat
wouldscratchtheme(l-

79

Twistdrills for mostircraftwork revailablein threedifferentslzegroups:"le(er" sizesA throughZ; "number"sizes

80 through1; and"fractional"sizes,from diameters
of Zd"up
to 1]l". increasingin increments
of Z.'. "Fractional"sizesare
alsoavailablein largerdameters.
butarenot usedfor nvertstenersAll drill sizesaremarkedon thedrill shankSeeFis 4-2
fbr normallyavailabledrill sizes.

,.

I
v

Drills

t--H
l-

Rivetholesaregenerallymadewith an air drill motoranda

strarghtshanktwistdill, as shownin Frg.4-1.
standard

a
:F
'\

,2
2
tt

:
Fig.4-r.

Shl nlehtish rl'

irt hll

Fig.4-2.

.E

Si.esai ds8ttio otdction, tumb.a altetvrlts.

80

Drilling and Countrsinking

SlandardAircraft Handbook
Drills are made tiom rhe following materials.

rndustry
CarbonStel Not normallyusedin theaercspace
sleel
because
ofits inferiorworkingqualitiesto high-speed
rn
the
aerospace
indusHi7h-Spee
Steel Mostdrillsused
try arehigh speedsteelbecause
of goodphysicalcharactertheydo not present
istlcs,readyavailability,and because
nydifrcultproblemsin resharpening
steelsover
CobahALIol,SreelsUsedon highhealtreated
psi
180,000
Cemented
CarbideInserb Usedfor cuttingveryhardand
industy.
mlerials.
Limitedusein theaerospace
abrasive

8t

Drill Sharpening
at the rst signofdullThetwist drill shouldbe sharpened
for
ness.Faultyshapening
accounts mostof thedifficulryenbyhand.
rndrilling.Althoughdrillscanbesharpened
countered
jig shouldbeusedwhenavailableUsrngthe
a drilI-shrpemng
drill gauge(Fig 4-4), rotatingth drill abouits centralaxis
required.The drill must
will not providethe 12'lip clearance
be handledso that the heelwill be groundlowerthnthe lip
to maintainequallengthlips
Usinge dill gauge,it is possrble
that form equalangleswith the centrlaxis.lf the drill is rotatedsightlythegaugewill indicatewhethertheheelhassufficientclearance

Drill sizes are no1 always radableon the drill shank becausethe drill chuck hs sDunon the drill and removed the
markings If the drill size cannoteasily be readon the dnll, always usea drill gauge,shown in Fig 4-3.

C.

o"
rr'\ ()

4" " .
!' c

uo

".s.:*
.$!:d
c.
O.li'.3'Ii

e"F:"s:+:
9=+!.!.

I'g:9.

FiA.4-3. Dtill sats.s: lra.ions on he

It l nwth.t o Il' nsht Decitnal
4u^rl$ar al!' r^.
Cou resy LS Sllnc lCom pny

Fiz. 4-4. Drill-slxrynitti ldrc

Couresy
L S SmeLcompi.y

Drill Points
Drills are madewith a numberof drfferentpointsor are
groundto differentanglesfor a specrflcapplication,
as shown
point
for thejob As
inFig 4-5.Alwaysselectthecoect shape
a generalrule,the pointangleshouldbe fldl or largefo hard
andsharpor smallfor softmaterials.
andtoughmaterials,

Ddlling Equipment
industryin pref
Theardrill motoris usedin theaerospace
theair motorhasno hre or
erenceto anelectdcmotorbecause

E2

StandardAircraft Hsndbook

Drllllng and Countrsinking

DRILLING OPERATIONS
Chuckingthe Drill
WARNING
Beforeinstatlingor rmovngdfill bits, countersnks,
or
other decsin an air motor,b surc thathe air lie to the
fl|olor s disconnected.Falurc to obsrvethis prccuton
can causeserious injury,

,rro!

a ArDKri(8rfE

^!|oU.to.o|:r{o|N
FlA.1-5.

Ttpi.il

rill poitts . ri q ||dr"

uatnrls.

shockhazads,has a lower intial cost,requireslessmantenance.ad runningspeedis easierto conlrol,Air olors afe

vailablein a vaietyof sizes,shapes,runningspeeds,and
drilling headanglcs(Fig.4-6)

l. Install prop drill in the motor and lightcn wiah

pmper sizechuck key, B sue to centerthe drill in
the chuck.Do noaallow llules to enter the chck.
2. Connectthe air hoseto the motor inlet fittng.
3. Start the dill rotor and chcckthe drill fo wobble.
The drill must run true, or an oversizehole wll be
made.Replaccbent drills.

Drilling Holes
l. Hold rhemo(orllrmly. Hold thedill at 90. anslelo rhe
surface,as shownin Fig.4-7.

FiE.4-7. S.turc
dnll\nh t.1.

F
Fig.4-, Trpi.aliDnrorc ai o'!thma s.

2. Staf the hole by placn8lhe point of rhe drill on the

markedcenterline.With the fingers,turnthechucl un(il an indentations made.(Omit this step when
drilliDgthrougha drill bushingor whena pilor holeex_
lsts.)

84

Drillng nd Countrsinking

SlandardAircroll Hondbook

3. Positionthumbandfbfefingerto preventthe d.ill from

goingtoo ff throughhc work, which cancausedamageto itemson theothersideor resultin an overslzed
hole.
4 Drill the hole by starlingthe drill motorand exening
pessure
on thecenterhne
of thedrill Exenjust enough
pressure
to sta( thedrill cu(rnga fa'rtylrgesizeofchip
andmaintainthrspressureunril the dritl stansto come
throughthework
5 . Decreasethe pressureand cushionthe breakthrough
whenthedrillcomes
withtheflngers
through.
Do notler
thedrill go anyfartherthroughrheholelhanls necessary
to makea 8ood.cleanhoe.Do nol lel lhedrill spinln the
holeany longerthannecessry.
Withdrawthe drill from lhe hole in a straightline peF
pendicular
10thework.Keepmolorruntilgwhile withdrawingdrill.
To ensurepropercenteringand a corcct. llnl-sizedhole,
rivel holesareusuallypilotdrilledwrha drill bit rhatis smaller
lhan the one usedto flnish the hole Selecledlrger-diameter
holesmustbe predrilldafter pilot drilin8 nd beforefinirlszeddrillingto ensurea round,i|ccurate
holefor thervet This
procedure
is sometimes
refeedro asstepilli B.
parts,suppotthepart
Nore:Whendrilllng thin sheel-metal
fiom lherearwilh r woodenbk)ckor othersuilablemarerialto
prcventbending.
Forenlargingholesin rhinsheetnretaluse:
Plaslrc{ypedolls for holedirmeterX' andunder
Holesawsfor holesoler X" diameter(F9.4-8).Do not use
counlerbores
or spofacers

FlC,4-4. fot (rtry cleon.

korellitlk r holet t thnt slt.u
tcktl, hok t\t! ronrb^

Usingan Extension
Drill
Specialdrills canbe usedwith the air-drillmotor The lons
drifl lsometimes
crlfedaJt,":ihl?rill) comesin commondril-l
szesand in 6,inch,8-inch,l0-nch.or longerlentths.Do nor
usea ongerdnll thannecessary.
SeeFig.4,9.
CAUTION
l. Beforestartingthc motor,hold the exlensionncar the
flute end wth one hsnd as shownin Fg.4-10,Don't
touchth llutcs and don'aforgetto wearsafelyglssses
or a facshield,
2. Drill throughthe part. Do not let go ofthe drill shank.
Keepthe motor running as the drill is removd.

Fig.4-9. Sl<t! rIr t'J

te.orcctltrth aid si.-

WRON

FiA. +10. H1LItl'L ttrsit,l

r Rat
1tu n \ ith ot
'e
hdn.Ar msuppode dU tirh
*hipanm o utse irn

86

DrillngandCountersinking

Standard Aircraft Handbooh

Drilling Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

Drilling thesematerialshas becomequite commonplce
and few difficultiesarc experiencedSomeof the neweraluminumalloysof high siliconconrentand someof the castalloysstill presentseveralproblems.
drillscanbeusedfor ll sheetmateriI.
Ceneral-purpose
can be usedwhen dilling aluHigh ralesof penetration
of
chips
or cuttingss very impolant.
minum:hence.disposal
ralesandstill disposeof the
To permitthesehigh-penetrtion
(heheatgenerated
chips,drills haveto befreecuttingto redDce
of chips.
aDdhavelargefluteareaslbr thepassage
has
rndiction
ofdrill moAlthoughthemechanic no difect
ror speed,a relalivelyhighrpmcanbeused

Drilling Titanium and TitaniurnAlloys

Titaniumand its alloyshavelow-volumespeclficheatand
low thermalconductivity,causingthemto het readrlyat the
pointofcutting.andmakingthemdifficltlo coolbecause
the
readily
heatdoesnot dissipate
ThermalproblelscanbeslbeovercoDeby reducingeither
rhespeedor theteed.Fofunrlely,titaniumalloysdo not workthuslighterfeedpressures
canbeused
hardenappreciably.
drills containing
high carbon,
Whenusingsuper-high-speed
and
high
drilling
heats,a
vanadium,
andcobaltto resistbrasion
speed(rpm)considerably
slowerthanforalminummustbeused.
SeeChapter3 fbr furtherinformationregardingthednlllng
of titanium.

Drilling StainlessSteel
Stainless
sleelis moredifficultto drill thanaluminumalloys
propandsraightcarbonstelbecause
of the work-hardening
to
erties.Because
of work hardening,
it is mosimportant cut
with a uniformspeedandfeed.lf thetool is percontinuously

87

mittedto rub or idle on thework,thesurfacewill becomework

hardened
to a pointwhereit is difficultto restathecut.
For best resultsin cuttiog stainlesssteel,the following
shouldbeadheredto:
.
.
.
.

Usesharpdrills,pointangle135".
Usemoderate
speeds
Useadequate
andunifon feedsUseanadequate
amountof sulfurizedmineraloil or solubleoil asa coolant,
ifpossible.
. Usedrill motorspeeds
thesameasfor trtanlum.
Hint
Whendrillingthroughdissimilarmaterials,
drill throughthe
hardermaterialfirst to preventmakingn egg-shaped
hole in
thesoftermaterial.

Deburring
Drilling operations
causebunsto form on eachsideof the
sheetnd betweensheers.Removalof theseburrs,calledbu,rkhrgor buftitlg, must be performedif the burs tend to
causea separation
betweenthepartsbeingriveted.Burrsunder
therheadof a rivet do not, in general,resultin unacceptable
riveting.The bus do not haveto beremovedif thematerialis
to be used immediately;however,sharpbDrrsmust be removed,if the materialis to be storedo stacked,to prevent
scralchng
of adjacenlpatsor injury to personnel.
Caremustbe takento limit the amountof metalremoved
whenburrsare removed.Removalof any appreciable
amount
ofmaterialfrom theedgeof therivetholewill resultin a iveted
joint of loweredstrengthDeburringshallnot be performedon
predrilledholesthatareto be subsequently
form countersunk.
Removedrill chipsanddirt prorto rivetingto prevenrseparationofthe sheets
beingriveted Burfsandchipscanbe minimized by clampingthe sheetssecurelyduring drilling and

88

StandordAirrrslt Hsndbook

backingup theworkifthe rearmemberisnotsufficientlyrigid.

to reA "chip chasei'(Fig.4-l l) canbe usedwhennecessary
moveloosechipsbetweenthematerial.
-F|!!r+-

E9

Driling and Counter6inking

Tlpes of CountersinkingCuttrs
The straightshankcutteris shownin Fig. +13. Thecutting
angleis markedon the tlody.Cuttinganglescommonlyusedare
of thebodyvariesfrorn'1"to I'1".A
100'and110'.Thediameter
is mostcommonlyused.
of%"diameter
countersink

Body

Eody

Cufts
Cultig

7,/ \\

a'rc1,"d-;

A91.

-v,z
,4-

'< \

FiE 4-13. Soigh! nnak and rcseb counte^i,tkFlC. 4-ll. A chp .haser cat' h? use o ftov
chiF be^teen nnerial

COUNTERSINKING
requirea countersunk
Flushheadrivets( 100' countersunk)
holeprepared
for themanufactured
rivetheadto nestin. This is
accomplished
by oneof two methods:machinecountersinking
(dimpling),asshownin Fig 4-12.
or form countersinking

A countersink
cutter(rosebud)for angledrills,alsoshown
will do lhejob.
in Fig.4- 13,is usedif no othercountersink
(Fig.4-14)conssts
of thecutteranda
Thestopcountersink
shankto fit thecageandan incage.Thecurterhasa threaded
tgralpilot Thecuttingangleis markedon thebody.Thecage
consistsof a foot piece,Iockingsleeve,locknut,and spindle.

5URFACT
COUNIERSUNK

SIJIfACEDIMPLED

"sAK

Fig. 4-72. CouneNkirBad

SUB-5UIFACE
COUNIERSUK
SUiFACEDIMPLO

5U-SUFACE
OIMPLTD

FiE.4-14.

The stop .oattenirk.

90

AircraftHandbook
Standard

DriuinsandCountersinking

The foot-pieceis also availablein variousshapesand srzes

Stop countersinks
mustbe usedin all countersinkrng
operations,exceptwheretheeis not enoughclearance

type and size in the scrap mate al. The rivet heads
shouldbe flush after driving In some cases,where
aerodynamicsmoothness
is a necessity,the blueprint
might specifyrhatcountersunk
holesbe madeso that
flush headfastenerswill be a few thousandths
of an
inch high. Suchfasteners
areshavedto closelimits after driving.
5. Countersink
the part Be sureto holdthe skrtto keepit
ftom makingthepartandapplya steadypressure
to the
motorto keepthecutterfrom chattering
in thehole.

CAUTION
When using a stop countersink,alwayshold the skirt
lirmly wilh one hand.If lhe countersnkturns or vibrates,
the matrialwill b marredand a rng will be madearound
the hole.
(Fig. 4-15) shouldbe used
Back (inseted)countercinks
whenaccessfor countersinking
is difTicult.The backcountersinkconsistsof two pieces:a rod,of the se diameteras the
driledhole,whichslipsthroughthehole,and cutterthatis ttachedon thefa side

FiB.4.l5.

A ht^ unn!^itik.

CountersinkingHoles
To countersink
holes,proceedsfbllows:
I Inspecttheholestobecountersunk.
Theholesmustbeof
the propersize,perpendicular
to the work suface,and
notbe elongred.
2 Selectthe propersizeof countersink.
The pilot should
just fit theholeandtum freelyin the hole.If theholeis
too tight. the cutter will "freeze-up"in the hole and
mightbreak.
3 Checktheangleof thecounter\ink
4. Setthedepthof thestopcountersink
on a pieceof scrap
part.
beforecountersinking
a
Always checkfor proper
headflushnessby driving a f-ewrivetsof the required

9l

Form Countersinking(Dimpling)
Blueprintsoften specify form countersinkingto form a
strongejoint than machinecountersinkingprovides.The
sheetis not weakenedby cuttingmetalaway,but is formedto
interlockwith the substructureThe two typesof form coun.
tersrnkingacceptedare corn dimpling and modified radius
dimpling.
Coin Dimpling
Coindimplingis accomplished
by usingeithera portable
or a stationarysqueezer.fitted with specialdimpling dies
(Fig. 4- 16).Thesespecialdiesconsistof a maledieheldnone
jaw of thesqueezer
anda femaledieheldin theotherjaw In the
femaledie, a movablecoiningram exertscontrolledpressure

Fig. 4-16. Cain dnrpk ic\ ! lontplsof .ont .linplirs

92

Standard Airtmft Hsndbook

on theunderside
ofa hole,whilerhemaledie exenscontrolled
pressure
on the uppersideto fbrm dimple.Pressure
applied
by the coiningrm forms.or "coins,"a dimple in the exacl
shapeof the dies.Coin dimplingdoesnot bndor stretchthe
malerial,as did the now-obsolete
radius-dimplng
system,and
the dimpledefinilionis almosras sharpas rhatof a machine
countersink.
Becauserhelowerand uppersidesof rhediple
are parallel,any numberof coineddinples can be nestedto,
getheror into a machinecountersink
nd theactionol thecoining ramprevenlscmckngofthe dimple.
Coin dimplingis usedon all skrn\whenform counrersinking is specified,and,whereverpossible,on the substructure.
Whenit is impossible
to getcoin-dimping
equipnenrinroditficult placeson lhe substructure,
a modifiedradiusdimplecan
beusedanda condimplecanrhennestin anothercoindimple,
or a machinecounters,nk,
or a moditledradiusdmDIe.Unless
the drawingspecfies
otherwise,dimplingshallbe pertbrmed
only on a singlethckness
of material.
Modined RadiusDimpling
Themodifiedradiusdimpleis similarro thecoindimple,
exceptthatthecoiningramis stationrynthefemaledieands
locatedat lhe bottomof the recess(Fig. 4 17). Becausethe

Drilling and Countersinking

pressureappliedby thestationarycoiningramcannotbecontrolled,themounrof forgingor coinrngis limited.Themodifiedradiusdimpledoesnorhaveassharpa definitionasthe

coindimple Because
theupperandlowersidesof themodied rdiusdmpleare nor parallel,this typeof drmplecan
nevernestntoanother
dlmDe
or countersink,
andwhenused
mustalwaysbe the botromdimple.The advanrtge
of rhe
modifiedradiusdlmplersthatthedimplingequlpment
canbe
madesmallernd cangel i||tootherwise
inaccessble
places
on lhe substructufe
Dintplesfor panelfsteners,
suchas
Dzus.Camloc,andArlocfasreners,
mightbe modifiedradiusdimDled
Heatis usedwith somclypesof matefal
whcndoingeitherlype of torm dimpling-Magnesium,
tilanium.ndcertain aluminumlloys musr be dimpledwith heateddies.
Pmed surfaces
can be hot or cold dimpled,depending
on
he melal,andheatcanbe usedto dimpleany malerial.
exceplstainless
steel.o prevenr
cmckingA rlmcoinhotdim,
Dleris shownin Fis 4-18.

Fig.4-ra. A rut tui't hol

M O O TFTEO RA O t US O t E S

IM IIOVABL E

COIN ING RAM

Fig. 1-17. M.xliliel-nd6 dnnpk is

93

94

Standard
AircraftHandbook

Hole Preparationfor Form CounteEinkng

Preparation
ofholesfor form countersinkng
is ofgreatimportancebecauseirnproperlydrilled holesresultin defective
dimptes.Holesfor solid-shank
rivetsust be sizedrilled,beforedimpling,by usinglheszedrilsrecommended
forregulr
holes.Holesfor otherfasteners
mustbe predrilledbeforedimpli9, andthendrilledro size,accordingto theblueprintor appl,cblespecification
afterdimpling.Do not burr holesto be
formcountersunk.
exceoton titanium

Drillingnd Counaersinktng

95

smoothness)
mghtrequireshaving.Theaountthala rvetcan
protrudeabovethesudaceofthe skinvarieswith eachairplan
modelandwith differentsurfaces
on theairplane.Rivet shaving (milling) is accomplished
wirh an air-d.iven,high"speed
cutlerin a rivershaver,asshownin Fig. 4,19.

CAUTION
Form contersinkingequipment (condmpling and modired radius dmpling) s normally operatedonly by certilied
ofreiatos who have lreenirstructed and cified to operale
thsequipmenl
To accompish
genemldimpling,proceedasfollows:
l. Frt sknnplaceon substructure
2. Ploldrill all holes(Clecooften).
3. Drill to propersizefor dimpling:final sizefor conventionalrivets;predrillsizefor all otherflvers
4. Mark all holesaccordingro NAS523rivet codelelters
(seeChaprerl0) to showtherypeandsizeoffastenerbe.
foreremovingtheskinor orherpartsfrom theassembly
Mark "DD," which meansdimpledotvn,with a grease
pencilon theheadsideofthe pan.
5. Removetheskinandhaveir dimpled.
6. Havethe substructure
dimpledor countersunk
as specified on theblueprint.Mark it, asin step4.
7 Sizedrill holeswhennecessary.
8. Fit theskin.
9. Installtherivets.

FiA.4-19. Tt^pi.alnv! slnkr

Afier shaving.fasteners,
shouldbe fushwithin0.001inch
abovethe surface-venthougha greaterprotuberance
is allowablen thatpaticularareafor unshaved
raseners.
WARNING
Shavedfasteneshavea sharpedgand could b a haz.
ard to pesonnel.
Shavedrivetsand abradedareasadjacentto shavedrivets
and bindrivetsthat havebrokenpin endsand are locatedin
parts,for which applicabledrawingsspecifypaintprotection.
mustbe treatedfor improvedpainradheson

SHAVING FLUSH HEAD FASTENERS

REAMERS

Rivers,bolts,screws,or otherfasteners
thatprotrudeabove
the surface(beyondallowabletolerancesfor aerodynamic

Reamers
areusedto smoothandenlargeholesto theexact
size,Handreamers
havesquareendshanksso thattheycanbe

96

StandardAircraft Handbook

tumedwith a tap wrenchor a similarhandle-Vaiousreamers

areillustratedn Fig.4-20.
tTAIOHf iEAME

(r{Axo)

tAfr
iEAMCi
IHAXOI

ttatoxf
iEAUi
l?owE)

L:=r"ltF
ETPAIIOX EAME

AOJUTAILEAET

FiA. 4-ZO. I\t)n at tlunte1

A hole that is to be reamedto exaclsizemustbe drilled

A cut thatremovesmoe
abour0.003-to 0 007-inchundersize.
than0.00?inchplcestoo muchloadon thereamerandshould
not battempteo,
Reamers
aremadeol eithercarbontool steelor hiSh-sPed
steelreamerloselheir
steelThecuttingbladesofa hiSh-sped
soonerthan(hoseof a carbonsteelreamer;
originalkeenness
is gone,theyarestill seF
however,iftertheflrst superkeenness
viceableThehrgh-specd
rcamerusuallylaslsmuchlonger(han
thecarbonsteeltype.
ro thepoinlofbingbritlleand
Reamerbladesarehardened
mustbehandledcarefullylo avodchppingthem.Whenreamin thecuttingdirectiononly.Turn
ing a hole,rotatethereaDrer
thereamersteadilyandevenlyto preventchallerinS,markinS,
andscoringtheholearea
Reamersare availablein any standardsze.The strarghl
fluredreameris lessexpensivethanthe spiral-flutedreamer,
but the spiraltypehaslcsstendencyto chatlerBoth typesre
taperedfor a shot dislancebackof the end to aid n stafling.

DrillngsndCounlrslnklng

97

Bottomingreamershaveno taperandareusedto completethe

reamingof blindholes.
For generaluse,an expansion
reameris e moslpractical.
This type is fumishedin slandardszesfrom Z to I inch,increasingin diameterby f," increments.
Taperreamers,both
had- and machine-oprated,
are usedto smoothand true taperedholesandrecesses.

Riveting

practicalmeansof fasteningairplane
Rivetingis the strongest
together.Althoughthe cost of nskinsand the substficture
stallingonerivetis small,thegreatnumberof rivetsusednairplane manufacturerepresentsa large percentageof the total
costof anyairplane.

SOLID-SIIANK RIVETS
Althoughmanyspecialrivetsarecoveredlaterin thschaprivetsarc lhe mostcommonly
ter, solid-shank(conventional)
usedrivetsin aircraftconstructionTheyconsistof a manufacturedhead,a shank,anda drivenhead.Thednvenhead,sometimesc lled a shopheador upsethead,is c usedby upsening
Theshankactually
theshankwith aivet gunordvet squeezer.
expandsslightlywhile beingdrivenso the rivet fits tightly in
thedrilledhole(Fig.5-1).

Material
from severalkindsof
Solid-shank
ivetsare manufactured
metalo differentalloysof thesemetalsto fulfill specificequirements.
Thesediffeentmetalsandalloysareusuallyspecified in a rivet desiFation by a systemof letters.They are

100

Slndard Aircmft Hsndbook

""^?ry+'
io.ts-

r 0 o ' C"rei r

i .!t

t m+'
<o F -

Rivet [pes and Identification

ln thepast,solid-shankri vetswith severaldifferenttypesof

for useon aircraft;now only three
headsweremanufactured
basicheadtypesare used:countersunk,
universal,and round
head;however,in specialcases,therearea few exceptions
to
(Fig.
thisrule
5-3).

/n

LI L]

fig. 5-1. Rivetnrtehlaturc and bosic ape'llioh

furtheridetifiedby a systemofmarkingson therivet head.In

somecases,the absence
of a headmarkingsignifiesrhealloy
within a pafllcularalloy group,or a particularcoloris usedfor
a particularalloy.Figure5-2 showsthe morecommonlyused
aluminumalloy rivets
YOU CAN fELL THTMATERIAL
BY THEHEADMARKING
Rivcl
\--l

Cod.

/F-l
\-

PLAIN(DycdRcd)

I 100

AO

DIMPLED

2 |7

DD

TWORAISEO
OASHES2021

RAISED
CROSS
(Dy.d Brow)

OF
OF
OF
@F

505

TWO DOTS

FiE S-2. Mon cotnmonahminun o\ rtts Mor\ til ad

,niliary j aretu[t us 7075rNts S?Chappt ll, Srun.lard
Pans ft ditiotdl t
rypes
^,.1

l0t

Riveting

HCAO

f--

al|r55
taztEi
^ala
HEAD

M620a2a
OOO.
ar{a2a(r@tl'
coufltEisutaK
HEAO

NmEr Wh6 rellaE.nt h ne.sly f pt audinS hd riEt!-'@dhe4

lld, d bEid had-tlEy @ u!lly b. repL@d by iversl hd ivtsFiE S-3. Stlle o[ h"a n iettihhlg

,untbp The b,ai."t

drd iol

Rivets are identified by their MS (Military Standard)

number,which superseded
the old AN (Army-Navy) number. Both designationsare still n use,however(Figs. 5-3
and5-4)
The 2017-Tand 2024-Trivet$(Fig. 5-5) are usedin aluminumalloy structures,
wheremorestrengthis neededthanis
obuinablewth thesameszeof 2l l7-T rivet.Theserivetsare
annealed
andmustbekept refrigerated
until theyareto bedriven.The 2017-Trivet shouldbe drivenwithin approximately
onehourandthe2024-Trivet wrthin 10to 20 minutesafterre(Fig.5-5).
movalfrom refrigeration
Theserivets,typeD and DD, requirespecialhandlingbequenched,
causetheyareheattreated,
andthenplaced
underreprocess.
frigerationto delaythe age-hardening
The rivetsare
deliveredto the shopas neededandareconstantlykept under
refrigeration
untljustbeforetheyaredrivenwith a rivetgunor
squeezef
set,

102

Riveting

M520470AD 4-7

alloy structures
The 5056nvet is usedto rivet magnesium
qualitres
with
in combjnation
because
ofits corrosron-resistant
magnesrum

{4S20470........
A D...........4 .. - -.. '......7
Length
lype Heod Moteriol Dioete.
Me o s u re d Me osured
in 32nds
i n l tht
o f o n i n c h o f o n i nch
fro
L e g thi s m e o 5 u red
rh e ro p o f th e fl ush heod
o n l h e u n d e Gi d eo{ the

RIVETING PRACTICE
EdgeDistance
Edge distanceis the distanceliom lhe edge of the material
to Lhecenterof the nearestrivet hole (Fig 5 6) If the drawing
does not specify a mlnimum edge drstance,the prefend edge
dislanceis double the diameterof the rrvet shank(Fig. 5-7)

NOTE:Tb 2117'Tivet,kn(m asthe fieldrivet is $ed morethanev oter

fo. riveting .lminum lloy st!.tures The field rvet h in d dand be_
cuseit is redy ior use s rceived nd needsno fu.the. ht_treatns or n_
to codosio
nlins It alsos a hish esistance

EDGEOISTANCE

FiA. 5-4. Cad brcktlo\1

\4

Raisedi

103

Standard Aircraft Hsndbook

r'-\

Fig.S-s. Icebl\' r,e6: T)'pe

D,2t)t7-T(let) dh.lTrpeDD,
2424-T(tight)

Rememberthesepoints about icebox ivets:

Takeno morethancaDbe drivenin 15minutes.

Keepiverscoldwith dry ice.
Hit themhard,not often.
Neverput rive6 backin theefrigerator
Putunusedrivetsin thespecialcontainerprovided.
SAFETY PRECAUTION
Dry ice hs a temptatureof-105'F. Handlecarefully;
it can causea severeburn.

Fie. 5-6. l llunm ti nn, f r'iw\,

NIVEI
SHAt{K
DIA.

2 x OlA. +.03

litl. 5-7. Dtrn titl r I e.lse dnr|lc?

tM

StandardAircralt Handbook

Rivting

RiYetLength
Solid shankrivet lengthsareneverdesigntedon theblueprint;themechanrc
mustselecttheprcperlength(Fig 5-8).
MS20,170
& MS2042
lh l.nsth of lh.
'v.t
onk 61.dne b.y6d
th. mt.rol rhaid b.

Dio.

3/32"

|/a"

o css{

5/32"

t/8

5/61

3/32

sAz

t/8

t/t6
t/t6

| /32
| /32

r/8

,30

7h2

r/u

5/U

3/U

s/32

t 21
, ll

9/n

13/U

3/32

t/t6

rrA2

\/1

t/s

s/u

27/64

2t/u

542 342

't3/32

5/t6

3/t6
t/1
5/t

o css

{s
o sl
o

,st (.070)
(o.o9so)
'40
t30 (0.1285)
,2r (0.159)
/r ! ( o.l 9r )
.4MM (0.252)

FiE S-9. Dtillsi.?sfar ntioa r^,etionetc^.

t 5l
lq

1/ t 6

DRILL

cssssl
o <scsl

3/16"

o,itl
Dlo,

USETHS
stzE

TODRILLA
TTOLE
FORTHIS
SIZERIVET

t/t6"

105

,o

s/8

't/8

Rivt L.srh = AllowoG+M.t.iolThck.s

{ L- A + M T )

t/8
5/32
3/t6

3/t6

r/4

v8

Fig. 5-9 Holes must be clean, round, and of the proper srze.
Forcing a rivet into a small hole will usually causea buff to
form under the rivet head

Useof Clecos
Acleco rsa sprng-oadd
clampusedro holdpartstogether
for riveting.Specialpliersareusedto insertclecosinto holes
(Fig.s-10).

t/1
5/r6

Fig. 5-4. Detcnntirtsrite leBt.

Hole Preparation
ConsultChaper 4 for holepreparation
detailsad for informationon countersinking
the holesand sha!ingof flushheadrivets.Drill sizesfor vtu_ious
nvet dianeersis shownin

Cl.co siz!
Color

3n2

1/S

s/32

Coppcr Block

Fig. S-lO. Clctot !t" et1e i'lto hoks r.ith \\\'ntl

ct.o \i.es arc kl(t b\ tolors

3/t6
Srcs
d.o p|ets

l0

StandardAlrcft Handbook

Dving Solid-ShankRivefs
bedrivenandbuckedby oneopSolidrivetscansometimes
eratorusing the convnrionalgun and buckingbar method
whenherels easyaccessto both sidesof lhe work. In most
cases,however,two operlorsare equiredto drive conventionalsolid-shank
rivets.

Rivetng

107

NOTE
Always seecta rivet gun sizeand bucking bar wight
that will drive thc rivct with as few bloes as possbte.

Rivet Sts
Rivet sets(Fig. 5-12)aresteelshf6lhat are insetedinlo
thebarel of the rivetgun to transferrhevibratingpowerfrom
thegun to theriverhcad(Fig.5- l3)

Rivet Guns
Rivergunsvary in size,typeof handle,numberof strokes
per minute,provisionsfor regulatingspeed,and a few olher
features.But, in genemloperatron,they are all basicllylhe
should
usea rivet-gun
szelhat
same(Fig.5-l l) Themechanic
bestsuitsthe sizeof the rvet beingdriven.Avoid usngtoo
light a rivet gun because
thedrivenheadshouldbe upsetwith
lhe fewestblowspossible

-t-{8,

Flurh S.r

S koshrS .r

TY P E SU S E DTO CLEAROBSTRUCIIONS:

J)
__l--

-l--,
--li=-----}
-il-\_/
FiA.5-12.?rp.ntna se's
S.t

SFi9

0ftt -G=lorr.l

A sing
fitt to th.

Roguloror

'GOOSENECK'
Pirol Erip hodlc
Fs.5-ll. rr,(r/(trr

S AF E T Y A.Eciv.ton

sun

g.rnir dosoro(! - n v.r

without o r.toi.r tp.ing.

Flg.5-13. nrc tnu eu dndtl'e kr xo k'rl't lik.

'ir

r08

StandardAircraft Hondbook

r09

Riveting

Selecta rivet setfor the styleof headandsizeof the river.

Universalrivet setscanbe identifiedwith the tool numberand
slzeof therivet.Flushsetscanbe identifiedonly with thetool
(Fig.5-14).Alsoshownin Fig.5-14is theresultof usnumber
lnq tncoffect sets,

3tzE
ot sE

8or
3Ef

FiE S-15. Son

bkkBbts
^.picat

abarspossible
to drivetheriverwith asfew blowsaspossible.
Frgure5-15showssometypicalbuckingbrshapes.
N VERfHrS ..,,. . . . . , . , . , . . . , . . . , , . O TH|S

RivetingProcedure
Operatea nvetgun andinstalrivetsasfolows:
-!

L-

rs^.,rEr _-J 5

FiE.5-14. Tltrom.t s.t nuxt bny.lhr nE riret bentr

BuckingBars
A buckingbar is a pieceof steelusedto upsetthe driven
hedof therivet.Buckingbarsaremadein a vaietyofsizesand
shapesto fit varioussituatios.Buckingbarsmustbe handled
Whenchoosingabucking
carefullytopreventmarringsurfaces.
bar to get into smallplaces,chooseone rn whichthecenterof
graviryfalls as nearas possrble
overtherivet shankAvoidusing toolight of a buckrngbarbecause
thiscauses
excessive
deflectionof thematerialbeingdvetedthat,in tum, mightcause
markingof theouterskinby therivet set.A buckingbar tharis
too heavywill causea flateneddrivenheadandmightcausea
loosemanufaciured
you shoulduseasheavy
head,Remember,

I Instaltheproperrivet setin gun andttachtherivet set

retainingspring,if possjble.CertainUushsetshaveno
provisionfor a retainingspring.
2 Connecttheair hoselo thegun
3 Adjust the air regulator(Fig 5-16),whichconrrolsthe
pressure
or hittingpowerof therive!gun,by holdingthe
rivet setagainsta blockof woodwhiepullingthetrigger,which controlsthe operatingtime of the gun The
opemtorshouldtime the gun to form the headin one
"burst,"rf possible
4 Inse properrivel in hole.
5. Hold or wait for e buckerto hold the buckingbar on
theshankof therivet.Thegunoperatorshould
"feel" the
pressure
beingappliedby thebuckerandtry to equalize
rnrsPressure
6 Pull theguntriggerto elease
a shortburstofblows.The
rivet shouldnow be properlydriven,if the timing was
conect,andprovidedthatthebuckingbarandgun were

110

Rivting

StandsrdAircraft Handbook

THERIVE GUN ISOPFATEOBYCOMPESSEDAIN

UREmakesthe gun hit h.dd fast

FULI-PRESS
LOW PRESSUREnkesthe 8un hit soft and slow

TH|S

....' ...

""' >

CAN NESUIfFROMTHE
WONGPRESSUNE

WEAF EANPIUGSWHE
RIVEfINGOB EUCKIIiIG

IiE 5-17. Hldin9tivet Bun u butkinB bat on

o f i f H rs..

"

"

>

W,og
Flg.5-16. Aju! heairrSulatarhacatrcttthehtti1qPowerI
the tire setosainsta blockoftDl
thegubr hldi118

held firmly and pelpendicular(square)with the work

(Fiss-17).
Rrvetgunoperatofishouldalwaysbefamiliarwiththe type
theskinbeingrivetedandmustrealizethe
of structurebeneath
problemsof thebucker(Fig 5-18).

Risht

e. 5-14. Th bu&r hotl not let the sltp .ot

net oa bcking bat contart aI insie tu liu! o the
skinotant othet objt

CAUTION
Nevr operatea rivet gun on a rivet, unlessit is being
bucked.The bucker shouldalwayswait for the gun operator to stopbeforegettingofTa rive[.

lt2

RiYcfinB

StsndsrdAircraft Hadbook

l13

Blind Bucking

Skilledrivelers:
. Usea slowactiongun;Cseasierto control
. Usea lX" bell.typerivetsetfor general-purpose
flushriv_
el,n8,
. Adjustlhe air pressure
sufficientlyto drivea rivet in two
or threeseconds,
. Useyourbodyweightto holdtherivetgunandsetfirmly
rherivet.
against
. Hold thegunbael at a 90" angleto thematerial
. Squeeze
the triggerby grippingit with your entirehand,
a spongerubberball Be
as thoughyou weresqueezing
surerhatthebuckngbar is on therivet.
. Opratelhe rvet8un with one bad; handlerivetswith
yourotherhand.
. Sporrivettherssmblyi
holesfor spotnvets.
avoidreaming
. Plana sequence
for rivelinglhe asstmbly.
. Drivelh rivetsto a rhythm

rivelingis visually
ln manyplaceson an airplanestructure,
I'mited.A longbuckingbar mighthavelo be usedand,in some
cases.the buckerwill not be ableto seethe end of the rivel
Muchskill is requiredto do thiskindof buckingin orderto hold
thebuckingbarsquarewith therivetandto preven!it fromcoThe drivenheadmight
ig into conlactwith the substructure.
by meansofa mirror,asshownin Fig.5-20.
hveto beinspected

Inspec{on8ftr rveling

SeeFig 5.19.
Blindbuckg
Srd'd b.hind sun.
Kp.lbow in fror.
w.ight ogosrgrn.

i'Btectk t.
FiA.5-20. Blnd buck,tEand

TappingCode
0ody wcighr murt ba
dpplid whil. lqu.Gzing lhc trgglr or ih.
eun will bouncc off,
cuttg th. qt.rol or

Flg. S-r9. S^ilh\t ti\',^edoP sprc.edrre 0 \,r* to t

to enablethe
A tappingcode(Fig 5-21)hasbeenestablished
with themechanic
drivingtherivet:
rivetbuckrto communicate
L Onetap on e rivet by the rivet buckermens:strtor
resumedrivingtherivet.
2. Two tapson therivetby therivet buckermeansthdl the
rivet is satisfactory.
3. Threetapson therive! by therivetbuckrmeansthatthe
rivet is unsatisfactory
andmustbe removd

StandardAircraft Handbook

Riveling

Fig. s-2t. nrypnrycode

CAUTION
Always tap on lhe rivet; do nol tap on the skin or any
paraof the aircraft structure.

HAND RIVETING
Hand rivetingmight be necessry
in somecases.It is accomplished
by holdinga buckingbaragainsttherivet head.usnga drawtool anda hammerto bringthesheetslogether,and
a handsetandhammerlo formthedfivenhead(Fig 5 22).For
protruding
headrivels,thebuckingbarshouldhavea cupthe

FiA. 5-22. Hn1 unry pn.edwe

samesize and shapeas rhe rivet head.The handset can be

short or long, as required Do not hammerdirecdy on the
rivetshank.

RIVET SQUEEZERS
Solid shankrivets can asobe driven by usig either a portable
or starionaryrivet squeezer(Fig. 5-23) Both rhe stationry and
portablesqueezersre operatedby air pfessufe,

116

Rivellng

stndsrd Alrcraft Hsndbook

111

PORTABIE

!!siT,
SIATIONARY
r !lrlll!-l!!t

N.ver usr squ.zer

vithout lrigt! tuaid.

SOUEEZER
STTS

-'+
<>

urvE t
sEf
Eig.5-ll.

FLUlrl
tEt

,------l

)o)

3E

Sttiutd^ torl potlhl litt t.!u4:^

the rivesareautomatcally
On somestationarysqueezers,
up:
opcralionis speeded
so
that
the
riveting
fedto therivesels
the
and
drive
on othertyps,lhemchineswll punchtheholes
rivetsasfastastheoprationPermils.
WARNINC
Alwaysdisconnectthe air hoscbefoechangingsetsin a
rivt squeezer.

InspectionAft er Rivting
Manufacturedheads should be smooth, free of tool
marks,and have no 8ap undr the headafier rveting.No
cracksshouldbe in the(kin aroundtherivet head.Thedrvn
head should not be cockedor cracked.The heiShtof the
buckedheadshouldbe 0 5 timesthe rivet diameterand the

.@Y cr'cxro roo bci

rL.r.r cliicx.o r.,v.i

FlA.S-2. Trpnal.nt np4ttit,tt.

widthshouldbe 1.5timestherivetdiamererTherearea few

mnorexceptions
to the\e rules,but the ntechanic
should
striveto makeal rivetsperflrct.Figure5-24illustralesexam
plesof goodandbadriveting.

RIVET REMOVAL
Solidshankrvetremovalis ccomplished
by thefollowing
procedures:
L Drill throughthecenterof rherivet head,perpendicula
to surfaceof thematerial.Userhesamedrill sizeaswas

ll8

Sasndsrd
Aircrafl Hondbook
usedto makerheoriginalhole Drill to thedepthwhere
heheadofthc rivetioinsthefivershank.
2 In$er a dift pin into rheholeandpry off the riverhead
The drift pin shallbe he samesizeas the drill usedto
mketheorginal
hole.
3 Supportthe mterialfrom therearwirh a woodenblock
a||dtapout thervetshankwith a drifrpin nd a lighr
weiShthmmer
4. Installa newriver,ofhesametypeandszeasrheoriginal. f rhe hole has not beenenlargedin removal
process
5- If hole has beenenlargedor elongaredbeyondtoleF
ances,thenextlargersizeofrivel will haveto beusedor
rhepartmusrbescrappd.
depending
upontherype.size.
ndlocationoI thenver.

BLIND RWETS
Therearemanyplaceson an aircraftwhereaccessto both
sidesof a rivetedslructureor structuralpartis impossible,
or
wherelimilcdspacewill not permitrheuseof buckingbar.
Blndrivetsarerivetsdesigned
to benstalled
fromoneside
of hework whereaccessto rheoppositesidecannobe made
to instlconvenlioll
rivets Althoughthis wasthe basicreason for the developmenr
of blind rivets,they are sometimes
usedn applicationsthat are not blind This is doneto save
time,money.man-hours,
andweightln the(achment
ofmny
nonstrlrclural
parts,suchas aircraftin(eriorfumishings,flooF
ing,deicingboots,ndthelike,wherehefull strengrh
ofsolid.
shankrivets is not necessary.
Theserivets are producedby
severalmanufacturers
andhaveuniquecharacteristics
thatrequirespecalinstallationtoos,specalnslallation
procedures.
andspecialemovalprocedures,
Basicaly,nearlyall blind riversdependuponrheprinciple
of drawinga stemor mandrelthrougha sleeveo accomplish
theformingof lhebucked(pset)head.

Rivctlng

lt9

Althoughmanyvariationsof blind rivetsexist,depending

on lhe manufacturef,
thereareessentially
threetypes:
. Hollow,pull-roughrivets(Fig. 5-25),used
mainlyfor
nonstfuctural
applicatlons,
. Self-ptugging,frcrionlock rivers(Fig. 5_26),whereby
the ste s retainedin e rivet by friction.Although
strenethof theserivelsapproaches
rhato[ conventior;al
solid-shank
rivets,thereis no positivemechanica
lockto
felarnlnesrcm.
. Mechanicallocked-slem
setf-pluSging
rivets(Ft. 5_27),
whereby
a lockingcollarmechanically
rerarns
rnesrem
in the rivet. This posirive lock resstsvibration that
couldcausethefriction.lockrivetsto loosenandDossi_
bly tll our.Self-plugging
rechanica-lock
riveLsdisplay all the srrengthcharacreristicsof solid_shank
ives;in almoslall cases,theycan be subsfitutedrivet
for rivet.

Bloreinr/ldon

Afi.r ins{astion

Pult-.throu0h
rdbr'
Fig.5-25. Psl.thnnsh .r$ (hotto ).

StndardAircraf t Handbook

121

Riveting

recoss-

IlL-J

PEtrudl3
h.d

Sh6aring

Co!t.fuI
hd

MS 20470
Forproltudinghsadappcatons
Fie.5-26. S.A-pltsBnrrllii.trt) lock t^a 'l\to llrentttrs t,l
pullitB htu\ ot? trwilbllt li.td1 lo.k r^\'6

MS 20426
Forcounisrsunkapprcarions

Fig.5-27. ThebrtbeCh.n\ltA riv?tokhal:a lo.kntscollorb lhrl\

rekt ttk ronio ofthc v.t i| tlk rvrl.r?

Mechanical Locked-Stem Self-Plugging Riyets

Mechanrcal
locked-stem
self-plugging
rivetsare manufcturedby Olympic,Huck. and Cherry FastenersThe bulbed
Cherryhck(Fig.5-2?)is usedasan exampleof a typiclblind
rivel thl is virtually interchangeable,
structurally,
with solid

I
\

The installationof ll mechaicrllocked-stem

self-plug
gingrivetsrequires
pull gunswirh approprihandor pneumatic
ate pullin8 heads Many lypes re avilablefrom the rivet
manufacturers,
example\of handandpDeumatic
opeatedpull
gunsareshownrn Fig. 5-28.
The sequence
of eventsin formingthe bulbedCherrylock
rivet s shownin Fg.5 29. Figure5-30illusrrates
thenumberrngsystemfor bulbedCheffylockrivets

FiC,5-2a. T\prLalphair ar hntptuk\tpll eus usk, n

StandardAircraft Handbook

123

Rivring

I TI
L-

,..- o,',r.,rr.
r

r.,rh .r .i r*|| l / l.)

srit ot.d.,
-atla,
., ( I t) .ri a (,zol)

tr.. !t.
rn. rr-

r r'daalrt
Ox6h
l{i ne.r 5 Crihr,

- l

C.tEd..

Fig.5-30. Th. brlb Cherryto.k t^t trnl'cri eslst?rt Not tl i

rttEn o&ikthle The brlbe Clkrriork rir llae is li ovt tlt
rvet: ho\crt. its
io,tdlsirc for rdhple, tlt? -4 rir?t : a MniMlh'
atr i'/- !rcater

FiC. 5-29. Stepsit heJmLtioi

of te tulb.I CherD lock ti cl

$
(
\

qi

Hol Preparaton
The bulbed Cherrylockrvets are designedto function
dimensions
within a specifiedholesizerangendcountersink
aslistedin Fig.5 31.

GrpLength
to
totalsheetthickness
Gnp lengthrcfersto themaximum
be riveted,and is measuredtn I6ihs ofan inch.This is identifted

0o ot d.r

Fis.5-31.

btt!t(,rra o ror.

Ral"ME.1e,1 ,ltill sizt, h.k' !i?e, xi.l courerstttlt dtunetel

lA

Stndard
Aircrsft Handbook

Rivetng

by he seconddashnumber.All Cherrylockrivetshavetheir
grip length(maximumgrip)markedon rherivehead,andhave
a totalgrip rangeof,,(6of an inch (Example:A -4 grip riveths
a grip rangeof 0 188"to 0 250")(Fig 5-32).To derermine
rhe
propergrip rivet to use,measure
the marerialthickness
with a
Cherryselectorgauge,as shownin Fig 5-33 Alwaysreadto
thenexthighernumberTo find thenvet grip numberwithout
usinga selectorgauge,determine
thetotalthickness
ofthe ma
terialto be fastened;locatebetweenthe minimumand maximumcolumnson thematerialthickness
chart(Fig 5-34).Read
directlyacrossto therightto find thegrip number
Funherdataon bulbedChenJlockrivets,includingmateriparts.
alsavailable,is includedin ChaDter13.Standard
Completeinstallation
manualsandpullingtool catlogs
are
avalable
fom therivet manufacturers.

attA

l}icxNe3

| /r-

*t-rr

FlA.5-32. llluu.otiono rtip lenBth.

t/8"
3/ l6"
1/1"
5/t6'
3/.8"
7/t"
'|/2"
9/ t"
5/A"
l1/ 16"
3/ 1"
t3/ 1"
7/5"
't5/ | 6"

t/a"
3/ t"
t/1'
5/r"
3/8"
7/r6"
t/2"
9/ t6"
5/4"
1t/t6"
3/ 1"
t3/ t"
7/8"
15/t6"
rort Fq d.!b dDrd

,,f,

Mt
(t

IANO'

2
3
5
7
t0
ll
12
l3
14
l5
1

I csi auuED cHEniYlocr(

irvEf Eo ctf?
t

FiA.5-34. Dcun hitti thetiv Etip lersrll|thout d

sel<.or EauE

PIN (HI"SHEAR) RIVETS

LA
ltvt olt?
l{Uttt to
ll U3ED:4
FiE 5-33. Dereriri x rltprcperErO utsa lclatol Eorye

Pin riversare commonlycalledtl-Srd.iyrr,although

"Hi-Shear"is actuallythe nameof the Hi-ShearCorporation,
pin rivetsrswell asotherproducts.
whichmanufactures
Hi-Shearrivetsweredesignedprimarilyto repaceboltsin
high-shear
strenglhapplicarionsThey reprobablythe oldest
typeofhigh-strength
rivet typefastenerusedin theaircraftindustryHigh strength,
easeandspeedofinstallation,
andweight
savrngsover bolt-and-nut
combinations
makethemattractive
liom a designstandpoint.
MostHi-Shearpins
aremadeof heat-treated
alloysteel.Some
pins,however,
are7075-T6aluminumalloy,stainless
steel.or ti,
taniumMoslcollalsare2ll7 ot 202+T4alsminumalloy Some
aremild steel,stainless
steel,or monel(Fig.5-35).The tablein

Stardard Aircraft Handbook

FtE 5-35. TheHi-Shearret,pinartlcolL1.

Riveting

121

tureis thin.Hi-Shearrivetswill not strengthen

a thin structure
connechonbecausethe load requiredto "shear"a Hi-Shear
rivel wouldcausethe structualholeto tearin a (load)"beariog" failure.
Hi-Shearrivets are driven with staDdardrivet guns or
squeezers
with a Hi-sheaivet setadapte,as shownin Fig.
5-38.

chapter13, StandadParts,providesheadmarkings,partnum
bers,andotherrelativedata.\Vlen drivenwith a Hi-Shearset,the
work is tightly drawntogetherandthecollaris forcedinto thepin
groove,lockingthepm secuelyinto thestructure,asin Fig 5-36

--l

\LJ9]

BiE. S-38. Stnrlad riyeiry toot! with a H-Shearnvet stadapre.

Fie.5.36. TheHi-Sheorivet b.forcah|afe| .|ri'itls.

Hi-Sher rivets are used where the loads are high and the
structureis conespondinglythick (Fig 5-37), whereasrivets
are used where the loads are compalativelylow and the struc-

Fie. 5-17. TtpicoI H i -Shear

Thesetformsthecollarto thepin andat thesametimecuts

off andejectstheexcesscollarmaterialthroughthedischarge
port,asshownin Fig. 5-39

Fig. 5-39. TheHi-Shearriret staoper

How the HiShear Works

For more information on how the Hi Shear works, see Fig.
5-40.

?, nQ
^0!

=
ti,

a .

er t

:.0 q

Z^2
^?

s9F

?-,

'gi

,r:ix
t7s

't

" i9 9

?;

z?

g;t

tl-------+n
I I}

SITUCIUIA] HEA

II

llr
ll

'TAI

| -l)

--lr-------,.,
sruDrsPEcratl
!_{l___lf

COUNTEISUNX XEAD-

rotEta'-co^.r'rrcral
;;;;;;,4;,;':'

ItilllillT=)

rHttaDD
sruDtsPcrar'r

|^|,

^l.o^

h-----Tf\

couMEsuNx
HEAo
rorEmNcE
closE

f^]---r.-.
\J_____1.,,

c^^4{sPEctat
r

A
/ l-------F,
I
\|J

rAZrErHEAD

D:-_:-r\r\
| !
Wn

TaPPED
lsP'cratl

ANO OTHER SPECIALADAPTAIIONS

DOWEI. PIN IHEADTESSI
Fig.5-41. votiorr

.t Hi-Sh?dt?it6. SeChaptet l3 ft Jurth .la!.'

^'tts

4
g

StndardAircraft HEndbook

130

Riveling

Pan numbersfor pin rivets can be nter?reled1ogive the diameterand grip length of the individual rivets. A typical par
numberbreirkdownwould be as shown in Fig 5-42

131

USING A HI.SIiEA GTIP

ol E GUt At sc^t t -

roK^rEs
TxtusoF

rHE WOIX
O HOIE
oEPTHM TASU
'H|C(ESS
Est olt ". T8t 5
- l0lr vEf r N I HE M A |M U^ G t P.

Ntodsl Airc.rft Stndrrd.

FiA.5-42. Pin t^at Nrt!tntbet .tlnotion

DeterminingGp Length
A spec,alscales vailable to detefline lhe grip lenglh
HERE,
r HEWO X S 9/ l",
IN OIC A TI NG
A _I O I VETI N M I NI I JMG I I P,

(Fis 5-43)

Hol Preparation

ri

Hi Shearrivets,Lkc bolts, requirecaretul hole prepamtion.

First, the hole must be drilled perpendicularto the manul-crufed head srde of the work Second.the hole must be sized
within proper limits ofdiameter and roundness.Hr-Shearrivets
do not expand during installationttherefofe,ihey must tit the
hole into whrch they ar-installedTo obriI accuateholes, machine-sharpereddrills should
be used Drill motorsshould have chucksand spindlesrn Sood
repair.Lubricants shoutd be used on the drill whereverpossible When available,the bestprecutionofall is to drill through
a bushed templateor fixture Where closer tolerancesare lequired, rhe holes should be reamed.Hole sizesnd tolerances
are normally specified by engineeringand callcd oul on e
drawing (bluepnnt).

t'ig.5-13.A srirlnBnr
]'llJltst(tmnno\
oIsti, t.grlt.
'ruk
Note:When countersinking
for Hi-Shearrivets,thc countersunk hole should nor b- roo deep. When the head s below
flush. the head backs up to the bar when it s driven and
leavesa gap under the rivet head,resulringin a looserivel

(Fis.s-44)

FiE 5-44. A tuo 1.E)

countc^rtk haler?eth\ i loot.

132

Standrd Airaft Handbook

Riveiing

133

Installation
Generally,Hi-Shearriveting is the sameas conventional
riveting.By changingthe standardset to a Hi-Sheaset,the
rivetgunis readyto shootHi-Shear
rivetsTyprcalnvet setsare
shownin Fig. 5-45.
tN cotNt

IN OPEN

rN ATEASOf
fIAMT NEruN
ft fGEs

I
]FL-'+*-

IN CHANNEI

rFro----,g,

{.-----Jf_!

l----q-

Fig. 545. Hi-ShdtnEB at" rnn .itn stuid ret Ems

! bucki,tBb!^,

!i

llt
ll

FiE.5-46. Riva'e Hi-Sheat t^,^\'ith srtuee.^ tttpreke

^
t 1tliotJ,\| he p\tc it ol

FiB.547. Asturt. saiBhtHiShedl tet inkie

a H Sheal

No.I ot No 2 bt(ki g bor sust.l

uroitte theoll ratu Thtiv
FnJtedeh nnn' serstppl?t
the nnpa.t to tlt Hi-Sheahad.

The Hi-Shefrivet shouldbe drivenquickly.A glln that is

heavyenoughshouldbeused.
Thebuckigbarshouldweighlf
timesheweightof thegun,or more,fo maximumefficrency.

Rivtingwith Squeezers
Rivetingwith squeezers
is preferred
whereverthe
workpermits,asshownin Fig.5-46

ReverseRiveting
Reveseriveting with Hi-Shear rivets is usedwhere thereis
no room fbr a rivet gun (Figs. 5-47 and 5-4E).Reve6e riveting

FiA.ltl&
Hi-Shca' No 3otNo I brckin? bas, \ ith a HShal
nrsen sel, arcatbl to tarc^ tlos?-ttn'1crs vor^.

134

StandardAircruft Hendbook

Riveaing

requiresa heaviewallop.The gun shouldbe openedup or a

heaviergun shouldbe used.

Inspectionof Hi-SharRiYets
If the rivetsandcollarslook goodon ihe outside,theyare
goodon theinsideNo gaugesor specialtoolsarerequired.

Hi-ShearRivet Removal
This methodofremovalnvolvesusinga Hishear rivetcut
ter to mill off the collar.The pin is removedwirh punchand
hammer,as shownin Fig. 5-49. The method,using a cape
chisel,is mostcommonlyused.Thecollaris spliton bothsides
with a chisel The pin is removedwith a punchand hammer
(Fig.5-50).AnothermethodofHr-Sherivetremovalis shown
in Fig.5-51.

U33ofbuckingbarprgvnts
bosrhglilureai thispoint.
FiE.5-5O. Thentost.o'hnr co aHrt^bl

rt tod sesa capthiel.

eFlg. S-49. Uli g a hollo|| hillto rc)ve the c ar

Drlrllhroughhad
Oriveout pin
FiE. 5-51. Drillins-ort t'toc?ss Hi-Shel

6
Bolts and
ThreadedFasteners
Varioustypesof fasteningdevicesallow quick dismantlingo
replacement
of aircraftpartsthat mustbe takenapartand put
backtogetherat frequentintervals.Bolts and screwsare two
typesof fasteninB
devicesthatgive therequiredsecurityof attachmentand rigidity. Cenerally,bolts are usedwheregreat
strengthis required,and screwsare usedwherestrengrhis not
thedecidingfactor
Thethreaded
endofa bolt usuallyhasa nut screwedontoit
tocompletetheassembly.
Therhreaded
endofa screwmighrfit
into a femalerecptacle,
or it mightfir direcdyinto thematerial beingsecured.
A bolt hasa farlyshortthreaded
sectionand
a comparativelylong grip length or unthreadedportion,
wheeasa sew hasa longerthreadedsectionandmighthave
no clearlydefinedgrip length.A bolt assemblyis generally
tightenedby tDmrngthe nut on the bolt; the headof the bolt
mightnot be designed
for turning.A screwis alwaystightened
by tumingits head.
jet aircaft,however,uses
The modemhigh-performance
very few "stadard"hex headboltsand nuts in its assembly.
Also.the"standard"slottedandPhillipsheadscrewsarein the
minority. Someof theseadvancedfastenersare describedlater
in thischapter
In many cases,a bolt might be indistingushable
from a
screw,thusthe lerm threadedfastener.Also, many threaded

138

SrrndardAircnft Handbook

fasteners,
suchas the Hi-Lok and Hi-Lok-/Hi-Tgue
fasteners,
like a rivet.
permanenl
inslclalions.
aeessendally
are fabricatedfrom alloy steel,
fas(eners
Arcrafrrhreaded
(stainless)
steel,aluminumalloys,andtitacoffosion-resistant
nium. Most bolts usedin aircraftare eitheralloy steel,cadAN bolts,NAS close-tolerance,
miumplated,general-purpose
or MS bolts.Aluminumboltsare seldomusedin the primary
strlcture,In cenain cases. arcraf( manufacturrsmake
or greaterstrength
threadedfastenrs
of differentdmensions
fasteners
aremadefor a
thanthestandard
types.Suchthreaded
particularapplication,and it is of extremeimportanceto use
n reDlacemnt.
similarfasteners

AIRCRAFT BOLTS
andfabricated
Most,but not all, aicraftboltsaredesiSoed
specifiwi!h
the
following
govemmenf
standards
accordingto
cattons:
. AI,,l,Air Force/Navy
. NAS. NationalAerospace
Standatds
. MS, Military Standards
SeeChapter13,StandardPns,for moreinformatonconstandatds.
ceminggovemment

Bolts
General-Purpose
aircraftbolt (AN-3 throughAN-20)is an allThehex-head
involving
purposestructuralbolt usedfor generalapplications
permissible
tensionor shearloadswherea li8ht_drivefit is
(0.006-inch
clerance
for a X-inchhole,andolhersizesin Proportion).They arc fabricared
from SAE 2330nickelsteeland
arccadmiumplated.
Altoy stelboltssmallcr than No. 10-32(z-inch diameaenAN-3)ard aluminumalloy boltssmallerthsn Z-inchdiometerare not uscdn primary struclults. Aluminum alloy

Bollssnd Thrdd Fosteners

139

botsnd nutsarc not usedwhereLheywillbe repeatedlyre.

moved fo purpoors of maitenance and inspection.
TheAN73-AN8I (MS20073-MS20074)
drilled-head
bolt s
similarto the standardhex bolt, but hasa deeperheadthat s
TheAN 3-AN 20 ad the
drilledto receivewie for safetying.
AN-73,AN-81seriesboltsarerntechangeabl,
for all practical
purposes,
from the standpointof tensionand shearstrengths
(seeChapterll, Standard
Pars).

CLOSE-TOLERANCEBOLTS
This typeof bolt is machinedmoreaccuratey
thanthegenboh Close{olerancebohs can be hex-headed
eral-purpose
(AN-173throughAN-18)or havea 100'countesunk
head
(NAS-80 throughNAS-E6).They are used in apphcations
wherea tighrdrivefit is required(thebolt wil moveintopositononly whenstruckwtha l2- to l4-ouncehammer).

CLASSIFICATION OF THREADS
Aircraft bolts,screws,and nutsare threadedin eitherthe
lhe NF (AmeriNC (AmericanNalionalCoarse)threadseres,
canNatonalFine)threadseries,the UNC (AmricanSiandard
UnifiedCoarse)threadseries,or the UNF (AmericanStandard
Threadsaredesignated
UnifiedFine)threadseres.
by thenumberoftimes theincline(threads)
rotatesarounda l-inch length
of a givendiamelerbolt or screw.For example,a 4-28thread
indcates
thata ,{-inch-diameter
bolt has28 threadsin 1 inchof
its threaded
length.
Threadsarealsodesignated
by theclassof fit. Theclassof
a thread indictesthe toleranceallowed in manufacturing.
Class| sa loosefi(. class2 is a freefit, class3 is a mediumfit,
and class 4 is a close flt. Aircnft bolts ar slmost always
manfacfuredn the class3, medumfit.Aclass-4fit requires
a wrenchto tum the nut ontoa bolt. whereasa class-lfit can
easilybelumedwith thefingers.Generally,
aircraftscrewsae
manufactured
wtha class-2threadfil for easeofassembly.
The

SlandardAircraftHondbook

Boltsand ThradedFastcncrs

general-purpose
aircraf!bok, AN3 throughAN20 hasUNF-3
UnifiedFine,class3, mediumfit).
threads(AmericaStandard
Bolts andnutsarealsoproducedwith righlhand andleft had
threads.A righlhand threadtightenswhen tumed clockwise;a
Except
lefFhandthreadtightenswhentumedcounterclockwise.
in specialcases,all aircraftboltsandnutshaverighGhandthreads.

AN-type aircraft bolts can be identified by the code markngson the boltheads.
The markingsgenerallydenotethe bolt
manufacturer,
composition
ofthe bolt,andwhetherthebolt is a
standard
AN{ype or a special-purpose
bolt.AN standard
steel
boltsaremarkedwith eithera raiseddashor asterisk(Fig.6-2),
corrosion-resistat
steelis indicated
by a singleraiseddash,and
AN aluminumalloy boltsaremarkedwith two raiseddashes.
Additionalinformation,suchasbolt diameter,bolt length,and
grip lengthcan be obtrinedfrom the bolt part number See
ChaDter13.StadardParts.

r40

Identilicationand Coding
andvafasteners
aremanufacturedin
manyshapes
Threaded
methodofclassification
is difficult.Threaded
rieties.A clear-cDt
fasreners
canbe identiedby theshapeof thehead,methodof
securing,materialusedin fabrication,or the expectedusage.
Figure6 I showsthebasicheadstylesandwrenchingrecesses.

AN SAND8o
slfL

80Lr

AN STA O D
SI EEL
'O Lt

(.//.* )^\

/
(")

\-l-,/
IHFEAOED BOLT HEAD
S T Y LE S

12

_rl

F AS T EN ER
WR E N C H IN G
RECESSES

AN STAOARD
srEEL EOlf

\-!-,/
Ai S' I{OAiD
SfEEt OLr

l4l

3TA O Ai O
^N
Sr L SO LI

/
(-'
r)'

n sfraho
SEEL AOLT

Fig. 6-2. Tlpicol heod-idetf.ak orks Iot AN smard

Phrll'F!

e
Fig.6-7. Faienr htu|!\'ls a rctthtB receses

Hex Socket

AIRCRAFT NUTS
Aircraft nutsare manufacturd
in a varietyof shapesad
sizes,madeofalloy steel,stainless
stee,auminumalloy.bmss,
or titanium.No identificadonmarksor letersappearon nuts
Theycanbeidentifiedonly by thecharacteristic
metallicluster
or by colorofthe aluminum,brass,or the insert,whenthenut
is of the selflocking type.They can be funher identifiedby
theirconstruction.

142

Boltsand ThradedFastnrs

StandardAircraft Handbook

Like aircraftbolts,mostaircraftnutsaredesignedandfaband
with AN, NAS, and MS standards
ricatedin accordance
specifications.
Aircraft nurscanbedividedinto two generalgroups:nonsetf-lockingand selflocking nuts. Non-self-lockrngnuts
(Fig. 6-3) mustbe safetiedby externallockingdevices,such
as cotter pins, safety wire, or locknuts.Selflocking nuts
(Figs.-4 and6 5) containthe lockingfeatureas an integral

CT

U
6l

rA

ff

\/

ft

[J

H
U

143

paft. Self-lockingnuts can be further subdividedinto Iow

(250' F or less)andhightemperature
temperature
(morethan
250' F).
Most of the familiar nuts (plain,castle,castellated
shear,
plainhex,light hex,andplaincheck)arethe non-selflocking
type(Fig.6-3).
The castlenut,AN3l0, is usedwirh drilled-shank
AN hex
headbolts,clevisbolts,eyebolts,
drilledheadbolts,or studs.It
is fairly ruggedand can withstandlae-rensionloads.Slots
(castellations)
in thenut aredesigned
to accommodate
a cotter
pio or lock wrefor safery-The AN3l0 caslellated,
cadmiumplatedsteelnut is by far themostcommonlyusedairframenut.
SeeChapter13,Srandard
Pans.
The castellated
shearnut, AN320,is designed
for usewith
devices(suchas drilled clevsboltsand threadedtaperpins)
that ae normallysubjectedto shearingstressonly. Like the
castlenul, it is castellatedfor
safetying.
Note,however,thatthe
nut is not asdeepor asslrongas thecastlenut;alsonoticethat
thecastellalions
aenot asdeepasthosein thecastlenut,

ki t1e,casteIh te,aud
Fig.6-3. NoreLf-loc

Self-LockingNuts to 250' F

ffi

a-

#i:1"

rw

,hl
-

FiE 6-4. HighnepercL (rtutu hd 250'F) set:lotknEttts

Eis,6-5. L||.knpetutre (250"For less)setftockrtqrut

Theelasticstopnut is essentially
standard
hexnut thatincorporates
a fibero nyloninsert(Fig.6-5) Theinsidediameter of the red insen is delibratelysmallerrhan the m{or
diamelerof the matchingbolt.The nut spinsfreelyon thebolt
untrl the bolt threadsenterthe lockinginsert,wherethey impress,but do not cut, matingthreadsin the insert This compressionfbrcesa metal-to-metal
contactbetween
thetopflanks
ofthe nurrhreads
andthebottomflanksofthe bolt threadsThis
frictonholdplusthecompression
holdof theinsertessentially
"locks"thenutanywhereon thebok
After the nut hasbeentightened,the roundedor chamfered
endofbolts,studs,or screwsshouldextendatleastthefullround
or chamf-er
throughthe nut. Flat-endbolts,studs,or screws
shouldextendat leastX," throughthenut Whenfiber-typeself-

l4

StsndardAirtroft Hatrdbook

thefibrshouldbecarefully checkedto
lockrngnutsarereused,
besuretharit hasnot lostits lockingfriclionor becomebri(tle.
Locknutsshouldnotbereusedifthey ca berun uPto a fingertight position.Bolts l;' diameterand larger,with cotterpin
hotes,canbe usedwith self-lockingnuts,but only if theyare
threads
freefrom burrsaroundthe holes Boltswith damaged
androughendsarenot acceptable
Selflockingnutsshouldnotbusedatjointsthatsubjectei
therthe nut or thebolt to rotation.Theyca be usedwith an_
tifnctionbearingsandcontrolpulleys.providedthatthe iner
by the
faceofthe baingis clampedto thesupponingstructure
nutandbolt

High-TempratureSlf-LockingNuts

eitherthethreadsin
All-etal locknutsareconstructedwith
section
with
the
load-carrying
insef
out-of-phase
the locking
in
pinched-in
thread
with
a
(Fig.-6) or with a saw-cutinsen
denut
the lockingsection.The Iockingactionofthe all-metal
pendsupontheresiliencyofthe metalwhenthelockingsection
by screwthreads
sectionareengaged
andload-carrying

Bolts and Thrsded Foteners

145

Miscellanous
Nut Types
Slf-lockingnut basesaremadein a numberof formsand
materialsfor rivetingandweldint to arcmftstructurcor pafts
(Fig. 6-7).Certainapplicarions
requrerheinstallationof selflockingnutsin channels,
an anangemen!
that permitsthe attachmentof manynutswith only a few rivets.Thesechannels
are tracklike baseswith regulalyspacednuts tharaeeither
removableor nonremovable.
The removabletype carriesa
floaingnut thatcan be snapped
in or out of lhe channel,rhus
makingpossiblelheeasyremovalofdamagednuts Clinchand
splinenuts,whichdependon frictionfor their ancho.age,
afe
not acceDtable
for usein aircraftstructures.

B@tr icrft chrncl r.blv

@iF
stoo nut chtnel .l..tnbly
FiA. C7. SelFo.kiry dut ba.s

l
nC.6-6. TheBoos s[.locki"t, oltnctol nu!

Vaioustypesofaochornuts(Fig.6-8)areavailablefor rivetingto thestructure

for application
panels
asremovable
Sheetspringnuts,sometimes
calledrpdn{r,are used
wi standard
andsheet-meral
slf-tapping
screwsin nonsrructurallocalionsThyfind varioususesin supponing
lineclamps,
conduitclamps,electricalequipment
access
doors,etc,,andae
availablein severaltypes.Speednuts are madefrom spring
steelandarearchedprior to tightening.
This archedspringlock

Strndard Airra Handbook

t4

Fig-6.a. Extirts ofan.hot nu6

Bolts and Threaded Fsleners

Pleln
AN8O
FiA.GlO. PIoi dr lockvoshe^

Lock Washers

s'rcn! itt rstru''

xttittBtutsdreuvd th s+taPPiDR
Fig.6-9. Sh?t
nuts shouldbe
Drevensthe screw from working loose These
usedin fabricationof lhe aircraft
*...agi"clly
""
""ft
(Fis.6-9).

AIRCRAT-TWASHERS

I
I

plain lock' or
Aircraftwashersusedin airframercpairare
specialwashefs

PlainWashers

material

Lock washers(AN-935andAN-936)canbe usedwith machinescrewsor boltswheneverthe self-lockingor castellated

to
They arenot to be usedas fastenings
nut s not applicableprimaryor secondary
structures,
or wheresubjectto frequent
removalor corrosiveconditions

INSTALLATIONOF NUTSAND BOI]TS

Boltholesmustbe normalto thesurfaceinvolvedto provid
full barint surfacefor the boltheadand nut and Inustnol be
or elongatedA bolt in sucha holewill carrynoneof
oversized
its shearloduntil pafs haveyieldedordeformedenoughto allow the baringsuface of the oversizedhole to conlactthe
boh
fn casesof oversizedor elongatedholesin ctucial members,obtainadvicefrom the aircraftor enginemanufacturer
beforedrilling or eamingthe hole to take the next larger
bolt. Usually,such factorsas edge distance,clearance,or
loadfactormustbeconsidered.
Oversizedor elongatedholes
in noncrucialmemberscan usuallybe drilld or reamedto
the nextlargersize,
paficularlythosein primaryconnecting
elManyboltholes,
to use
Generally,
it is permissible
ements,
haveclosetolerances.
rhefirst letlereddrill sizelarserthanthenormalbolt dtameter,

148

StandardAirtrft Handbook

except\,!heretheAN hexagonboltsareusedin liSht-drivefit

boltsor
(reamed)applications
andwhereNAS close_tolerance
AN clevisboltsareused
Light-drivefits for bolls (specifiedon the repairdrawings
as .0015-inchmaximumcleatancebetweenbolt andhole)are
requiredn placeswherebohsa.eusedin repair,or wherethey
replacedin theoriSinalstructure.
The fit of holesandboltsis definedin termsof thefriction
betweenthe bolt and holewhenslidingthe bolt into PlaceA
tighFdrivefit, for example,is one in which a shapblow of a
12-or l4-ouncehammeris requiredto movethe bolt A bolt
to fil
that requiresa hardblow and soundstight is considered
will
move
which
a
bolt
fit
is
one
in
A
light-drive
too tightly.
by
whena hammerhandleis helda8ainstits headandpressed
rheweighlof thebody.
Examinethe markingson the bolthead10delermnethat
eachbok is ofthe correctmatenal.Il is ofextremeimpolace
In everycase,referto the
to usesimilarboltsin replacement.
instructionmanualand e illustrated
applicablemaintenance
Dansbreakdown,
Be surethatwashersareusedunderrheheadsof boltsand
nuts, unlesstheir omissionis sPecified.A washerguards
damageto the materialbingboltedand
againstmechanical
prevents
coosionof thestructuralmembefs.
Be certainthat the bolt grip lengthis corect The grip
tengthis thelengthof theunthreaded
Ponionof thebolt shank
(Fig. -ll). Generallyspeaking,the grip lengthshouldequal

Bolls andThEadedFsstenrs

l4g

the thickness
of e materialsbengboltedtogerher.
However,
bohsof slightlygreatergrip lengthcanbe usedif washersare
placedunderthe nut or the bolthead.I thecaseof Dlatenuts.
ddshimsunderthepate.
A nut is not run to thebottomof the thrcadson theboh.A
nutso installedcannotbepulledtighton thestructure
andpob_
ably will be twisredoff while beingtighrened.
A washerwill
keepthenut in theproperpositionon the bolt.
In the caseof selflocking stop nurs,if from o0e to three
threadsofthe boltextendthroughthenur,it is considered
to be
satisfactory
(Fig.6-12).
stlr L0crD6tt
tr$tlm oltustol

fig.6-12. Mininu boh ptottueonhrcilh the nut Note:

Doro 6e stf-tockins
,r dn edlur ener pms.
"uson

Palnuts(AN356)shouldbe rightenedsecurely,
but not ex_
cessvely.
Finger-tightplus one to two tums is goodpractice,
lwo turnsbeingmoregenerallyused.

Torque Tables
GRIPLENGNIfOO SHORT
FlA. -ll.

Boh itrstattatiot

The standardlorquetable(Fig.6-13) shouldtr usedas a

guidein tighteningnuts,studs,boks,andscrewswhenever
sp_
cific torquevaluesarenotcagedoutin maintenance
procedures.

Boltsand ThreddFastcners

Stndard Aircraft Hsndbook

150

Cotter Pin Hole Line-Up

F E TIIEAO AE'IIEIS

SlAtloaFD
TYPEI|UTA
{wzoiltl, ax3l0,
A||ltt)

90LI

stzE

3r|EAh
fYt l|urs
(Is2qra. AF2o,
AllSrt,
a a3 THttl,
Allll)

I CX.POUNDS
2025
f,G7lt
!@ l a o
r6Grf|0

rG32
1t+29
51G24
3/F2l
7t16.m
,E-m
9/rGt6
v66
3/+16

t5l

a50{oo
a80go
000r,0@
I,r0G1.300
2,3002,500

[ircH.POUN03
12-15
3G40
o45
96.r10
27G300
2eo.al0
4AO{q)
66G740
1,30(}i,500

when (ighteningcastellated
nuts on bolrs,the cotler prn
holesmighnot line up wilh the slolsin the nutsfor the range
of recommended
values.Exceplin casesofhighly stressed
enginepans,thenutmaybovertighrened
pmit
to
liningup the
nxtslorwirhthecoer pnhole.Thetorqueloadsspecifiedcan
be usedfor all unlubricated
cadmium-plated
steenutsof th
fineorcoarse{hread
seriesrharhaveapproximtely
equalnumberoftheadsnd equalfacebearingareas.
Thesvaluesdo not
apply wherespecal(orquerequrcments
are specifiedin the
maintenance
manual,
If the headend,ratherthanlhe nut. mustbe rurnedin the
trghtening
operation,
maximumlorquevaluescanbe increased
by an amountequalto shankfriction.providedthattheIatteris
first measured
by a torquewrench.

OOAFSEIIIEAO AEEg

aTAroAo

TYPETIJTS
(Iao:Lt, Alllto,
At{!rl)

80lT

srzE

I
:

032
toza
1t+4
5i,islE
3/&r6
TnSr/r
1/2-13
9/1&r2
lSlr

tNcl+PouNos
12n5
2025
rG50
0090
i60r65
?3'255
aoo-180
5@7@
7@800
r,15+1,600

I
FlA.Gl3.

Stanard tonrn Mblts

SIIEA
flIP
axtzo'
(B2oi|'.'a,'UIE

al{3t4,
Al{21 lllBu
al{!l)

|l{ct{-PouNos
7.9
12-r5
2$30
4+55
9S110
14G155
2&2
30c420
12tr-51o
70G950

Safetyingof Nuts,Bolts,snd Scrcws

It is very impotant hatall boltsor nuts.exceprthe selflockngryp,be safetiedafrerinsrallation.
This prevensrhem
from looseningin flight because
of vibralion
Safetywiring is lhe moslposiliveandsatisfactory
melhod
of safetyingcapscrews,
sruds,nuts,bohheads,
and turnbuckle
barrclsthatcannotbe safetiedby any orherpracticalmeansIt
is a methodofwrngtogethertwo or moreunitsin sucha manner that any tendencyof one lo loosenis counteracted
by the
tighteningof thewre (Fig.6-l4)

COTTERPIN SAFETYING
Cotterpin installationis shownin Fig. 6-14 Casrellaed
nutsare usedwith boltsthal havebendrilled for coterpins
The cotterpin shouldfit neatlyinto rhe hole,wi very lule
sideDlav.

rs2

Sbnderd Aircrafl Hndbook

Bolts and ThreadedFastcners

tS3

MISCELLANEOUS THREADED FASTENERS

As statedearlierin this chapter,standardhex,slotted,and
Phillipsheadthreadedfasteners
areseldomusedfor structual
applications
on high-performance
aircrafr For example,most
threaded
fasteners
on theL- l0l I jet transportaircmftare'TriWig," developed
by thePhillipsScrewCompany.
Othertypes
in generaluse are "Torq-Set"and "H-Torque."A1l of thes
patented
fasteners
requirespecaldrvingbitsthatfit into standd holdersandscrewdriver
handles.
TheTn-Wingis shownin Fig.6-16.OtherfasteDer
wrenching recesses
areshownin Fig. 6-L Variousfasteners
areillustratedin ChaDter13.Standard
Parts.

Fig.6-14. Ttpicdlsact innr rtt hot.

INSTALLATION: BOLTS,WASHERS,NUTS,
AND COTTER PINS
ofa bolled
UseFig.6-15asa guideto matchall components
assembly.

sci

0
BOLT
VIASHER
DIAU..THRO.
At'l
-3

th.2a

380-2

31G5
960.516 36$524

3E0-2 r/16

l,i

ah6.20

90q7r6
I

3fG7
36t720

3rG8
960.816 36$620

FiE- 6-15. Cude lot ittsr4lltit,t

4.40
632
832
1032
'1.2g

1/,6

310-4
9e0.416 365.428

310-6
3803
96G616 365-624
7

2
3

COTTERPII'
AN
DIAM,

3rG3
380.2 r6
365-1032

(3/16)
10'32

600
4

I{UT

000
?56
4.40
632
6-32
10-32

srt

0/3,

3803

3/e

38Oi

3/e

oJ ho , ttost'e. nuL and coltrPnt

lis. 6-16. Ti-wE heastu tbr lr ax| ientili.nton, andtnusl

b! li ||itha sinitart\'tunrbre.lbitlbr eu?d^,edri,itle

Machine Screws
Machinescrewlhreadsusualy
run rotheheadandlhusleave
nogripforshearbaring.Machinescrews,therefore,
aeusedin
rcnsonwith no concemfor thethreads
extendinginto thehole.
A numberof differentheadlypesareavailableo machne
scrcwsto sadsrythepafticularnstallaton
Any typof screwhasa matchng
screwdriverIf thescrew
hflsa slottedhead,the screwdrivershouldfit the slot snugly

Boltsand ThrcededFastneN

Standard Airaft Handbook

155

Machinescrews(Frg.6-19)areusuallyflathead(countersunk),roundhead,
or washer-head,
Thesescrewsare generalpurposescrewsand are availablein low-carbonsteel.brass,
corrosion-resistant
steel,andaluminumallor.

Fis.6-17. A tuQ.t

si.e ostPtlttivt

'nu

b t'r

(Fig. 6-17).The sidesof the screwdrivershould,as nearlyas

possible,beparallelto thescrewslotsides
Reedand Princeor Phillipsheadsrequirea specialdriver
madefor the particularscrewThe driverstbr the two arenot
(Fig.6-18).The Philipsheadhas rounded
interchangeable
in
the
recesswhile the Reedand Princehas shap
shoulders
The useof the wrongscewdtiveron these
squareshouldrs.
screwsmightresultin ruiningthescrewhead.Theuseof power
up manyin(electricandpneumatic)
hasspeeded
screwdrivers
where
the tool
doors
and
fillets,
such
as
inspection
stallarions,
on a row ofscrews
ca be usedn rapidsuccession

\4/
PHILUPS
Fig. .1E. A Phitlips strtn

BEEDANDPRINCE
is 'cftn!

Jn

d Rd &

Insteadof nut, threadsare often tappedinto the bolted

structure[n this case.the boltsor screwsare safetiedwith a
wire througha holedriuedin the head(Fig. 6-14) Whenever
is heldon the
possible,thewlre shouldbesostrongthat@nsion
bolt o screwtowardtighteningit. Alwayskeepin mindthatthe
wlre shouldtendto tishtenthescrews.

!r!/!uo

"r..Iil:+i';,'
Til'.
Il+ ii*i*.,.,,,
o f '.,,{fr
^x!07

"iE

6!F

fx,;

"-

ft,!

to5/5r0

@^ii
i:...i:ii^i.',fl@f
Fig.6-19. Seknt lPas o

dthk s(ra$ (also s.e Chdptt 13)

Roundhead
screws,AN5l5 andAN520,haveeitherslotted
or recessed
heads.
TheAN5l5 screwhascoarsethreadsandthe
AN520hasfine threds
Countesunkmachinescrewsare listed as AN505 and
AN5l0 for 82", andAN507fo 100'.TheAN505 andAN5l0
conespondto the AN5l5 and 4N520 roundheadin material
:rnqusage,
The filliser-head
screw,AN500 rhrough4N503, is a general-purpose
screwand is usedas a capscrewin light mechaDisms.
Thiscouldinclude
attachments
ofcastaluminum
pa.
suchasgearboxcoverplates.
TheAN500andAN50l screwsareavailablein low-carbon
steel,corosion-resistant
steel,and brass.The AN500 has
corsethreadswhile theAN50l hasfine threads.
Theyhaveno
clcarlydefinedgrip length.ScrewslagerthanNo 6 havea
holedrilledthroughtheheadfor safetyingpurposes.

ls6

StandardAircraft Handbook

The AN502 and AN503 llister-head

screwsare madeof
grip,
heattreatedalloy steel,havea small
andareavailablein
fine and coarsethreads.Thesescrewsare usedas capscrews
wheregreatstrengthis required.The coarse-threaded
screws
arecommonly
in appdaluminumalloyand
usedscapscrews
magnesim
castings
because
of thesoftness
of themetal,

Bolts and Threaded Fasteners

^*--E

DZUS FASTENERS
Althoughnota threded
fastener,
rheDzusfasreneris
anexquick-disconnect
ampleof a
fastener,
suchas usedon a cowling or nacelle.
TheDzusturnlocktstener
consistsofa stud.grommet,and
receptace.
Figure6-20 illustratesan installedDzus fastenr
andthevariousparts
The grommetis madeof aluminumor aluminumalloy material-It actsasa holdingde!,icefor thestud.Crommetscanbe
fabricatedfrom 1100aluminumtubng,if noneare available
from normalsources
Thespringis madeoIsteel,cdmium-plated
to preventcorrosion The springsuppliesthe forcethatlocksor secures
the
studin placewhentwo assembles
arejoined.
Thestudsarefabrcated
from steelandarecadmium-plated.
Theyareavailablein threeheadstyles:wing,flush,andoval
Aquarterofaturnofthe stud(clockwise)
locksthefastener
Thefastenercanbe unlockedonly by tumingthestudcounterclockwise.A Dzus key (or a spciallygroundscrewdriver)
locksor unlocksthefastenerSpecialinstallationtoolsandinstructions
areavallableliom themanufacturers

HL-LOKAND
HL-LOK/HI-TIGUE FASTENERS
The patented,high-strengthHi-Lok or Hi-Lok/Hi-Tigue
originatedby the Hi-ShearCorporaton
s basicallya threaded
fastenerthatcombinesthebestfearures
of a riverandbolt (Fig

FiB. 6-20. l'he D.usffeher

Coucsy
DzusFa@erComprny,

SPRINC ASSEMBLY

suPPoBrtFrI

."*,""i!--f
RrvEr- g

.f

6-21) It consistsof two parts,a threadedpin and a threaded

collar TheHi-Tiguefasteneris anupdatedHi,Lok fastene.
Threeprimarydesignadvantages
are:
. A controlledpreloador clamp-upconsistent
within jlo
pecentdesigned
into thefastener.
. Minimumsizeandweghr.
. Simple,quiet,ad rapidinstallation,
prformed from one
sideofthe workby oneworker

158

StandardAiroft Handbook
HE O rOrCAlOt |EVEI| lo,t

BollsandThnaddFasteners

lS9

tion. Removalof the collar-wrenching

sLlrfaces
afterinstalla,
tion savesadditionalweight.
Thebasicpartnumberindicates
theassembly
ofthe pin and
the collar pa numbers(Fig. 6-22).Seerablesin Chaprer13,
Standard
Paff, for representative
standard
fastener
assemblies.

D..rguroi for Ht-Lot D..!.rcr

fiLTr0?0-3-r2
r-D..tgDtton

r ,trorrE tdc to
Fig.G2l. ThHi-brk, Hi-Lo.t/Hi'nqre Prt 4.otkr.
Corprrion
Co!rcsyHi-Shcar

Becauseof the collar's break-offat the designpreload.

alongwith the
afterinstallationis eliminated,
torqueinspec(ion
problemsof torquewrenchuseandcalibmtion.
The threadedendof the Hi-Lok pin containsa hexagonalThe hex wrenchtip of the Hi_Lokdriving tool
shapedrecess.
therecessto preventrotationof the Pinwhile thecol_
engages
lar is being installed.The pin recessalsooffersa secondary
benefit, weightsavings.
The pin is designedn two basicheadstyles.For shearapplications,the pin is madein the lightweight,Hi'Shearcountersunkstyle, and in a compactprotrudingheadstyle. For
theMS24694(AN509)flushandprolrudtensionapplications,
ing headstylesareavailable.
The self-locking,threadedHi-Lok collar has an internal
varialionsin material
at thebaseto accommodate
counterbore
is a wrenchingde'
end
of
the
collar
At
the
opposite
thickess
it
offduring
vice lhatis torquedby thedrivingtool unril shears
this shear-offpoint occurswhena predetermined
insrallaton;
preloador clamp-upis altainedin thefastenerduringinstalla-

Fig. 6-22. Hi-Iak-Hlngrc

ror fil-Trg!. TyF

Ht-Lok F...n.r
bari. pr ,aD, cNrcsy Hi srE corporion

The H-Lok/Hi-Tgueinterference-fitpin providesimproved fatigue bcnefits ro rhe airframe srrucrure.The HTiguefealureon theendof thepin shankmakesit possibleto
use a staight-shank
nterference-fitfastenerin a standard.
slraighFdrilledhole to obtain the maximumfatiguelife of
the struclure.
The H-Tiguepin can b considereda combinationof a
standardprecisionpin with a sl'ghtlyoversizedprecisionpin
positionedbetweenthe lhreadsand lhe shankof rhe oin. as
shownin Fig. 6-2J.Fgure6-24showsrheHi-Tiguebedarea
n exaggerated
views.

FlA.623.

TheHi-InL/Ht -Tsr.fostene..on.q! cocxy Hi-shcrcorpo.

160

Slndald Aircraft Hndbmk

corp'
stskn CourcstHi_she
EiE 6-A. Tt Hi-Lbk/Hi'T|uaeenig

precision,
The Hi-Lok/Hi-Tiguepin is a straight'shank'
end
the
thread
at
bead
a subtlyshaped
thatfeatures
tfueadedpin
walled
of theshank(Fi8.6-24).Thepin is installedin a straight
hole drilled normallyat 0.002" to 0004" diametralintefforence.The pin is availablein 70" and 100' flushheads'aswell
as pro!udingheadstylesfor shearand tensionapplications
alloys'
from all commonlyusedfastener
Pinsaremanufactured
steels'
includingtitaniums,altoysteels,andcoosion-resislant
self-locki8.
to
the
identical
colla
is
The Hi-Lok/Hi-Tigue
controlledtorqueHi-I-okcollarwith theexceptionof
standard
[heintemalcounterboreln the Hi-Ti8ueversion'the counter
the pin's Hi-Tiguebead
to accommodate
boreis dimensioned
availablefor shear,tencollas
are
Hi-Tigue
duringassembly.
Collar materialsinclude
applications.
sion, and temPerature
2024-T6aluminumalloy,A-286allov'17-4PH"Iype303stainlesssteel.andtitaniumalloy
A self-sealingtorqueconuolled coll lhar conlains a
is available
Teflonsealinginser.withinits intmalcounterbore
to providefuel-trghtjointswithouttheneedfor sealats

Bolls and Thraded Faiteners

161

During assembyof the collar to the pin, using standard

Hi-Lok installationtools,the pin is seatedinro its final position and the stucturalpiecesaredrawntightytogetherBecause of the collar's wrenchinghex sheaGoffat design
preload, torque inspectionafter installationis eliminated,
togetherwith theinherentproblemsoftorque wrenchuseand
calibration.lnspectionis visual only; no mechanicaltorque
checkis required.
Versatilepneumatic
Hi-I-okinstallation
toolsassemble
both
thestandard
ndHi-Tiguevesionsof theHi-Lok fastener.
Ba
sic Hi-Lok toolingis availablein straight,offset,extended,
ad
90" righcangletypesto provideaccessibility
into a varietyof
openor congestedstructures.
Automaticcolar-drivingtools
permit assemblyof Hi-Loks up to 40 per minute.Tape-controlledautomaticmachines
havebendeveloped
to completely
automatethe installationof Hi-Loktli-Tigues:drill, countersink,selectrhepropergrplength,insertrhepin, anddrive the
collar.

INSTALLATION OF HI-LOK
AND III-LOK/HI-TIGUE FASTENERS
Hole Preparation
Hi-Lok pins requirereamedand chamferedholes,and,in
somecases,an interference
fir- For standardHi-Lok pins,it is
generallyrecommended
that the maximum interferencet
shallnot exceed0.002inch.The Hi-'Iigue-typeHi-Lok pin is
normallyinstalledin a holewith a 0.002-to 0.004-inchdrametral interference,
TheHi-Lokpin hasa slightradius
underits head(Fig 6-25).
After drilling, deburthe edgeof the hole.This permirsrhe
headto fully seatn thehole.Seetheappropriate
Hi-Lok standrdsfor headradiusdimensions.
For example,the7r protruding headhasa 0.015/0.025
radius,and the )/hflushbeadhasa
0.025/0.030
radius

162

SlandsrdAircrofl Handbook

Bolts snd Threaded Festeners

Scr. br .@.inC d.pth ol hod

e.d..Ld In ,16 inc{h.nr |! 3
StqL h. -&rtnl
e.ip t ittr ol
r..M
g[du.Dd t/| a t'6nb

b 3

Fia. 6-25. Tht Hi lnk and Hi-LAHi'Tigr Pi't! hat d slisht/an6 rn'
et tltirhttls couresyHi'ShcarcorBnhon

'fli. !l*g

Pin Grip Lngth

The
Standardpn lengthsare grduatedin :,li tncrements.
j,1""
pin
lengths.
wfhout
changing
can
vary
thickness
material
in betweenthe
Adjustmenlfor variationsin materialthickness
in
madeby thecounterbore
pin )/"graduations
is automatically
as shown
tbecollar(Fig.6-2).Thegrip lengthis determined,
in Fig 6-27.

FiA.6-27. DE inr Erip lr|th (rins a tp<cialscal cotdcs! Hi-

Installaton Tools
Hi-Lok fasreners
aerapidlyinstalledby onepcsonworking from one sideof the work usingstandardpoweror hand
toolsandHi-Lok adaptorrools
Hi-Lok adaptorroolsarerredro high-speed
pistolgrip and
ratchetwrenchdrivesin srraight,90o,offsetextension,
andautomaticcollar-feed
configuratons.
Figure6.28showsa few of
the handand powerroolsavailablefor nstallingHi-Lok and
Hi-Lok/Hi-Tiguefasteners.
Thebasicconsideration
in delermining
thecorecthdtool
is to matchlhe socket-hex
rip dmensrons
of the lool with the
Hi-Lok/Hi-Tgue
pin hex recessandcollar-drivinghex of the
panicularpin-collarcombinationro be installedFisure-29
ndcares
lhehexdimensions
lhalmustmalch.

I
ll

InstallationStepsfor an Interference-FitHole
FiE.6-26. T.tblcslnry inlle H'LokPitPdn^o /ttrtr' couresv

|l

Figure6-30showstheinstallarion
srcpsin a nonnlerferencebit hole WhenHi Lok/Hi-Tigues
areinsralled
in aninterfencefit, thepinsshouldbedrivenin usinga standardrverglnand

Boltsand ThreadedFastenrs

StandardAircraft Handbook

gt

lisf|lutpt rcqrG

xrun ruG

b Mnu.[ thrd rh colkr onb

Fis.6-28. A fqt ofthe ha dr Por'.t oob rdlablJot nellit! Hi'bk

corloaron
anl H i- bAH Ieueanen.,r cours! Hi_shear

^ I
./.,t

tl

",";.""
cl n.rl thhexvE ndhoD ofthe
Po{er dtver nr rh. pt . h4

il

colrr hs
Thlr Drv.nr! ro,
rdon ofrh p|n wn rhecolt..

FiE,6'30.

, - ' ''
r *, , r . i .L

''

1 .......'..'
t

-;,

FiE 6-29. Detenninq Ih. cot t?.t hhd toot br nx .h r s her tunsons
councsyHl Shercoporlion

lnalktiot

To ..* rl' rcn@n of tfi. dnvng

!@l r hcr wn.h rip frEm rh. h. r.c.s. or $ pin .r rh. llf s
qrcchit d.vie lE 3h..d ofi,
3tpJ bbr. ric .!rk. div.r tFI n

rps in a"inteiercnce fit ho1 Counesylli-Sher

pin drrver.as shownin Fig 6-31 The structuremust

Hi-Tigr.:e
be suppofedwith a drawbar,asshown
When Hi-Lok4{i Tigue pins are pressedor tappedinto
hule\.rhefir is 5ufficicnrly
tiBhrro grip rhcprn ro pre\enrit

Bolls and Threadd Fasfeners

StandardAircraft Handbook

166

Holc for pln

161

Inspectionafter Installation
Hi-I-ok and Hi-Lok/Hi-Tiguefi$tenersare visually in
No torquewrenches
arerequired.
spected.
meodto
offera convenient
TheHi-Lok protrusiongauges
imits afer the Hi-Lok pin has
checkHi-Lok pin-protrusion
beeninse(edin theholeandbeforeor aftercollarinstalation
Hr-Lokpin diam(Fig.6-33) Individualgaugesaccommodate
eletsizesof %!', ro' ,'1", Zo", andX". Gaugesaremadeof 0.012"
asa seton a key chain.
steelandareassembed
stainless

Eig.6-31. hlstalltg a nalerlnte.lit Hi-TBue pt usq a t^,et EUD

Couf,esyHi Shecorponrion

from ro(ating.Hi-Lok driver tools are availablethat use a

finderpin, insteadof lhe hex wrenchtrp to locatethe tool on
the collar and pin (Fig. 6-32). Otherwise,installationsteps
holesarethe sameasfor standardHi-Lok
for interference-t
fasteners
Fo ireld service,all sizesof Hi-Lok fastenerscan be inAllen hex keysandopen-end
stalledwith handtools(standard
wrenches
or ratcheFtype
)

rtt{txux GatP

(Xrlmnr

P?o.lo)

x^ltfuf, GntP
(Illim ??ot.lor)

Fig. 6-33. Ptusior li,\its Iot sttnanl Hi Ink pns: t

Hi-slNCo.ponion
Baqe is shon asa e:antplcCoudery

Removalof the InstalledFastener

with standardhand
Removalof fastenersis accomplished
toolsin a mannersimilarto removinga nut from a bolt. By
Allen wrench,thecollarcanbe
holdingthepin with a standard
pliers
Hollow mill-type cuttersattachedto
removedwith
powerloolscanalsoremovethecollarswithoutdamageto the
Special
pin, andthepinscanbe reusedif theyareundamaged.
powerremoval
also
available.
and
tools
are
hand

flnder Pln on
Hi-Lok Drivig T@I
Fig.6-32.

finrpnt

on Ht-I7rl / i,8 r, Cou.resyHi Shed co.

7
Aircraft Plumbing

FLUID LINES
Aicraftplumbinglines usuallyaremadeof metaltubingnd
fittingsor of flexibehose.Metaltubingis widelyusedin aircraft for el,oil, coolant,oxygen,instrument,and hydraulic
lines. Flexiblehoseis generallyusedwith moving partsor
wheretlehosssubjectlo considerable
vibmtion.
Generally,aluminumalloy or corrosion-rsistant
sleeltub.
ing havereplacedcoppertubing.Tte workability, rcsistaceto
cofiosion,ad light weitht ofaluminumalloyaremajorfactors
in its adoptionfor aircraftplumbing.
(3000psi)hydr-ulic
ln somespecialhigh-p.essure
installatons,corrosion-resistant
steeltubing,eitherannealed
or l,l-hard,
is usedCorrosion-resistant
steeltubingdoesnothaveto beannealedfor flaringor forming;infacr,lheflaredsectionis somewhat strengthened
by the cold workingand strainhardening
duringtheflaringprocess.
Coosion-resistant
sleel tubing,annealedt4-hard,is used
cxtensivelyin high-pressure
hydrulicsysremsfor rhe opraton of landinggear,flaps,brakes,etc. Extemalbrale lines
shouldalwaysbe madeof coFosion-resistant
steelto minimize
damagefromrocksthrownby rhetiresduringtakeoffad landing, and from carelessgroundhandling.Alrhoughidentification markingsfor steeltubingdiffer,eachusuallyincludese

170

Standord
AircraftHsndbook

manufacturer's
nameor trademark.
the SAE numberad the
physicalconditionof themetal.
Aluminumalloy rubing.I100(/-hard) or 3003(Y-hard),is
usedfor general-purpose
line of low or netligiblefluid pressures,suchas insEumentlines and ventilatngconduits.The
2024-Tand5052-0aluminumalloy materialsareusedin gen,
eml-purpose
systems
oflow ad medumpressures,
suchashy.
draulc andpneumatic1000-to 1500-psi
sysrems
andfuel and
oil lires. Occasionally,
thesematerialsare usedin high-pressure(3000psi) systems.
Tubingmadefrom 2024-Tand5052-0materialswill withstanda faily highpressure
beforebursting.
Thesematorials
are
easilyflaredandaresoftenoughto be formedwith handtools.
Therefore,
ey mus(behandledwilh careto preven!scratches,
dents.andnicks,
Meral tubingis sizedby outsidediamerer.which is measuredfractonally
in sixteenths
ofan inch Thus,Number6 tubngis %,(X") andNumber8 lubingis f" (X"),etc.
fn addition!o otherclassifications
or meansof identification, obing is manufactured
with a specificwall tbckness.
Thus,it is imponantwheninsrallinglubing to know no! only
the materialandoutsidediameter,
but alsothethickness
of the
wall.

FLEXIBLE HOSE
Flexiblehoseis usedin aircrafiplumbingto connectmot,ing partswith sratonary
pansn locationssubjectto vibration
or wherea greatamountof flexibili(y is needed.[t can also
sensea connector
in metaltubingsystems.

Synthetics
Syntbeticmaterialsmostcommonlyusedin the manufactureof flexiblehoseareBuna-N,Neoprene,
Butyl,andTeflon.
Buna-Nis a syntheticrubbercompoundthat hasexcellentresistance!o Detroleum
Droducts.
Do not confusewith Buna-S,

ArcruftPlumblng

l7l

fluid (Skydrol).
Do not usefor phosphate
ester-based
hydraLrlic
Neoprene
is a syn(hetic
rubbercompound
thathasanacetylene
base Its resistanceto petroleum products is not as good as
Buna-N,but it hasbelterabrasiveresistance.
Do not usefor
phosphate
ester-based
hydraulicfluid (Skydrol).Butyl is a syntheticrubbercompound
madefrom petroleum
mw materials.
It
wlh
phosphate
is an excellentmaterialto use
ester-based
hydraulicnuid (Skydrol).Do not useit with petroleumproducts.
flon is theDuPontlradenamefor tet.afluorethylene
resin.It
range(-5'F to 450'F). It
hasa broadoperatingtemperature
is compatiblewith nearlyeveysubstance
or agentused.h ofto flow; sticky viscousmateialswill rot
fers little resistance
adhereto it. It haslessvolumetricexpansiontha rubberand
theshelfandservcelfe is practcallylimitless.

Rubber Hose
Flexiblerubtrhoseconsislsofa seamless
synericrubber
innertubcoveredwilh layea of cottonbridand wirc braid,
and an outer layer of rubbr-impregnated
cottonbraid.This
type of hoseis suitablefor use n fuel, oil, coolant,and hydraulicsystems.
The typesof hoseare normallyclassifiedby
the amountof pressurethey are designedto withstandunder
normalopemtingconditions:
. Low pressureiany pressurebelow 250 psi. and fabric
braidreinforcemnl,
. Mediumpressure;
prcssurs
up to 3000psi,andonewire
braid rcinforcemen(.
SmallersizescarD/pressureup to
up to 1000psi.
30m psi; largersizescarrypressure
. High pressure;all sizesup to 3000 psi operatingpressures.

Teflon Hose
Teflon hose is a flcxible hosedesignedto meet lhe requirenrcnt\ ofhigher operatingtemperatures
rn present
and pressures

172

Stndard raft

u3

Aiclaft Plumblng

Hendbook

aircraft systems.It ca genera.llybe usedin the samemanneras

rubber hose.Teflon hose is processedand extaudei hto tube
shapesof a desircdsize.It is coveredwith stainlesssteelwile,
which is braidedoveathe tubefor strengrhandptection.
TefloDhoseis unafrectedby any known el, petroleum,or
synthetic-basedoils, alcobol, coolants,or solventscormonly
usedin aircraft.Although it is highly esislat !o vibmtion ad
fatigue, the piciple advatage of this hose is its operating
strength.

Identifrcationof llose
Identificationmarkingsof lines,lettes,and numbersare
printedon the hose(Fig. ?-l). Thesecode makingsshow
dale of manusuchinformationas hosesize, manufacture,
facture, and prcssureand temperturelimits. Code markings
sssist in replacing a hose wi one of the samespecification
or a reconrmendedsubstitlte. A hose suitable for use wi
phosphaeester-basedhydraulic fluid is marked "Skydrol
use." In someinstaces, scveal types of hosemight be suiF
ablefor thesameuse.Therefore,to makethecorrecthoseselection, always refer to the mainenanceor parts manual for
the paficula aircraft.

SizeDesignation
The sizeof flexible hoseis deteminedby its inside diameter. Sizesare in fu" inclementsand areidentical to correspoding sizesof rigid tubing, with which it ca be used.

Identifi cation of Fluid Lines

Fluid nes in aircrff ae often identilied by markersconsisting of color codes,words, aDdgeometricsymbols.These
markersidentify eachline's function,content,ad pimarybazad, aswell as the direction of fluid flou Figure ?-2 illustrates

t
Flg,1.l.

Eose-ideatifrcatonairys.

thevaiouscolorcodesandsymbolsusedto designate
thetype
of systemandits contents.
In addition to ihe previously mentionedmarkings,certain
linescanbefiuther identiedregardingspecificfunction within
a sysem:DRAIN, VENT, PRESSURE,or RETURN.
Cenerllf tapesanddecalsareplacedon bothendsof a line
and at leastoncein eachcompartnent though which the line
runs. In addition, identication makes ae placed immediately adjacentto eachvalve, regulator,filter, or other accessory
within a lire. Where parnt or tags are used,location requircmets arethe sameasfor taoesad deaals.

114

Sbndard Aircraft Hsndboot

Aftraft plumbng

COLO8, IUID UIBS TDEIITIETC^TION

*.fl.xT#":?i,F"#"#:,Yr*ff
triF,.+t
"*"***"

sJq

i1

ANSt A

FiA.1-3- FL\,Jh,Jiun,xsin!AN
Fnr

drawsthe sleeveandtubingflaretghtlyagainsr
a malefirring
ro rorm a se|.Tubingusedwilh tnrs
type of fitting mustbe
fl aedbeforeinsrlllarin.

175

* I
- #"..,i.,'f;i*ffiffi
*,

"*;..liiir

*ffi

-,r///Z/"

t.l

irl

t1

FiE T-2. ltif.dtirrt oltu tits

PLUMBING CONNECTIONS

Flarrless-T[beFittings
Flared-Ibe Fittings
A fared,tubefitring consistsofa seeveao
nur, as shown
.
rn rrg. /-J. the nur fits over rhe sleeve
and.when lightened,

Aircraft Plumbing

Standard Aircraft Handbook

177

TirbeBending
The objectivein tubebendingis to obtaina smoothbend
without flatteningthe tube.Tubing lessthan j" in diameter
usuallycan be bentwith a handbendingtool (Fig. 7-6) For
largeszes,a factorytDbe-bending
machineis usuallyused

Body
Fig.7-4.

Aaftles

tube JttE

T[be Cutting
Whencuttingtubing,it is importanttoproduceasquareend,
feeof burrs.Tllbingcanbe cut with a trbecutter(Fig.?-5)or
a hacksawThe cuttercan beusedwith any soft metaltubing,
suchascopper,aluminum,or aluminumalloy,

FiE T-5. A htttloperutedube

cutter

o if hardmaterialtubingis
If a tubecutteris not available,
prefeablyonehaving32
to be cut, usea fine-toothhacksaw,
per
file
the
end
of thetubesquareand
teeth inch.After sawing,
smooth,removingall burs.

FiE T-6. A hanubeberu1er

Tube-bending
machines
for all typesoftubingaregenelly
usedin repairstatiosandlrgemaintenance
shops.With such
properbendscanbemadeon large-diameter
equipment,
tubing
and on tubingmadefrom hardmaterialThe poductiontube
benderis oneexample
Bend the tubing caefullyto avold excessrve
fla(lening,
kinking,or wrinkling.A smallamouotofflattemngin bendsis
acceptable,
buf thesmalldiameterofthe flattenedportionmust
not be lessthan75 percentof the originaloutsidediameter.
Tubingwith flattened,wnDkled,or irregul bendsshouldnot
beinstalledWrinkledbendsusuallyresultfrom tryingto bend
thin-walltubingwithoutusinga tubebenderExamplesofcor
rectandincorect tbingbendsareshownin Fig 7-7.

T[b Flaring
Theflaringtool (Fig 7-8)usedfor aircrfttubjnghasmale
andfemalediesgroundto producea flareof 35 to 37 degrees

Stondard AiraEft Handbook

178

Alrcraft Plumbing

Fl3..T-7. Efuhtptso tubebetlds

Fis?-g. A sL.v..ndfniasl jlsiue hose.

atDl vrw
Fig,7{-

A haoolfot.lloriuq ibi,s (sinstefare )

Underno circumstancesis it permissibleto use an automotive

flaing ioot, whch Foduces a 45oflae.
T\ro kinds of flaes are generallyuscd in aircraft plumbbg
systes: singlead doubleIn formig flares, cut the lube ends square, file em
smooth, remove all burrs and shap edges, and thoroughly
cleantheedges.Slip thefltting nut andsleeveon the tubebefore flaring it.

AssemblingSleveIYpe Fittings
Sleeve-typeendfittings for flexible hoseaedetachableand
can be reusedif they are deerminedto be seviceable.The i-

sidediameterof the fitting is the sameas the insidediameterof

the hoseto which it is attached.Comon sleeve-typefittings
are show in Fig. 7-9.
Refer to manufacturcr'sinstructionsfor detailedassembly
procedures,as oudinedin Fig. 7-10.

Pmof-TestingAftr Assembly
All flexible hosemust be proof-rested
after assembtyby
pluggingor cappingone end of the hoseand applyingpressure to the inside of the hose assemblf The proof{est
mediumcanbe a liquid o a gas.For example,hydrauc,fuel,
and oil lines are generally testedusing hydaaulicoil or water,
wheeasair or instumentlines are testedwitb d4r,oil-free air
or nitrogen.Whentestingwith a liquid, all rrappedai is bled
from the assemblyprior to tighteningthe cap or plug. Hose

Stond.rd Ahrrfl

Handbook

Ailtraft Plumblng

f f i:a
"'.'-," *.*---""
r5:1r"'

o.
Fie.7-lO. Assttbl'tol llSJirtittX tofilibl hos courcsyAcmguipcoF

tests,usinga gas,areconductedunderwaterIn all cases,follow the hosemanufacturer's

instructionsfor the proof{est
pressureandfluid to be usedwhenlestinga specifichoseas.
sembly.
Placethe hosassemblyin a horizotalposilionand ob.
thetestpressureProofserveil for leakagewhile main(aining
pressures
test
shouldbe maintained
fof at least30 seconds

FiE T-ll.

htsIti@ olf\lc

hosea$sfubtiecor.sy Aeroquipcor,

Do Dr
r.ELo

lil

Figure 7- ll showsexamplesof flexible hose installation.

|!to ,lE
mhlt

Inoci
- wll Ls.a. tun
or tt.r. or q
rb.
to
sc d.t vlb. ll qh-

InstallingFlexibleHoseAssemblies

d...{
t.

+-

|!@cl - M.r pd otl d

dbbn ll l, dah.d

xI

INSTALLING RIGID TUBING

i

Neverapplycompoundto thefacesofthe fi(ing or theflare

bcause
thecompoundwill destroythemeal-to-metal
contact
btweenthefltting andl-lare.a conlactthal is necessary
lo createthe seal.B surethatthe line assemblyis properlyaligned
bforetighteningIhe fittings Do nol pull the installaioninlo
placewith rcrqueon the nur(Fig 7-12).

0l

d.N.

.t@r

Flg,7-lL
Corftct dttl in.occ! tnthtr!! oI tishrcnn\.Ioft
DAs coucsyaebquip co4rnn

lub Jil

1AZ

StndadAturft Handbook

Alwaystightenfittings
to theconecttorquevalue(Fig.7-l3)
a
tube
assembly.
Ovelighteninga fitting night
wheninstalling
badlydamageor completelycut off the tubeflare,or it might
ruin thesleeveor fitting nut.Failureto tigbtensufficientlyalso
canbe serious;it mightallowthelie to blow out of theassembly or to leakundersystempressure,
torquevalThe useof torquewrenches
andthe prescribed
tening lfa tube-fitting
uesprevents
overtightening
or undertigh
assemblyis tightenedproperly, it can be removedand retightenedmanytimesbforereflaringis necessary.
a paththatdoesnotrequirebendsin thetubing
Neverselect
enoughthatit canbe
A tubecannotbe cu! or flaredaccurately
instaledwithout bendingand still be free from mechanical
strain.Bendsaealsonecessary
o permitthetubingto expand
andto absorbvibration,
or contractundertemperature
changes
If the tubeis small(lessthanjZ")andcanbe handformed,casualbendscan be madeto allow for this.If the tubemustbe
machineformed,definite bendsmust be made to avoid a
straightassembly
Startall bendsa reasonable
distancefrom the fiftings becausethesleeves
andnutsmustbeslippedbackduringthefhbricationof t'laresandduringispections.In all cases,the new
tubeassemblyshouldbe so formedprior to installationar it
into alignwill not benecessary
to pull or deflecttheassembly
mentby meansof thecouplingnuts.

SupportClamps
Supportclampsareusedto securethe variouslinesto the
airfameor power-plantassemblies.
Severaltypesof suppof
pulpose,
most commonly e rubbe.clampsare usedfor this
clamp is
cushionedand plain clamps.The rubber-cushioned
usedto securelines subjectto vibralion;the cushioningpreventschafingof the tubing.The plainclampis usedto secure
nesin areasnot srbiectto vibration.

Aircrsft Plumbing

d
E
ri
:=

z.

3s : ;*r; : -

:^

alT : sS S s : s s ."..
r{gg
R38338

5
fo

E*

E i 5E

s9 : 6
e9

PEREf;P

85

g E C C FE9 g 9 E
s p 9 Fg EEt R g
!

ee e e SR EBEF EBEF
':
R39ER38888a8AA

xa
E?

--. 6@9S: 9RRS

!:l sS;*ss*;*'-;.

.:

r8t

StandardAircraft Hndbook

cla p is usedin arcaswherclhc dctefiATeflon-cushioned

orutiDgeftectof Skydrol500,hyd,aulicfluid (MIl. (f5606).or
fuel is expectedHowcvcr.bccauseTeflon rs lcssrcsilicnl,it
doesnot pfovide lls gooLlof vibratioD-dampingcftct lls olhcl
cushionmaterials
to securemelalhydraulic.lucl. )d oil
Use bondedcl.rDrps
clLrnpsshouldbe usedonly lo sccurc
lincsin plrce UDbondcd
priDt
or rnodrzing from the porti(nrol the
$iring- Remove Dy
rubear the bondingcl rnp locationAll plunbing lincsDruslbe
securedaI specifiedinlcrvalsThe maximumdistanccbclwcen
suppolslbr rigid tubingis showniD Fig 7 1,1

TUBE OD
{tN.)

DISTANCE
BE'WEENSUPPOFfS{IN,)
AU'MINUMALLOY
.1 2
16
18
20
23

15

1
fie, 1-11, Ilt,i'ld\

l9
22
24
26\t2
Jir'r,

8
Control Cables

Thrcc conlrol systeDrscomnlonly used are cable, push-pull

(Fig 8-l). ard rcfquetube MLrDyirifcmftincorporate
coDtrol
systcrns
tht c combinations
ol all lhrcc
C blesrc the most $ridelyuscd liDkagcin primaryllighl
controlsyfel11sCablelinkge is lso usedin enginecontrols.
cnrcrgcncvexrensionsys(cns lbr rhe hDding ge.and othcr
\yscrnsrh.oughout
theaircrrll

30
'

1" t

1t t t t "t\ l"

-_-----*-e^eq

Q,-oo-r,
\\

I
tl
rtl
itt

litt.a-l

\\

P:1tlll rtb. \\\rb^.

CABLE ASSEMBLY
Thc convcntional
cableasscnrbly
consists
of flexiblecble
(Fig 8-2)lerminals
(cndfitrgs)li)f rtt^chrng
to othcrunits,
.lndturDbuckles.
Cabletcnsion
muslbeadjusted
frequently
bcand lempefalure
chrnges.Aircrflconlrol
cuseol stfetchiDg
1-rom
ciubonsrcelof slaiDless
sleelcblc\arcfabricated

I
l
ll

186

Sfu

Control Cablcs

StandardAircraft Hadbook

*r-"
ffi"****"

187

---:f
---1'-

@;=Fig.8-2. 7h? n^tLohrt1a\ nf <hltaft 7 x 7.[ rktlir]t 11-\ihilit\

ord 7 x t9 a\tr11.\ih\

Fabricatinga CableAssembly
Terminalsfbf ircrall-controlcablesarc normally fabricated
sing threeditlifent processes:
. Swaging,as usedin all modern.rircrf
. Nicropressprocess
. Handwovensplice lenninal-

!i9.8-1.

v'dr \pr,lr,i !!eknltol titlss

3/: 7
S Lt t vt 5

]' 3

Handwoven splices re Dsedin many older aircraff, how

ever, this time consuming proccssis consideredunnecessary
with the a!ailability of mechanrcallyfabricatedsplices.Various
swge terminal fittings are showDin Frg 8 3

il

ri

;i

Swaging
Swage teflninals, mufirclured in accofdnce wlth Air
Specrfications,are suitablc
Force/NvyAeronauticalStrDd^rd
for use in civil aircraft up to and including maximum cble
loads When swaglng tools are used,it rs important that all the
manufacturers inslrucrions,includng "go-no-go" dimensions
(Fig 8 4), are followed in detail to avoid defectr\,eand rnfcrio

1.nhrdls
Fie.A-4. A t.vkl rury br.h..knry $\qr1

l8{l

SlandardAircr,fi Handbook

Control Cables

swagingObsef\'iuccof all instruclrons

shouldresultin
miD ldeveloping(hc lirll rnle(lffength ol rhccble

lcr

NicropressProcess
A palentedpfoccssusingcoppcfsleevcseln be usedull lo
the llll-fated ffcngth of the citblcwhen thc cableis kx)Pcd
aronrdr thinrble
Bciine undertkinga Nicft)press\plicr thc proper lool
.rDdslccvefor thc crble musl hc detenincdbilscdupoDlhe
nrrDulilctuer's
inslfuclronsA lypic1hnd swirgcris shown
iD F;g tj 5 A rypic l Nicropre\sthirnbleeyc \plice is \hown
in Fig 8'6

completedslccvesshould be checkedperiodicallywilh the

propcrgaugc.Thc g.rugesbouldbe held so th.rtil cont cLsrhe
lrrtjoraxi\ ol thc sleeve The cotnpressedporlton at thc ccDtel
ol the slee\eshouldenterlhc guge opcnig Nilh veD'liltle
clc rDce,s shownin Fig 8 7 Il it docsnol. the ool rrust bc
ndinstcdacco.dingly

l - i g . 8 - 7 , / , / . , . / r r ,.

ltig, tl-5.
ruhlrt

ha,r! ortr\trll
tkrplt\\
^
d\ ltr!.
tt t
itrrltt

\\t(

lt,

189

{. ,\- r ', L , r t.,'t1 ,\,L t'r t.tl \

TURNBUCKLES
A tLnbucklc
irsscmblyis Lrmechnicrlscrervdevicc tht
corsisrsof lu() thrcadcdternrinrlsand a rhrcrdedbarrel Figurc
1l-l{illuskatesx l}picl turnbuckle
assenbly

Fig.8-A. A ttp tl tnrt.*lt ut\0rh1\

i
||l
I

iE 8- 6. 1\ t ) n tl th i )l t.\. \r' | k ( T tu :h ti t n
t u r ant t " . t u\ l t)l \' l 2 t' q k tu r :l n ' n
To r n k e ir \ t is li l c to r! c o p p c r s l e e \e i n \rl l t i on. i L i \ i rnp o rta nl t hr t r he lun) u n t o f s l e e \c p re s s u reb c l c p t uni fbfm Thc

Turnbucklcsre f-ittediD rhccable\\entbl! lbr lhc purpose

ol nrrkincminor adjustnenlsin cablelengthn ro adjuslcablc tensronOnc of the refminal\hasrighl h.lndedthrcLrds
.rnd
lhc other hds lcft-handedthrc ds. Thc bafrel has matching
nghl- and lellhanded irternallhrcads.Thc end of (hc ba|fe]
wilh the left-h ndcd thredsc n usuallybe idenrificdby a
gfooveor kfurl aroundthl cnd of e brrfcl

l
tl
I

190

St.rndrrdAir(rrtt Handbook

SafetyMethodsfor T[rnbuckles
After tuorbucklchLrsbeenproperlyadiusted.il musl bc
s feried There rc \crcr l Drerhods
of saletyinglurnbuckle\r
(Figs.
hoNevcr.olrly t\'"'ornctln)ds
8-9 and8-10)rc covc'cdiD
thischptcrThc cip-lockingiethod(Fig 8-9) i\ uscdonly on
Drodcrnaircraft Oldcr ircrafi still usetunbucklesIh requie
the q ire-\r'r:tppinqntcthod

Control Crblcs

l9l

C.bl. Slr!

Typ. ol Wnp

Dl.m.r.r ol
Sf.ty Wrr.

31t2.......-l /8- .....

S,ngl6 -'''-..-.-.
Shgl ---..Srgre.. , ---.

o 020-.......-''
0 040----....--,.
0 0.o,,..--..-

r/8 -' ' -..-

S'gre..-. - --

S'qr-----

M.tcrtlt tAn..t.d
Condfttoi)

0 0,ro--....-,.

o 057 r-.-

Ooub6' -- - - . . - O 05l2. . . . - . .

Fi s.E . 9. C/ r / ,\ ^/ l' \^ trq .\r(

' Grva[6d
d rod rt o' sf o *f.s . 5s aacoptDt
' Tho 3ahv *'16 otes 'n 5r32jch dr.at6, o targr turnbuc|lls
ror,n.rs ror twsgrng m.y br dri.d lufrdontv to a.lmodro
rho do!te o oslinch d'ere, cooper o, u,ai *"es *nen uss
t i t. l t- | f.

tiq.E-ltl. Irnrhlt r'drri,!

"

hol sakL\rsrurttk klt\

Double-WrapMethod

usiDSs.rfetywire for sletyinB

rurDbuckles.
Of thc rrcthods
thc double-$mp nrchodis preferred.althoughlhc single-lvftrp
nrcthodi\ siui\letr)fyThe rnethodoFdouble+vrrp
sttyiDgi\
shownin Fig. 8 l {}.Trvoscparate
lengthsol thepfopcrwirc, ir\
shown in Fig 8- I l. xrc rscd Onc cnd of the lr,ire is ruDlhrough
thc holc in thebirnclof-lhcturnbuckleTheendsol-(hcwircrre
hcnrlo!',irr.lof\p,*rrccn(1.,'lrhc rumbuckle
Then the secondlcrrSthol the wire is passedinto ihc holc in
the ba.rel wilh lhc cnds beDtalong ltre barrcl on thc side opposileoi lhe lirsl Thcn lhc wiresa1theend of the turrbuckleltrc

r,r,

t"

1,\ ttt,! thathr

l t, \tt!\

r t ,

pirssc(iin opposrredirectionslhough lhc holesin thc turnbucklccycsor betwecnrhcjarvsoi thc lurnbucklefork. as applc.rblc
Thc laid rvircs arc bent iD placc bcfbre cuttng off e
wftrtlpcdrvirc. The remaininglcn3th of safety\,r'ifeis \'rapped
rl lca\l lur lurnsaroundthc shrnl.
rnd cuLoff Thc proccdurc
i\ rcpcnlcd1l rhcoppositeeDdol lhc lufnbucktc.
WhcD \u rged
terminrl
is bcingsaielied.rheendsof bolh
$irc\.rrc passcdif possiblc.throghrhc hole providedin thc
lcrninrl lbr this purposeand boLhcnds ||e wrappedrounddre
shrnk. s dcscribed
previously
ll thc hoc rs not Iargecnough1(] llow passageof both
wircs.thc wirc shouldbe prs\ed
thfoughthe hole and looped
ovc, lhc lrcc cDd of the othef wirc. Dd then both ends are
wrirppcLl
ilft)undthc shank.s dcscrihed

1
,:
I

192

Standard{ir.r.rtt Handb{x,k

Conlrol Crbles

l9-r

CAIiI,E TENSIONADJUSTMENT
Qm(rol crbl,i lcnsioDshouldhc carefullyadiusted.in ilc_
tions
cordrncc\\ith lhc ir frarnen nulilclurels recoDlDlend
ol lhc intnrcdiate
afer shotld
On hgc nircrall,thc lcmperrLurc
whcn usingA tcnsionmetef([ri8
bc t kcn ;nlo consideration
thc lvcragcol two or thrcclcnl
8 l2). For longcble sectious.
surlcerelnpcrir_
pcr:lurcrcrdings\houldbc nrdclin-extrcnrc
il lhe aircr lt rs
rurc !irririon\ that lnighl b!'o)countered
opcrnlcdpri|nrril) in unusualgcogrphicor clrnrticcorrditions.ruch as rcic. afid. or lropiclbcations Frgurc8-l:l
sho\\'sr Iypicirlcblc riggingcharl

fit\ tl-t!.

I
ll
ll

7it)it l t hlt t t!!rt!

| l !

fn g g e r
Fig. ll)2.

I \'t'k dl I nhh tu\ttn,rh t:

9
Electrical Wiring
and Installation

MATERIALSELECTION
Aircraft serviceimposessevereenvironmental
conditionson
service,the wire should
clectricalwire To ensuresatisfactory
at regularintervalsfor abmsions,
defectiveinsulabe inspected
posls,
tenninal
and
colfosion
underor around
tion,conditionof
swagedterminals
asa sin
Fo thepurposeof thissection,a wie is described
gle,solidconducto,
conductor
coveedwith an
oasa stranded
insulatingmaterial(Fig.9-l).
lhe termcable,as usedin aircraftelectricalinstallations,
includes:
in thesame
I Two or moreseparately
insulated
conductors
(multiconductor
cable).
Jacket
2 Two or moeseparately
insulatedconductors
twistedtogether(twistedpar).

\>
\
FiE.9-1. Singlesalitl conductorand a condtcto. consXtinsd

StanderdAirft Hsndbook

l9

3. Oneor moreinsulated
conductors,
coveredwiih a metal,

iI

I
l

lic braidedshield(shieldedcable).
4. A single nsuatedcenterconducrorwith a metallic
braidedouter conductor(radio-frequency
cable).The
concentricity
of thecenteconductorandtheouterconductoris carefullyconolled during maufacturingto
ensurethattheyarecoaxial.

lvire is manufacturEd
in sizesaccording
to a standard
know
as rheAwG (Ame can pir 8r.8).
As shownin Fig. 9-2, the
wirc diameteBbcomesmalleras e gaugenumbeNbecome
lagerSeetheappendixfor a tableof wire gauges.
To usethewiregauge,e wireto bemeasured
is insenedin
the smallestslot that will accommodate
the bare wie. The
gaugenurhberconesponding
lo thatslotindicates
rhewie size.
The slothasparllelsidesandshouldnot bconfusedwi the
semicircular
openingat theendofthe slot.Theopeningsimply
permitsthefreemovemen(
of rhewire all the way throughthe

.-o'

ln

Cugenumbersare useflin comparingthe diameterof

wircs,but not all typesof wire or cablecanbeaccurately
measurcdwith a gauge.Largewiresareusuallysfandedto increase
rheirflexibility.ln suchcases,thetotalareacanbedelermined
by mulliplyingtheareaofone skand(usualycomputedin circularmilswhenthediameterorgauge
numberis known)by e
rrumberof stradsin thewire or cable.

Factors that Affect the Selectionof Wire Size

Wire Size

slol.

ElectdcelWfi'lngnd lDsllldon

I
al
?ot

3...."rr.:
rig.9-2. AWG iire guge

Tablesand procedures
are availablefor selectingcorrect
wire sizes.Forpurposes
ofthis manual,it is assumed
thatwire
sizeswere specifiedby the manufacturer
of lhe aircraftor
cquipment.

Factors that Alfect the Selectionof

Conductor Material
Athoughsilveris e bestconductor,
highcostlimitsits use
lo specialci.cuitswherea subslance
wth high conductivityis
needed.
The two mostgenerallyusedconductorsare copperand
alumnum.Eachhascharacleristics
that makeits useadvanlageousundercertaincrcumstances.
Also, eachhascertain
disadvantages.
Copperhasa highecoducvity;it is moreductile(canbe
drawn).hasrelativelyhigh tensilestrength,andcanbe easily
solderd.
I[ is moreexpensive
andheavierthanaluminum.
Althoughaluminumhasonly aboul0 percentof theconduclivityof copper,it s usedextensively.
hs lightnessmakes
long
spas,
and
ts
relatively
large
diameter
for a $ven
fnssible
conductivilyreduces
corona,whichis thedischarge
ofelectricfrom the wire whenit hasa high potential.The discharge
'ty
is greterwhensmall-diameter
wire is usedthanwhenlargediamcterwire is used.Somebusbarsarcmadeofaluminuminstcadof copper,whererhereis a greatermdiatingsurfacefor
thesameconductance.

198

StandardAircrftHandbook

ElectlicalWiring rnd lnsr.allaaon

Conductorinsulationmaterialvarieswith thetypeof installation.Suchinsulationas rubber,slk,andpaperareno longer

usedextensivelyin aircraftsystems,More commontodayarc
vinyl, cotton,nylon.Teflon,andRockbestos

Tefminas
specifically
designed
for usewith thestndad
sizesof
airLraflwireareavailable
throughnormalsupplychnnels.A
haphazrdchoiceof commercial
leminalsca contributeto overjoints.vibmtionfailures,ad corrosion
heated
difricuhies.
Formostapplications,
soldered
terminals
havebenreplaced
by solderless
teminals.Thesolderprwesshasdisadvantages
that
havebenovercome
by useofthe solderless
termnals,
The terminalmanufacturer
will normallyprovidea special
crimpingor swagingtool fbrjoining the solderless
terminalto
theelectricwire.Aluminumwire presents
specialdifficultyin
that eachindvdualstrandis insulatedby an oxide coaling.
This oxide coatingmusr be broken down in rhe crimping
processandsomemethodusedto preven(its reforming.In all
cases,terminalmanufacturer's
instructions
shouldbe folowed
wheninstalingsolderless
rerminals.
preinsulated,
Copperwiresare tminared
with solderless,
straighlcopprterminallugs The insulatonis pan of the lerminal lug andextendsbeyondits ba[el so thal r will covera
polron of the wire insulation.makingthe useof an Insularion
(Fig 9-4).
sleeveunnecessary

Stripping Insulation
Attchingthewireto connectors
or termialsrequires
theremovalofinsulationto exposetheconductors,
commonlyknown
asr/ryprg. Whenstrippingthe\,irc. removenomorensulation
thanis necessary
Strippingcantle accomplished
in any ways;
however,
thefollowingbasicprinciplesshouldbefollowed:
. Be suethatall cuttingtoolsusedfor sfipping aresharp.
Whenusingspcialwire stippingrools,adjustthetool to
avoidnicking,cutting,or otherwise
damaging
e strands.A
lighcduryhad-operared
wrEsipper
is shownin Fig.9-3.
Automaticslrippngtmls shouldbcarefrlly
adjusted;
the
manufacrurcr's
insEuctions
shouldbe followdto avoid
nicking,cutting,orotherwise
damaging
strands.
Thisis especiallyimpofiantfor aluminumwresandforcopperwires
smallerthanNo. 10.Smalierwireshavelargernumbers.

199

Fig.9-3. Light urt h-otrrdknn snppc.

llq.9-1.

TERMINALS
Terminalsareat(achedto theendsofelecicwirsto facilitate
connectonof the wires o terminalstripsor itemsofequipment

Prci,Buh ul tennal hB

In addition,peinsulated
lerminallugscontainan insulation
grip(a melalreinforcing
slccvc)benea&theinsulationforextra
grippint strengthon thewire insulationPreinsulaled
termmals

200

Stsnd&rdAhcrslt Handbook

morehanonesizeofwire; theinsulationis usuaccommodate

to identifythe wire sizesihat can b termF
ally color-coded
wi
of
each lhelerminallug sizes.
nated
after
terminallugsareinsulated
Sometypesof uninsulated
flexible
assemblyto a wire by meansof Piecesof transparent
The sleeveprovideselectricalad me
rubingcalledsleeves.
protection
at
lhe connction.When the size of the
chanical
sleevingusedis suchthatit will fittighdy overtheterminallu8'
the sleevingneednot be tied;otherwise,rt shouldbe tied with
lacint cord,asillusratedin Fig,9-5

2nl

ElectricalWiring end Instsllstlon

dusl comPoundThis compoundremoveslhe

nerrolarum-zinc
duringlhe
,,ride hlm fromt}e luminumby a Srindintprocess

c^. h.t ro
Pcvor rrbt

te*

sldc

Idsuhtirya teni,nl lu| tritho tnnparcI llli

f\v5.
bltubs n.e\!

Aluminum Wirt Terminals

is increasing
wrein aircraltsystems
Theu\e of aluminum
bend_
Howevet
because
of its weightadvantgeovercopper
ing aluminumwill cause"work hardening"of the melal,makof srandsmuch
ing it brittle.This resultsin failureor breakage
wire.
Aluminu also
wih
coppcr
soonerthanin a simlarcase
oxide film immediatelyuponexposure
fors a high-resistant
it is impolantio
for thesedisadvantages,
to air To compensale
procedures
usethemostreliableinstallation

FiA.g-6. hsc nryahni ire to ahninnt tnninollttgs-

ConnectingTerminal Lugs to Terminal Blocks

Tcrminallugsshouldbe installedon teminal blocksso that
rhcylre lockedlgainstmovementin thedirectionofloosening
(Fi8 9-7).

22

StsndardAircrsft Handbook

ElectricalWlrlng ond Inslollotion

203

Identifying Wire and Cable

Aircraftelectricalsystemwiring andcablecanbe marked
with a combination
of lettersandnumbersto dentifythewire,
thegaugenumber,andoer nforthecircuitwhereit belongs,
rnatonnecessary
to relatelhe wire or cableto a wiring dia.
gram.Suchmarkingsare calledrheidentication code.'f'hercis
procedure
nostandard
for markingandidentifyingwiringieach
manufacturer
normallydevelopshis own identificationcode.
Wiresare usuallymarkedat ntervalsof not more than 15"
lengthwlse
andwithin 3" ofeachjunctonor lerminatingpoint
Fia. 9-7. Conn.'il!!kni'lt tu ! kntu| bbck.

Terninalblocksarenormallysuppliedwirhstudssecured
in
placeby a planwasher.an exremalroothlockw her,and a
nut-ln connecting
terminals.it is recommended
to placecopper
terminallugsdircdyon rop of the nut, followedwith a plain
washeraodelasticstopnut. or wth a plainwasher.splir steel
lockwasher,
andplainnut
Aluminumterminallugs shouldbe placedover a pla(ed
brassplain washer,followedwirh anotherplatedbrassplain
washer,splrtsteellockwasher,
andplainnutorelasc stopnut.
plated
The
brasswashershouldhavea diameterequalro the
tonguewidthofrhealuminumterminallug.Themaufacturer's
instuctions
shouldbeconsultedfor recommended
dimensions
of theseplatedbasswashers.No washershouldbe placedin
the currentpathbetweentwo aluminumleminal lugs or betweentwo copperterrninllugs.Also,no lockwasher
should be
placedagainstthetongueor padofrhe aluminumterminal.
Tojoin a copperrerminalug to analuminumtermiallug,a
platedbrassplainwashershouldbplacedoverthenuttharholds
e studin place.followedwi rhe aluminumteminal lug, a
platedbrassplain washer,rhecopperrerminallug, plain washer,
splitsteellockwasher,
anda plarnnutor a selflocking,all-metal
nut.As a generalrule,a torquewrenchshouldbeusedto tighten
nuts lo ensufesufficientcontactpfessure.Maufac0rrer's
in,
structions
provideinstallarion
torquesfor all rypesof terminals.

WIRE GROUPSAND BUNDLES

Groupingor bundlingcetain wires,suchaselectricallyunpmtectedpower wiring and wiring going to duplcatevilal
shouldbe avoided
equipment,
wre bundlesshouldgenerallycontainfewerthan75 wires.
Whenseveralwires
or lZ" to 2" in diamelerwhercpracticable.
aregroupedatjunctionboxes,terminalblocks,panels,andthe
like, rheidenttyof thegroupwthina bundle(Frg.9-8)canbe
fetarned.
EudL .

FiA.9-8.

G'ouptL

B!dL d.

Goaps anl bnndle tes

The nerible nylon cablerie (Fig.9-9) has almostcompetelyreplacedcord for lacingor tying wire bundles.Nylon
cabletiesareavailabein variouslengthsandareself-locking
for a permanent,
neatinstallaton,
Singlewiresor wre bundlesshouldnot be installedwith
cxcessiveslack.Slackbetweensupporlsshouldnormallynot

204

ElectricalWiring snd Instsllstion

Strndord Aircrsf. Hndbook

Nfl!!rFrF::_

FiZ.9-9. Fletible nrlot.dbl lie lture |,ost codpteklt

ptte codlor Ia. Bot :.ii9 cthle bu les

FlB.9-lO.

MLrinuD

reton'er.le.l

sldck it tirc bundls benftensq-

exceeda maximumof i" deflec(ionwith normalhad force

(Fig 9-10).

20S

lion (o this generalrule is coaxialcable,whichis routedasdirectlyaspossible.

The wiring must be adequatelysuppotedthroughoulits
Ientth. A sufcientnumberof suppols mustbe providedto
preventunduevibmtionof theunsuppond
lengths.
Whenwringmustberoutedparalleltocombustible
fluid or
as muchfixed separation
as
oxygenlines for shof distances,
possibleshouldbe maintained.
The wiresshouldbe on a level
with,orabove,theplumbintlines.Clampsshouldbespacedso
lhat if a wire is bokenat a clamp,it will not contactthe line.
Wherea 6" sepaation
is norpossible,
boththewire bundleand
lhe plumbinghnecanbeclampedto thesamestructurto pteis lessan 2", bur
ventany relativemotion.[f rheseparaton
sleevecanbe usedoverthe wire
morethan1", a polyerhylene
Also,two cableclampsbackbundleto givefurtherprotection.
to-back,asshownin Fg.9-l I, canb usedlo mainlana rigid
sepaation
only, and not for supporiof e bundle.No wre
shouldbroutedsothatit is locatednearerthnZ' lo a pumbing line. Neier shoulda wire or wire bundlebe suppoled
from a plumbingline thatcarriesflammablefluidso. oxygen.

BndRadii
Bendsin wire groupsor bundlesshouldnot be lessthan l0
timesthe outsidediameterof the wire groupor bundle.However,at teminal stips,wherewire is suitablysupported
areach
endofthe bend,a minimumradiusof threetimestheoutsidediameterof thewire,or wirebundle,is normallyacceptable
There
ae,ofcourse,exceptions
to theseguidelines
n thecaseofcertantypesofcable;for example,coaxialcableshouldneverbe
bentto a smallerradiusthansix timestheoutsidediamerer
FiE- 9-ll. Mtl'od of separoti,t8 Niret f@n'
plunbinElint

Routingand Installations
All wiringshouldbeinstalledso lhatit is mechanically
and
electricallisoundand neatin appearance.
Wheneverpracticabe,wresandbundlesshouldberoutedparallelwith,or arrighr
anglesto, thestringesor ribs of the areanvolved.An excep-

wiring shouldbe routedto maintaina minrmumclearance

ol-at least3" from controlcables.If this cannotbe accomguardsshouldb installedto preventconplished,mechanical
rxctblrtween
thewiring andcontrolcables.

206

StandardAircraft Handbook

Cable clamps should be inslalled with regard to the

properangle,as shownn Fig. 9-12.The mountingscrew
shouldbe abovethe wire bundle [t is alsodesirabletha!the
back of the cable clamp rest againsta structuralmembel
wherepracticable.

ElectricalWiring and Installaaion

207

MS21919 Cabe
claps

Wlro pinchdln clamp

Anglo bracket
Fig.9-r4.

Corer

MoMtin? cable tlthp bstrurturc.

tubularstructures.
Suchclampsmustfit tightly,but shouldnot
bedeformedwhenlockedrn place.

ProtectionAginstChafing
Fig.9-12. Prcpe.a inpopet aigtsJo i,Ftatk on of

Careshouldbe takenthat wires are not pinchedrn cable

clamps.Wherepossible,rhecablesshouldbe mounteddirectly
to structuralmembers,
asshownin Figs 9-13and9-14.Clamps
can be usedwith rubbercushionsto securewire bundlesto

Wiresandwire groupsshouldbe prorected

againstchafing
or abrasionin thoselocationswherecontactwith shapsurfacesor otherwireswoulddamagethe insulationDamageto
the insulationcan causeshortcircuits,malfunclion,or inadvertentoperationofequipment Cableclampsshouldbe used
to supportwire bundlesat eachhole througha bulkhead(Fig.
9-15) If wirescomecloserthanZ" to the edgeof the hole,a
suitablegrommetshouldbeusedin thehole,asshownin Fig.
9 -1 6 .

BONDINGAT\DGROUNDING

Fie.9-13. uariou! nthoso.lnountB cable ctahp!.

Bondingis the elecuicalconnectingof two or moreconductingobjectsnot otherwiseadeqLrately

connected.
Gounding is the eleckicalconnectingof a conductingobjectto the
primarystructure
for a retumpathforcuenl. PrimarysEuclure
is the main fame,fuselage,or wing srructureof the aircraf!,

208

ElectricalWiringandInslllation

Sbndard Aircraft Handbook

.
.
.
.

FiE 9-15. Cohk (|e,ryat laryc

Fig.9-16. A gtutt ! use !

ptute.t cobl tut rhbush a

potentials
Preventdevelopment
ofradio frequency
Protectpersonnel
from shockhazards,
Providestabilityof radiotransmission
andeception.
Preventaccumulatlon
of statlccharge.

Bondingjumpesshouldbe madeas shortas practicable,

rnd rnstalledln suchmannerthat the resistance
of eachconnectiondoesnotexceed0.003
Q. Thejumpermustnotinterfere
with the operationof movableaircraftelements,suchas surice controls.nor shouldthe normalmovementof theseelementsresultin damageto thebondingjumper.
To ensurea low-esistance
connection,
nonconducting
finishes,suchas paintand anodizingfilms, shouldbe removed
liom theattachment
surfaceto becontacted
by thebondingterminal.Electricwiring shouldnot begrounded
dirctlyto magnesrumoans.
Electrolyticactioncan rapidlycorrodea bondingconnecton if suitableprecautionsare not taken Aluminum alloy
jumpersare recommended
lbr most cases;however,copper
jumpersshouldbeusedto bondtogetherparts
madeofstainless
steel,cadmium-plated
steel,copper,
brss,
or bronze.Whereconlactbeween
dissimilarmetalscannotbeavoided.thechoiceof
jumperand hardwareshouldbe suchrharcono\ion is mnimized,andthepartlikely to conodewouldbethejumperorassociatedhardware.Figure9-17 showsthe properhardwae
combination
for makinga boodconnection.
At locationswhere
OB BOLT

WASHER

commonlyreferredto asgrorn1.
Bondingandgroundingconnectionsaremadein aircraftelectricalsystemsto:
. Protectaircraftandpersonnel
againsthazardsfrom lightningdischarge
' Prcvidecurentretumpaths.

209

WASHER
L@K WASHER
LOCKNUT
Fig.9-r7. Bolt a

waSHEFl

nut hon18
at 8nmt8 tofla sutJrre.

210

Standard Aicrali Handbook

finishesare removed,a protectivefinish shouldbe appliedto

e completed
connection
to preventsubsequent
corrosion,
The use of solderto attachbondingjumpersshouldbe
avoided.Tubularmembersshouldbe bondedby meansof
clampsto whichthejumperis attachedProperchoiceof clamp
malerial
will minimize
theprobabiliry
ofco[osion.

L0
Aircraft Drawings

A drqwingis a methodto conveyideasconcemrngthe consLruction

or assembly
of objects.This is donewith thehelpof
Iines,notes,abbeviations,
and symbols.It is very important
thattheaviationmechanicwho is to makeor assemble
theob.iectunde6tande meaningof thedrfferentlines,notes,abbrevalions.
andsymbols
thatareusedin a drawing.
Althoughblueprintsas suchare no longeused,the term
bluep t or print is Eenerally
usedin placeof/,a!rig.

ORTHOGRAPIIIC PROJECTION
In oderto show the exactsize and shapeof all t}le pafs of
complexobjects,a numberof viewsarenecessary.
This is the
projection.
systemusedin orthogaphic
pojectionshowssix possibleviewsof anobOrthographrc
jccl because
all objectshavesix sides:front, top,bottom,reat,
rightside,andleft side.SeeFig. l0-1
It rs seldomnecessary
fo showall six views to portrayan
obiectclearly;therefoe,only thosevrewsnecessary
to illusrrate the requiredcharacfeistics
of the object are drawn.
Onc-view,two-view,and three-viewdrawingsare the most

Aircft Dratdings

Stendord Airrraft Handbook

213

Workingdrawingscanbedvdedinto threeclasses:detail,
lssembly,andinstallation.

,(:L.,."'l

DetilDrawing
A detalldrawingis a descriplionof a sintle part,gvenin
sucha mannerasto describeby lines,notes,andsymbolsthe
specificationsas to size, shape,material,and methodsof
manufacturethat ae to be usedin making the part. Detail
drawingsareusuallyrathersimpleand,whensinglepartsare
small, severadetail drawingsmight be shownon the same
sneetor pnnt

i-- - - - - - - - r

in
I

AssemblyDrawing

T OP

i- ----i-- - --- -t-----

LEFT srDE I

GiEi
FRot{T

I RIGTstoE I

_1

REAR

An assembly
drawingis a description
of an objectconsisttheobjectby giving,in a
ngof lwo or moreparts.It describes
generalway,thesizeandshape.Its primarypurposesto show
rherelationship
of the variouspafs. An assemblydrawingis
usuallymorecomplexthana detaldrawing,and is oftenaccompanied
by detaildrawingsofvariouspans.

i l-ll
I

sorrort

L- - - - _ -_ _ J

FiE l0-r. Ortho!tphitpmjktitrt

WORKINGDRAWINGS
Workingdrawingsmustgivesuchinfomatioftassizeofthe
objectand all of its pans,it shapeand that of all of its pans,
spcifications
asto thematerialto be used,how the materialis
to befinished,how thepartsareto beassembled,
ad anyother
informaionessentialo makingandassembling
the paticular
object.

InstallationDrawing
An installationdrawingis one that includesall necessary
rnforationfo a partor an assemblyof partsin thefinal position in the aircraft.lt showsthe dimensionsnecessary
for
the locationof specificpartswith relationto the otherpats
dimensionsthat arehelpfulin laterwork in the
nd reference
shop.
It showsa
A pictorialdGwingis similarfo a photograph.
is
for
objectas it appearsto the eye, but it
not satisfactory
showingcomplex
formsandshapes.
Pictoraldrawingsareuselul in showingthegeneralappearance
ofan objectandareused
cxlen$ivelywith orthogaphicprojecriondrawings.Pictorial
drrwings
areusedin maintenance
andoverhaulmanuals,

214

Standard Aift raft Handbook

AinraftDrawings

215

TITLE BLOCK

THE LINESONA DRAWING

All workingdrawingsincludea title blockwith thefollowing information:

Everydrawingis composed
oflines.Linesmarktheboundaries,edges,and intersectionof surfaces.Lines are usedto
showdimensions
andhiddensurfaces.
andto indicatecenters,
Obviously,if thesamekind of line is usedto showall of these
things,a drawingbecomesa meaningless
collcctionof nes.
vious
Fothisreason,
kindsof standardized
linesareusedon
aircraftdrawings
Mostdrawingsusethreewidthsor intensities
oflines: thin,
medium,or thick.Theselinesmightvary somewhaton different drawings,but therewll alwaysbe a noticeable
difference
betweena thin anda thick line.The width of the mediumline
will be somewhee
betweenlhe two. Figure l0-2 showsthe
coect useof linesbv examDle,

. Thenameof thecompanythatproduces
thepart.
. Numberof rhedrawing.If it is a detaildrawlng,thedrawing numberis alsothepartnumber
. Thescaleto whichit is drawn.Althougha par1is normally
accutelydra\'J,the drawnpartshouldnot be scaledto
obtaina dimension
. Thedateofthe finisheddwing.
. The namesandsignatures
of thedraftsman,
checkerand
persons
apProvingthedfawing.
' If the drawingappliesto an aircraft,the manufacturer's
modelnumberwill beincluded.

OTTIERDATA
Dependrng
on thecomplexityofthe itemson thedrawing,a
revisionblockmightbeincludedto indicateanychanges
to the
original.Notesaresometimes
addedfor variousclarifyingreasons.Finishmarksareusedto ndicate
thesufaces
thatmustbe
nished.
machine
Most dimensions
will includetolerances
or
thetotalallowablevaiationof a size.
a,ln-z. tuanpteoJconeduta.l ttus

SECTIONALVIEWS
Asectionor sectionalview rs oblainedby cuttingawaypart
of an objectto showthe shapeandconstruction
at the cutling
plane.Thepaft or pafs cut aryayaeshownby theuseof sec
tion (cross-hatching)
lines.
Sectionalviewsareusedwhenthe interiorconstruction
or
hiddenfeaturesof an objectcannotbe shownclearlyby exte-

RIVET SYMBOLSUSED
ON DRAWINGS(BLUEPRINTS)
Rivetlocationsareshownon drawingsby symbols.These
symbolsprovidethenecessary
informationby the useof code
numbers
or codelettersor a combination
of both.Themeanlns

216

Aircraft Drawings

StndardAircraft Handbook

ofthe codenumbersandcodelettersis explainedin thegeneral

notessectionof thedawingon whichtheyappear
The rivet codesystemhas beenstandardized
by the NationalAerospaceStandardsCommittee(NAS Standard)and
hasbeenadoptedby mostmajorcompanies
in the aircraftindustry.This systemhasbeenassigned
the nDmberNAS52Jin
rheNAS Standard
book
TheNAS523baslcrivet symbolconsistsof two linescrossing at 90', whichform four quadrants.
Codelettersand code
numbersareplacedin thesequadrants
to givethedesjredinformationaboutthe rivet. Each quadranthas beenassigneda
name.northwest(NW),northeast(NE), southwest(SW),and
(SE)(FiB.l0-3').
southeast

Heod
For
i MS2012AD
Sidc

=Yk'
%. ..'\l\-rn
,".,,i1$'
Not

Basic tir synbol .rudtdht cohrliBdlatio

The rivet type,headtype,size,material,and locationare

shownon e field of thedrawingby meansof therivet code,
with oneexceptioDRivetsto beistatedflushon bothsidesare
not coded,but arecalledout anddetailedon the drawing.An
explanationof the rivet codes for each type of rivet used is
shownon theeldof thedrawing.Figure10-4showsexamples
of rivetcodlngon thedrawingandFig. 10-5is a sampleof rivet
codrng
Hole and countersinkdimensionsfo solid-shankand
blind rivets are omittedon all drawingsbecauseit is understoodthat thecountersinkangleis 100",and thecountersink
shouldbe of suchdepthat the fastenerfits flush wit the
surfaceafterdriving.

Not

Shown

IiE lO-4. Eanples oJnr|todiigoka Ilra\|ins.

CODE

Fig.lO-3.

LountcrlnkJ

Shown i (Mmdoiory)

DESCRIPTION
OF FIVET

BASIC
PAFT NO,

BA
SB
CY

M520426A
MS20426AD
MS2042600

1100F
21t7-T3
2024-f31

Solid, l0O' Flush

Solid, l0oo Flush
Solid, 1O0cFlush

BH
BJ
CX

MSM4TOA
MS20470AD
MS20470DD

1100F
2117-T3
202+T3r

Softd,univetsalHsad
Sold,UnivrsalH6ed
Solid,UnivrsalHsad

NASl73aE
NAS1738M

5056
M O NEL

Had
Blid,Protruding
8lind,ProtrudingHead

NAS1739E
NAS1739M

5056
MONEL

Bld,too. Flush
Blind,lm' F|ush

Fig.l0-s. TJpaat emnples of ret codinB This list ||ll vary accordingo
r.luireentsoJeachnanufdcrurer

Whee a numberof identical rivets are in a ow, the rivet

codeis shownfor thefirst andlastrivet in therow only,andan
arrowwill showe directionin whichtherivet row runs The
locationof therivetsbetweenthe rivet codesaemarkedonly
asshownin Fig 10-6.
with crossingcenterlines,

18
^rtow

StsndardAtrcrafrHndbook
Ar. U.d to D.rigot. Sp..;t;(

;'.t ond ivrr Hol. ot to.h td ol Linc

11

Non-DestructiveTesting
(NDT) or Non-Destructive
Inspection(NDI)

FlB. 10-6. Metln.l ol illu|tdilg ri'et (os dktl the locaion wherc a
tutnberol i.lenttultirctx ok ind bv

LJnlikethe previouschapteni,whchprovided"handson," delailed procedues

for accomplishing
a given task (such as
ddlling.riveting,etc.),thispresenotion
ofNDT is moegeneralDcoiledprocedures
for usingall ofthe NDT mehods
in usetodny are beyond the scope of this book. Therefore,a broad
ovcNiewofeachofe NDT merh(xls
is presented
to familiarize
with themanyvariatons
rhctechnician
ofthis imponantsubject.

VISUAL INSPECTION
Visualinspectron
is rheoldestof the non-destructrve
methodsof testing.It is a quick ndeconomicalmethodto dtect
virfioustypesof cracksbeforetheyprcgressto filure. Its reliirbilitydepends
upontheabilityandexperience
of theinspector,Hemustknow
howto seafch
forstructuralfailutes
andhow
to rccognizeareaswheresuchfailuresarelikely to occur Defcts thatwould otherwiseescapethe nakedeye canoftenbe
dctecledwlth theaid ofoDticldevices.
Theequipment
necessary
for conducting
a visualinspecrion
rusually
ofa songfldshlight.a mrror with aballjornl.
consists
ind a 2.5x - 4x magnifyingglass.A lOx magnifyingglassis
rccommended
for positivedentifrcalion
of suspeced
cracksVisul inspection
with
of someareascanbe madeonly
theuse
oI tDorescopc_

22O

Standad Aircraft Handbook

Non-DrtructiveTsfitrg(NDT)or InsTcfion(NDI)

NDT BEYONDVISUAL
Oneof themajordangers
encountered
in presenting
dataon
non-destructive
testingtechniques
is that the readermight be
given the impressionthat a techniqueis a panaceafor all problem solutions
Let it be clearthateachof thetechniques
to be coveredhas
applicationto certainequiements,
but no onetechniqueuniversallyobviatesthe needfor any of the others.
The mosteffectivetestingsysfemincludesall knownnondestructivetechniques;
howeve! until appropriate
techniques
for all applications
havebeendeveloped,
no systemof evaluation canbe completelyefficient.
Mostof thefollowingdiscussion
of NDT is basedon material providedby Mr. JohnWalshof CentuionNDT, Inc.
Many aviationmaintenance
technicians
are familiar with
te techniquesof NDT. Each technicianmight have a favoite metod thathas beenrn usefor the past10 years.Occasionally,it is helpful to review the methodsand look at
new introductionsin eachdisciplineto makean informeddecisionon whatto applyto new andexistingapplications.
The
methodchosenfor eachapplicationmusttakeseveralfactors
into account:the materialused,thelocationofthe defect,the
testsurface,the desiedoutputandthe knowledgeof the operator.After all, magneticparticle cannotbe usedon aluminumandan appenticecannotbe expectedto be a expert
in ultasonictesting.
The five major methodsof NDT listed in ease-of-useorde
ae: dye penetrat, magneficparticle, eddy current,ultrasonic,
and adiography.As new technologiesae developed,vaiations of these methodsare created.For the puposesof this
book, only thesefive meods aecoveed.
To analyze the methods,the differencesof each must be
known.A brief description
of thestepstakento completeeach
meodfollows:
. FluorescentDye Penetrunt(FP) Cleanthe paft, remove
anysurfacecoating,(parnt,etc.)sprayon thedye,remove

221

the excess,apply the developer,and flaws appearon the

materialin e coloreddye.
Ma?nticPa icle (MP) Clean the feous part, remove
the surfacecoatings,magnetizethemetal---itherby yoke
or lathe, sprayon the magneticparticle solution,and the
flaws are seenon ihe magnetizedmaterial under black
light. This inspectiontechniqueis well known to most
aviation fechicians by the adename"Magnaflux'l and
is usedextensivelyfor inspectionof seelenginecomponents.
EddJ Ca ent (ET) Clean the excessivedir fom the
part, calibratethe instrument,run the probeover the surface of the testmaterialto checkfor flaws, and the flaws
will be representedas a mete deflection (lage units
havea Cm readoutwith an X-and Y-axis).
Ultrasonic (UT) Clean the pat, set-up the insfument,
apply the couplantto the testpart, run transducerover the
suspectedarea;any surfacesand l]aws will be seenas a
line epresentationon the CRT.
Radiosraph! (RT) Preparethe part in an X-ay secured
area, set-up filns, exposepart to diation source,de_
velop film, and interpretftlm.

To comparethe methods,refer to the chartin Figure I l_l

Obviously, each of the methodshas pluses and minuses
Looking at e "cosf' and "surface prepamtion" of each
method,almosttwo curvesappeato be forming Costis rela_
tively inexpensivefor a methodthat rcquiresdetailed surface
preparation and clean-up, fluorescent penetrant. And, the
methodthat requires the least amount of surfacepreparation
(radiography)is the most expensive.Then somewherein the
mildle,eddycu[ent showsup-a litde surfacepreParationand
someaffordabletools will help find defects.
This "middle ground" is probably why eddy-cunentNDT
accountsfo about85 percentof all nondestructivetestingtoaccountfor about10 percent
day.fltrasonic (UT) techniques
andx-ray radiography(RT) aboutfive percent.

212

FiE ll-1.

StandardAircraft Handbook

Cotnpa.isonchor for rhe liw hajor thods o/NDa coDres!

(ET) NDT
EDDY-CURRENT
Althougheddy-curent
NDT is a relativelywell-knownand
provenconceptthathasbeenaroundfor morethan40 years,it
hasbeensunoundedby a myththatET instruments
areexpensiveandopefttionrequiresyearsof schoolingandexperience.
However,thanksto productdesignand advancements,
eddy
currentinstruments
aremoreaffordableandeasieto use New
hand-heldandpush-button
instruments
arenow available(see
Fig.11-2)

Non-Dslmctive Tsting (NDT) or Inspection (NDI)

223

tsig.ll-2. Honl held an.l poflAbl. !.umnt inrtun'ents that occrorclr

.actJlaws in e@lpans ah.l cdn sott nals b.i aLIq' tpes Thet witl locoe
lrface andneor tu,fdce aws in nan naqnit nnteiaLs wherepereobitry it relatiwlt canedht thtoughaut the kst arca. Th. netets deflec, bose.l
on th severid of the roid The uni6 ||ill dlso sart ihterials tco ing ta
hnh1ess,o LLaripe, carbo cok ekt, hedt treatin I .atuliln tensiL strunglh,
" Bnin stuctre Coutrcr'Cenurion NDT |tlc

Manufactureas
now realizethat lnexpensive,simple-tooperateunits are neededto help the aviationtechnjcians
do
p
theijob.With someunits cedin the$1000to $3000range,
nowmoretechnicians
cangerexposure
to eddycurrenttesting.
Because
theyarelessexpensive
andeasier
to operate,
eddy-current instrumentsmight soon be as commonas digital voltTo understand
eddy-curenttechnology,
startwith the instrument's
electronicbase,Eachunit containsa balancedcicuit.Onesideofthatbalanced
circuitis in theunit,theotherleg

2A

StondordArcrsft
Handbook

of thebalanced
circuitis in theprobe.Theequipmentneedsto
be setup for ihe materialbeingtested.Oncesetup, theprobe
canberun acrossthepartto begintesting.As it rllnsacrossthe
pan,it sendsa snrallelectronic
char8ethrouShthebalanced
cir
cuil, intothepartandwaitsfor a response
fromrhematerial.All
thshappensin a matterof microseconds
The response
it receiveswill be changedwhen the probe(and the electronrc
charge)hits the edgeof the flaw, and cnnotgo throughthe
"void" of thecrack.andretumsto a solidareaof material.The
meterwill deflect,basedon theseverityof thevoid.
(or absolute)
The'1ntroduclory"
unitsarecallederondrce
unils.Theseunilsireexcellen!for testingferrousandnon-fer
rous materialsfor surface/near-surface
naw delectionTypicafly,theunitsoperateat frequencies
bctween55 kHz and22O
kHz. No specialtrainingis needed.lnstructrons
areprovided
wlh theunir.A few buttonsarnecessary
for setup andscannnglhe pafl is easy.A meterprovidesan indicarionoflhe tesr
Dacondition.
(or differential)units havea wider
The impedance-plane
fiequencyrange(between40 Hz and6 MHz). A CRT readout
providesanelectronc
traceofrhe flaw In theimpedance-plane
unils.two coils makethe balancedcircuiteithercombrnedin
one probe(differential)or separated
in two absoluleprobes.
The flaw appears
on theX andY-axison theCRTreadout(see
Fig. I l-3).

MAGNETO-OPTIC
EDDY-CURRENT
IMAGING
A variationof the eddycunentNDl. called,rgn-oplic
ed\'cne irrrr8ighas beendevelopdThe following is
basedon materialprovrdedby PRI lnstrumentaton,
Inc.
The magneto-optic/eddy
currentmagercombinesnduced
eddy-cunent
excrlationwith directmagneto-opric
detectionto
producereal-timeimagesof cracks,corrosion,andothersurfceor sub-surface
flaws.A planarand mukidirectional
eddy-

Non-Deslructive
Testing(NDT) or Inspction(NDI)

Fie.ll-3. An nnr,ui. pkrk h,!4r:1^s d*ctr oia hpldr are, nt

ltearl4 ntk hs i I4qntut
nn.e of to H- k) 6 MH.I,n\k!t
il
1ascd tlsit i it) J ktnt! tl nbe .\oht, hahnnq\htuDek f n.1
lUills dn\ e\attpn! tliry nu. nkhdt"B tt'i'Dntr lt Estlts fd,
r,r, Cour\yCemuron
NI) t ttrc

curentexcitaton
technique
is usedto induceeddycunentsn
lhe teslpiece.Disruprionsof thesecunentscausedby ivets,
cmcks,conosion,and otherdefectsproducernagnticfields
lhat are imageddirectlyby a magnetooptic sensorthat conlarns smallvideocamera.Theseimagesar-displayedon
head-mounled
video drsplay(personalviewing system),see
Fig ll-4 A videoourputalsopermitsconnecting
rheequrp_
nrntto anoprionalcolormonilorand,/or
VCR for videoraping.
FigureI l-5 showsa vdeoimrgeofcracksemergingfromrivet
sitesin a rivered
aluninumdpjointresrsample.
The diffeencebetweenconvenhonal
eddy-current
Induclronandragneto-optic
nethodsis shownin Fig. Il_ Mag_
nclo-optic
imagingis 0lsoapplicable
to coosiondetection
and
coveredn nire delailin Chaprert2

226

Standard Aircraft Handbook

Non-Deshucfive T.sting (NDT) or Inspection (NDl)

227

mlhodseryo coirs
covenlrona

Mgnelo-OptlcmelhodsrelYon

Fiq.ll-6.
Two tlircnl hethods of eycunent
scdch & DevelopnentCorp
Fig. ll-1. Md+heto opLic/edrlt-cunent imase^ Iees of aiftrdl sutfo.e
Md subsudae ddecs ate rie*d i .oLot on a head o@tet1 dtsPlc!. me
unils can also be sed th a htot odtor vCR t Peit viwing b! dddi'
tionol intpe1ls anor ideoPirg CoulesyPRI Res&b & DevelopnentCorp

Vo iage of trub ehe.EinE I7o 4w sites in a lveted

Fle. ll-5.
lap
oluminon
toikt ke satnple, s riewed by tnagneto'opnc ed, .|ftekt
ifuEers shaen in Fig, I I -4. Couresy PRI Resmh & DevelopmentCorP

ia.Iuction couresyRIRe-

12
CorrosionDetection
and Control

ll

Ir

N4ctnlcoosion is the deterioration

of the metalby chemcal
or clcctrochemical
atlackandcanoccurintenally,as well as
,)n rhc surface.This deterioratonmay changethe smoolh
surlircc,weakenthe nterior,or damageor loosenadjacent
prrls,
Waterorwatervaporcontainingsaltcombnes
with oxyten
in thc atmosphere
lo producethc mainsourceof corrosionin
nircrall.Alrcraftoperatingn a marineenvironment
or in areas
whcrcthe atmosphere
containscoffosiveindustrialfumesare
pirrticularly
susceplible
to co.rosiveattacks.
Corrosioncan causeeventualstnrcturalfailure if left
rchccked.The appearance
of the corrosionvrieswith the
rrctrl On aluminumaloysand magnesium,
it appears
rs
sl| ircepitting and etching,often combinedwith a grey or
whic powderydeposit.On steel,it forms a reddishrust.
Whcnlhe grey,white.or reddishdepositsare removed,each
if-lhc surfacesmghtappearelchedandpitted,dependingon
rhclc,rgthofexposure
andtheseverity
ofattack.Ifthesesurll|cc pits are no( too deep,lhey might nol significanllyalter
rhc strengthof the meral;however,the pits might become
sitcs lbr crack developmenr.Some types of corrosioncan
rrirvclbeneath
surface
coatings
andcanspreaduntil thepart
lrils .

2n

Sbndad Arr:rsfl

Handbook

TYPESOF CORROSION

Cormsto Detection
ahd Conrmt

I
I

i/

DIRECT CHEMICAL

AI?ACK

ji

s from bafteries.
ingfromi nudqu"ltllcleatd'
Jointt
roltrdons.
banerJ,
acid is becomnste(.
,r.,Spj/led
ur
amrirr
..^:_ nckel-cadrDium
-r a probiemwith the
--'.tr(

,.u"rry
"ro,.Juii,J""8

rn.... *.i,r"

ELECTROCHEMICAL
ATTACK
)N

2il

232

StandardAircruft Handbook

CorrosonDetectionand Conlrol

attack. However.wrth an accumulationof arrbomesalts

and/or industrialpolluranrswirh an electrolyte(moisture),
pitting of the alclad will occur.Once lhe alclad surfaceis
broken,rapiddeterioration
of thehigh-strengrh
aluminumalloy belowoccurs Othermetalscommonlyusedin air-frame
structure,such as noncladhigh-strengthaluminumalloys.
steel,andmagnesiumalloys.requirespecialpreventivemea
suresto guardagainstcorrosionThecharacteristics
ofcoro,
sion in commonlyusedaircraftmetalsis summarized
in Fig.
12-l

6novrlke

surface oridtlon
p i t t i n q ,.u Ef.c.,
(looo - o o o
sur!c

nrr
ln c

plrrts,

co..osio

ounds

rhlre-ro-siy

and r.tiqu

Highry corro.ion
rpe.t6d conrle

No vlsible

coroslon

etEn

( r ?o' c )

aE
pr.rlq

sacrrflcr.r
stainress
s G er6 ( r o o roo seies)

crvrce co.r6io;
!o
P i E t i n s u r in
nvlrcnntor
coroeio
corosion

tlo o ..r I.,) ;

( 4 o o 3 r r ..)

Fig.l2-1.

Relts oJthri,t

orto.*ot neah

deDosit to bon ;r
br.ck rottriho
of

233

l hc dcgreeof severity,the cause,and the typ of corosion

(h.t[nd on many factors,including the size or ickess of the
pnrr. rhc naterial, heattreatmentofthe material,protectivefinr\hcs-.cnvironmentalcondtions, preventativemeasures,and
rlcsiS Thick structumlsectonsare generallymore susceptible
r() corroslveattacKbecauseof variationsin their composition,
|:rflicllrly if the sectionsare heat treatedduring fabrication.

(]oRROSION CONTROL
Ncarlyany durablecoatingthat createsa moistuebanier
hctweena metalsubstate
and the environment
will helpcont11)lor preventcorrosion.Paints,waxes,lubficants,water-dis
I)hrling compounds,penetratingojls, or other hard or sofl
('i,rings
canprovideaneffecli!ernoi(lure
barier
ljxposureto marineatmosphere,
moisture,acidran.tropiLi|l remperature
conditions,
industralchemicals,
andsoilsand
dListin the atmosphere
contributeto corrosion.Limit, whencvcr possible,the requirmnt
for oprationof aircraftin advcrseenvironments.
Coosion prevenhvecompounds,suchas LPS Procyon,
l)inol. Zip-Chem(or equivalentproduch),andlateradvanced
{lcvclopments
of suchcompounds,
can be usedto effectrvely
rcduccthe occurrenceof colfosion.Resultsof corrosioninspcctions
shouldbereviewedto helpestablish
theeffectiveness
ol conosion-preventive
compounds
anddeterminethereappliLt|ti(Dintervalof them(seeFig. l2-2).

I NSPECTIONREQUIREMENTS
Exceptfor specialrequirementsin trouble areas,inspection
l,rr eonosronshould be a pan of routine maintenancenspeclions Trouble areas,however,ar a different mattcr,and expericnci: shows that certain combinationsof conditionsresult in
ct)frosion in spite of routine inspection requrrements-These
I'oubllr areasmght be pecuharto palicular aircraftmodels,but

234

StandardAircrfft Handbook

Fig. l2-2. Carrcsion inhibitar

unqounds are available in
acmsor La"t Jr tau.h-uP or
l -sallon. s-sal lon and ss-Batlar
ontoihr!Jat sptb) ing ith a
w. Thee unpo s pnut a
lnnlpat"htttn, tulistunt ta v t
spra:", tuosur(, n tnott l.p.dl
t tus^, e. Iment! Cotrcsy LPS

similar conditionsareusuallyfound on most aircaft Most manufactuers'handbooksof inspec[on requirementsare complete

enoughto cover all partsof the arcraft or englne,and no part or
areaof the aircraft should go onchecked.Use rhesehandbooks
as a generalguide wben an areais tobe inspectedfor conosion

NONDESTRUCTIVEINSPECTION (NDI)
All corrosion inspections should start with a thorough
cleaningof the aeato be inspected.Ageneml vrsualinspechon
of the areafollows using a flashlight, rnspectionmjnot and a
5-l0x magnifyrng glass.Tbe general inspectionshould look
for obvious defecs and suspectedareas A detailedinspection
ofdamage or suspectedareasfound during the generalinspection lbllows The detailedinspectioncan be one or more of the
following.

VISUAL INSPECTION
Visualinspectionis themostwidelyusedtechniqueandis
aneflectivemetbodto detectandevaluatethecorroslonVisual
inspectioninvolvesusingyour eyesto look directlyat an air

CorrosionDetectionand Control

235

( rirfi surfce, of at a low angle ofincidence to detectcorrosion

I lsiDgthe senseof touch of the hand is also an effectiveinspecti(nr nrcthodto detecthidden, well-developedcoosion Other
l{xts scdduring the visual inspectionremirors, borescopes,
()plical mrcrometers,and depth gauges

oTHER NDI METIIODS

the severalNDI methods
ln additionto visualinspectron,
paficle,eddycunent,x
magnetic
ir)c1ude:
liquidpenetfant,
ray,uhrasonic,
andacoustical
emission,whrchcanbe of value
iD the detectionof corosion.Thesemethodshavelimitations
rnd shouldbe performedonly by qualifiedandcertifredNDI
pcrsonnelEddycurent,X-ray,adultrasonicinspection
meth(eachtimeused)equipment
odsrequireproperlycahbrated
and
to obtainreliableresults.These
controllingreference
standard
NDI procedures
are generallycoveredrn Chapter1l and are
or corrosion-fatigue
useful for detecting stress-corrosion
colro
cfacks,aswell asthinningbecause
of below{he-surlce
srorandcracksin multi layeredstuctures.
Eddy-cunent
testing(primarilylow frequency)canbe used
to detectthrnningresultingfrom corosionandcracksin multil.ryeredstructures.Low-freqencyeddycuent testingcan
rlso beusedto somedegreefor detectingor estimatingcorrowhen used
sion on the hiddensideof arrcraftskinsbecause,
thethickness
of materialthathasnot
with a reference
standard,
eddy-curenttesF
corrodedcan be measuredLow-frequency
conosionin underlyingstucture
ingcanbeusedfor estimating
throughinto the secbccrusethe eddycurrentswill penetrate
ondlayerofmaterialwith sufficientsensitivityforapproxrmale
rcsultsHigh-frequency
eddy-curent
testingis mostappropnrlc fbr detectionof cracksthat penetratethe sur{aceof the
structureon whichthe eddy-curentprobecan be applied(includingflt sufaces
andholes).
Figurel2 3 showsanimageof corrodedregionon theback
side oi a panelremovedfrom an older commercialaircraft.
'l'hisvideormageusestheequipment
shownin Frg I I -4

2t6

Corrclon Dlctionand Contml

Stsndard Atrcraft Handbook

237

irnFAA-approved
engineering
authorizaton
for continuedserviccfor thatpat mustbobrained.
lfthc coosiondamage
on largestructural
pats is in excess
ol lhal allowedin the structuralrepairmanualand wherereplacement
is notpractical,conracttheaircraftmanufacturer
for
rcwork1imtsandtrocedures.
Severalstandardmethodsare availablefor corrosionrennval The methodsnormallyusedto removecorosion ae
rnechanical
and chemical.Mechanicalmethodsncludehand
sandingusingabmsivemat,abmsivepaper,or melalwool;and
poweredmechancalsandng,grinding, and buffing, using
brasive
mat,grindint wheels,sandingdiscs,andabrasive
rubbcr mats However,rhemethoduseddependsuponthe metal
ondthedegreeof corosion
Detailedprocedurcs
for removingcoosionandevaluating
lhedamatearebeyonde scopeoflhis book.
Fig.r2-3.
IMse ofcoaxtd E rior on th. b.kid of a paEt ft,tord fn
on ol.le cohnriol oirerdfi This tdeo ionge ssthe hveo-opti./edd!
cufre"t inager sho\ hfi|
Il-1in thpetious.hapt. CouncsyPRI Rese.rch d Dvcloomd Coo

SURFACEDAMAGEBY CORROSION
To repairof supercal
corrosionon clad or non,cladaluminumalloysheet,usethefollowingprocedure
(seeFig. 12-4).

CORROSION-REMOVAL
TECHNIQUES

J+'!ct^rcottogoi oN cuo

Wlen activecorrosionsapparent,
a positiveinspection
and
reworkprcgramis necessary
to preventany fufhef deteiorationofthe structure.
Thefollowingmethods
ofassessing
corrosion damageand proceduresfor rcworking co[oded areas
couldbeuseddunnge cleanupprograms.
In general,anyreworkcouldinvolvethecleanng
andstrippingofall finishfrom
the corrodedafea, lhe removalof corrosionproducts,ad
restoration
of surface-protective
film.
The repairof coosion damageincludesremovrngall corrosionandcorrosionproductsWhenthecoosiondamageexceedsthedamagelimits setby theaircraftmanufacturer
n the
structwalrepairmanual,the affecledpartmustb replacedor

lltltT, atrl{l{uta altoY fttNc

ANOAUJiOUI
A(!OY

OT NON.CIAD AIJINUM AI.IOY

oFNG

C^3NCS,
^N0

Fig.124. Repat of supert.d suloce cotnsion o ctad ot notu

tlddalun u ollot sh.t

234

Standard
Aircmft Handbook

L Removeconosionfromaluminualloysheetby thefol
lowingmethods:
Non clad #40Osandpaperand water.
Ckd
Abrasivemetalpolish.
2. Apply 57o solution by weight of chromic acid after
cleanup.Rinsewith tap water to removeany chromic
acid stains.

13
Standard Parts

STANDARDPARTSIDENTIFICATION

Becausethe manufacture
of aircraftfequiresa largenumber
of miscellaneoussmall fastenersand other items usually
clledhadware, somedegreeof standardization
is equied
Thesestaqdardshavebeendervedby lhe variousmilitary
organizauons
anddescribedin detailin a setof specificarons
rvith applicabledenificationcodes.Thesemilitary standardshavebeenuniversallyadoptedby rhecivil aircraftinduslry
The derivatonof a uniformstandardis, by necessitfan
cvolutionaryprocessOriginaly,eachof the military services
defivedits own standards.
Theold Army Air Corpssetup AC
(Air Corps)standards,
whereas
theNavyusedNAF (NavalAircrllft Faclory)standards.
In time,thesewereconsolidated
into
AN (Air Force-Navy)
standards
andNAS (NarionalAerospace
Srandards).
Still later,thesewereconsolidated
into MS (Millafy Standard)
designations.
At present.
thethreemostcommonstandards
are:
' AN, Air Force-Navy.
. MS, Mili(aryStandad
. NAS. NationalAerosDace
Standards.

24Il

StandardAircraftHandbook

StandardPafs

Theaicraft mechanicwill alsooccasionally

beconfronted
with thefollowingstandard
paff on oldraircraftl

*@@@
E@e
* oEe@

. AC (Ai Corps).
. NAF (NavalAicraftFacrory).
Eachofthesestandard
partsis identifiedby ils $pecification
numberandvariousdashnumbersandlettersto fully describe
its name,size,andmaterial,
Additonalinformationon AN, MS, NAS, as well asAMS
andAND specifications,
anda schedule
ofpricesfor specifica_
tronsheets
caDbeobtainedfrom:
NationalStandrds
Associationl32l Fourteenrh
St N.W
Washington,
DC 20005
Most air-framemanul)cturers
haveneedfor specialsmall
pafs and useheirown seriesof numbersand specifications.
However,theyusetheLlnrversal
stindard
partswhereverpracticable.

ablefromcatalogs
providedby thmanyaircraftparts
sDppliers.

gl
l

STANDARDPARTSILLUSTRATIONS
AN standafdparts,aongwrth their equivalentand/orsu
perseding
MS numbers,
Areshownin thefllowingpages.

T1

t-l
E
g

tl

:EC

z=-
<= =

e
F t::

6rruI-PLrF,
sELF,Locr
ttLLnD|
|tr !63rur-[a, 3rLr.rocr(.
txlTe
rx!6rur-s. slr,rocrrD'

s
lch

@
s

f'lllr{

(---lt-

l1-

I0 , a(u

at| nfl-ufltaitr.

e<-l

rx rs cLtYtS-ioDErotoJ

Ga.i, sffTY

|lr ?6iYr- ro. r. ilD, tLUx

tx.?7 rYEr-r00.Ft r0 , 3r.r, rfd, r c.tF

509scREtt-Ft li0 r00.(s(!.r,

^ri
lil5r0sciv-lutf0
i2.{rlFl
lr0 ttcl
^N5r5SC8EI-o
H0 oiD
^x52!SCiEW-i0

-11flu@

r51tY-rtllr0 ltl
r5o3trfl-o

tr:

E=
tF

ri 0. acifl-io

FrLtriDtrtr t{n

ilD,,42.(c,

rx 5 clfl-l

0,r?. s&f Tr,

F-

$r sfl-FrtT fio , 100!it rcl

501SCI-iD,liD,ar3l(4.! |

rlcrrnrir,-cr, orrro
AI66 IEIIIL_CAIL,

0-

---

EYCCID

d
rr t9T$ttxal-ctLE,
TlrrucrLt

8r

fi 7.2 CUrr-irt,
r to GAffr-cor

flr
G8

Or
DD
@

x0 Ef|,

xr r scifl-ruT

30t0iT

-&=-

ru^_

& \t

-rsllLs

|tr s{rGx Er-rt( rulE

rx rsscr-Drio,oirvE
iryp."u t
rr53Cl-000, r0 m
^rl
|lr t50scFr-w000,ul rlD

(>

Gr@
Foo

|tr rf6 scr{-il01t33,,tEI

r|r-c^lu,0(0 sfix lrLL

^r6fifti
laaalti |r-cra, iatE-lHx Ll

@
rfl

ai 6trEixrr!-tltE.lri00 ctYrs {-- l

AI6fsrtitr^L-ClaLalrlot0
r:::=Et-

:J

sd tcitt-m, LLllo llrSn C)

r 39t lhrull ra lt-Ctlrs

rr -nErfi

fl0-,lLl

l{ aton00Exo-THnuoED
r sc-FrLLlr0,(cl

l3fi rt-collEn st^fi.Ess

$ :r5t{-TliFotD fti

|r r,u ftrr-ll

, c.c.r

ril3?3iur-PurE,sFlF-loct o. **,

A 3r! PrI-rrfilo,

^tur.
rri 5 i|YEf-no r! , rJ, rr

@-

irtff-fid, stt;.Locx

|lr 36or-Llr, 3Lr.Locx

(t-l

Nrr30tvr-o tiD,

l 9!sr$xn-Loct, 3Pt0
Ilt6*^SHi-OCXrol'rHtEt rit I
960WrsflEi-Ftf , Atici^Ft

r 5rwrsr{r-Fur.a^stt.
t^slri-fi,t, rt6t |iEr
''0

@6
/A

/a\v/
S?

@A

i ts

o-ra--f#llffi-.
@t-- l#ti:i:iT'

s -iil'Jxi:i:.r*

@ lrrF;H,rm",-,.,

3 ).rllr$lm,mrur-

@ }

e F-i'ii?,::**'

@ Fm

trr iirfiil:;::*.''
O l|rfti#H[rNr
@ (rr

@ )ru

O lr,

elrrft'.ffi1#iipr'
c rrtiliri'iifl*

O lr,

t$ lrrr ffi'lrr"-"

@c

(D lrrl

@lrlilh,,.,,

@lr|

@ r

)c

--

t-

= -

ifrc

i3t*
t!
tt

i:,'il*Ii i1ilf-," - '

,,,i;ilT1.,,.
i:,,it:'tf
"

@ lm

liffill'f'iiirr.:''

#n*,.llcHm"*

@lw t'iiiii'ffl+iil;"'
r- t,'nrrrlr*
.

irildL1l,{i:ir'il'lr*-':'l

lrr'

i"lilii:ligiM!,,i,,.d

e {-O

... k,
ill,it,l,^.,,,,

@ )rr

C"l..ng,sil

lO lr-

a lr#;'ifi,,:*

ii,l,,:*ilt$i*'-'
G r_r
! )rr

a lrr
)wll{.lirf4H:::l'

@)r

al-

aF
O )rfi,i6p*:r'"

StandardParts

StandsrdAircraft Handbook

AN3-AN2O GENERAL.PURPOSE
BOLT

!!

!5
E
,: !;

2tt
Eri;
?E;;
!;:!rE: :

9;e

:E SeEt 3:!q 3Ei!

r0et o@
l i ot
it

IT

.Lt

@@

,ii,

-:
:f

=
I

.E

= .2

:c=

i- 3

:;:

:!3 ;

:i'. EE::

3:C

3t
:;
a
xi!

.--

T I

i_,
!!r!cs

I T t
o @ .O -O @ o

-I

il'

:
::=

s;:i

:a::

!;EF 3!9

2-

I:.:

l li!

'.:

l :i ,l l

:.i

;i:*i
;!.ui
3; 3-riE :E iEg

++

i: r

:E

il I o I
I

rt

o6 o e

I fI

@ @

Fli

itl
ril

i:ll,!

AA

Sbndard Aircraft Handbook

AN21- AN36CLEVISBOLT

Slrndard Psrts

u9

AN42- AN49 EYEBOLT

r.\

The clevEbolt is lsd lor shed loadsonlyandrcqu'Esa sheuu 4N320

(for $r uth colter pin)or AN364(MS20364)se[-loctng nuL Nomnalsres
gripln4h d Lolerances
r. shoM Oly AN23,24 nd25re showD.Othe
dimeteBre mdcatedby AN nber Fo eple AN28 is 37r or /,"
diameterLengthsare m sixteenthsol r
-18 F i8 sirteenthsor lrh"
'.ch,

l)ashnumbetutor Bnpandlcnlth are rhe sne sose to aircaibotts

,1N20of rhe sae bod! diameteEMnple AN43.lZ N eyebolt, r/, in
d a h c e r <i , e a n dt '! m L o n sl a d dA f r a b se n .eo fh o l )
q\il

4N392-AN406 (MS20392)CLEVTSPtN

#1

' '+li +n

#i
#i,

+t
E s n r p L r A N 3 9 5 . l l N Ii ,
d i a h kr p n w i r h n e ff ctl te .sl h o f
'' r: Equ,aLent
\lS nuflbe is [S2O3924C4l

.J*tl

: rltl
: #i:
++i

ii

250

StandardAircraft Handbook

Standard Parts

MISCELLANEOUS
NUTS
llsf
t0.

s|lt

-4
-5
-5
1
9

t0
t2

@fl O E OE
@ f l @g

Atlorc

^itto-llllAl

!u

at'l|l-a

at{:Lo-

A|i|3 | IFCHCt(

|l

-16
Steel nuts @ cdftiun plled pe speciiction QQ-P-4rb
EEmDle: AN3l0-5 is usd. nur mde of stel &d 6ts a 546 AN bolt

4N3800ts2r665)- COTTER
P IN

CAD IUMPLATEO
STEEL
ICKNUTS,NylonInsort
tx3E4ts?!36{
(Ltll),

0lslt10.

stt

'{9J

CAOTIUI{ PLATED STEG!

ti35 ts?03t5
(ttGULl)

Ehple:

MS20364-62
is se[-l@tig t]rin steelnut lor 3h! bolt, /s-24

252

StandardParts

StandardAircraft Handbook

MACHINESCREWS

MACHINESCREWS
82'
frTilt0

>r-l:
rrf",

r00'
ftI N0

r00'

fttl HtlD

sliuclJt

Effple AN500AI0-r4
(MS35265-66)
is 6[iste. headscrev,
10.24threded 7/sin lonS,drilled

head S-32tbread
(MS35191254)is [at' ecessed
Emple: Al{505_8R10

(MS24693_551)
G [at, ecessedhead,8'32
EMhple:Al{so7-832R10
threadscrcw,5htn,lons
(MS24694-558)
head,10'32
$ at, recessed
Ehole: AN509-r0R16
thrad.structulscrew,noninallen$n, r in and'g/r6in iobial grip lendh

SlandardAircraft Handbook

ACHINE
SCFEWS
rss
rr5?6
0

SlandardParts

SHEET-METAL
SELFTAPPING
SCREWS
tst039

3:

lU@
6@

l:>,i"

t,,:,

tr

sf;
**0 A

-, -iF

s. (b

NASSs (rt1s21204 --a!*fl#flk

EEpl.: AN526.q?Rr0 i! tEss
h.ad, r.cc$ed h.adffi,
8-32rhEad
Eepl.:
MS2?039{816b pah..d ltructnl, rccsedhead,sa
E-32th4ad, noinel lcnsth I i dd
oonnlsrip lengo'of e/@i
t-bead
typB, tapp3
Eple:NAS548-8-8
is #EPhips,loo-degree
is ths asrSxr/,, too'degee
lat-head
scres.r/1in lons NAS5aE-E-8

StandardParts

StandardAircraft Handbook

TINNERMAN
SPEEDNUT
*. .:jj:"'
Flat Type
1r

..'..,

'.:9j"t""1:

SOLIDRIVETS

/l--i+-+r

\ffr
[ _ll
t-()
t-

I
li

(:^

::+
u rype

"
.-"--._
.r L t

l--n

tE

t
I

t7 '+"
l"t

t
M

Te MS20426 dd MS204?0 tlTs re

the nosL dely sed: tufact@d lo Mil'
R-56?,1 Thse !M tlpes aEilable i
ost sizesh tw tutenah: 'had' 2117
alminum Ioy (AD) &d "soft U00 puR

EEople o p no : MS20,1264312 $
3/e" dia , 3/{" lon, 100 dEreescounte

Stndard Parts

StsndardAircraft Handbook

259

(CLIP-LOCKTNG)
MSTURNAUCKLES
Clip.lnkq
T\mbuckld u.ili4 trc leln!
clF iNr..d of
ldkwE for $f.rrrns
Th. tumbu.|. b.l d t rEi.1 @ rlotkd
lers1hwi* lo .@EmodE th! Ialin clF rtd th. pFFr 6b.
t.io ! rc.ch.d rh. brnl .lot. E .lia.d rith th. t mid.lor
nd rhe cliF re i*n.d
Th. cuR.d .Dd of th. lein cIF dprd
nd l.rch in the vricil so! i th. c.nt.rofth. b!nl.

F
MS Slndd Dr.ng. fo cipl@kiD tumbuckl.. 8uF@de
v.rious AN Draeina! for conv.nrion.l (l@k*i ryF) thbu.kl.p.rle
md N.{S D.wirF aor clpl@ir luBbucll. p!& n fd lo th
fouowira cm Ef.nc. rbld fo! AN.d NAS.quiv.ln

MS2125ITURNBUCKLE
BARREL

F
(-)

+l

Z
H

I
j
q)

SuD.d
.rd NASal9 brlL MS2l25l
c!tr Feuw
'eu
of . orrail .nd !hn.d, bt rh. ANr55
ANl55 ir.a ^Nrs5
oMor
'r.u
ple the MS2lAr rl.D. MS2l25l .Dr & iDr.rcb!.bl.
vith
lh. NAS6a9it d of liL o.t .i.l .d lhE d MS2r25l b.n e
rv.ihbL iD b (qQ.B-6?,DF.itio 2 or MIL-T-69a5),.!al
(@doiuE plrtd ro QQ.P-16,lyF 2, clo 3) or luoiuF .Uoy
(odi4d to MIL.A-6?251Th. cru Ef.En.. tbl. hm uivlet

M52125l ROPE THREA

ANI66
DASHNO DIA
SIZE DASH NO
B2S
B2L
83S
83L
85S
86L
86S
86L
B6L
BI'L
BIOL

l/16
1/16
3/32

xl32
5n2
582
3n6
3n6

s.40

6-0
r0,32
r0-32
L/r-2E
v1-24
5t16.%
$-a

3e-u

9/J2 1/$.n
5/16 \n-m

86S
88L
8r6S
BI6L
Bi,25
832L
8(S
B,|L
aoL
8125L
B?L

NAS9
DASH
NO
86S
88L
B 65
BI6L
832S
Bi2L
Ba6S
B&L
80oL
BI25L
ar75L

USES
M521256
CLTP
DASI{ NO

264

TEINAI,s
MSi1b.c Fpl.o ANir.d. orlil. rhF.dqeDt forth. -22d .
6l .i6, but th. AN it e. clnot
nrrhnadb. th th. NAS it
d '61 .ia TtE MS r.diMl
phr.d b (l(.P..16.tyF 2, clu
l.ft-hdd (L) rh.d

A2l?2 Tt BNBUCXI-E fon

D1.6 rh. MS it E.. MS ir.o. e

D of lL !hF.d.reDr tor rh. .22
e v.il.bl. onyn .t ..dEuE
3 Av.il.bb nth nr't-hud (R) or

.uFDd

A.fil6l d NAS6aE

MA2ta IWAOEDEUD E{D.uD.d6

^N669.rud.

2fts ,ts
.2t1L. .2LL'
3t 3LS

r46
/t6
3/32

.3RL

3J2

3LL

5RL
.6RS .61,s
6R! -6LL
8RL .'LL
9RL 9LL
loRI- .IOLL

5n2
5R2
3 6
/16
U1
9132
5/6

6-.0
I0 3 2
0,32

AN 16I
AN 165
DASH NOS

Rl
THD
-8ItS

LH
THD

8ts

MS2126OSWAGEDSTUOEND
F vilbl. in @ru'on r..ntnt.tl
Th.!. clip.lelhs i.i.h
.nd h c.deiuE DLtld orbon.tel. MS2l2604.c Ep.c.AN@
ttE. c.nnot tw.F
ilru of . b dh nuDb.r. but !h.
^N@
Rd@ rh. MS2I26Oit D
E.DI. Th. AN .auivl.nt (th. AN .qu'vl.nt idld ot b..[p
|er'nlr for MS2r26o ilRH rcld b. AN66a.llRH Th.E uld b. no
AN uivl.nt for . MSzlzoFtlRH, inc. AN@ urDin.l! iE not
.Yil.bl. r cbo .@l

PART
CABLE
DESCRIPTION
DIA
NUMBER
Ey. Ed (fotc.bl.)
M52r255-3LS 10.32 y32
,3RS lo-32

MA2IA PIN EYE uFrudd AN166Dd NASota.ye

Mg2ui6 CABLE EfT.qF.d..
ANI?o.Dd NAS6.r?.y..

MS2t252
MS2l25.{
M S 2r 255 WRE
OASHNOS ROPE THREAI)
szE
DIA
RH L H
T}iD THD

261

St{ndsrd Parts

StandardAircrafl Hondbooh

M52r256.r

:,J^S6.t5
NAS6a
NA567
DASHNOS
RH
LH
THD
THD
.8RS

-6tt

- 6ItS -r6t5 . r6f5

t6R- .I6 L L . r6R!
I6LL
r/1u -32ItS 32t.S 32RS .321,5
r/a.2t .32RL .32L! .32RL -32tL
511624 .{tRs ,16ts .46Ri a6ts
5/r6-2a ..6RL -.6LL .{6RL .{6LL
3E 2a 60RI, .EOL,L .EOR! EOLL
?/r6,20 r25RI- .t25tr r25RI_ -25LL
IN.F
r?5R, I?5LL r_5RL Ii 5LL

'M521254. nd
M S 2r 2 5 5 .y d o n l y rM5 2 l 2fo
5 2rko t o .q . rn tnr sr.
MS2I2!6 TT.IBNBUCXLE CLIP
__Mde ol cordron .rrr.n! .r. qE, ee.W.4t3, .ohpo.nron
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l/6

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262

Stsndord Aircrft Handboo*

AN TURNBUCKLE
ASSEMBLIES
^it

taols5galtY

fm:rr

263

Slanalard Psrts

TEFIII{AIS
SAVAGING
AN63C f'tS2O3
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nsrhrhded rhad .nd rh. orh.r ltr-b,rdd cd. Typ.r of rhbuc\le
.nds m able .F, pi cyr, fo.h Tuhbuckls u nrcd on rhis Ds. shN.
lo Eoltrftnd.d
!cb.s
Tuhbuckte b@s . md. of bss: cabte
yes,pi eJ,s,adlork! ofc.dmiuD pttedreel
EMpler ANI55-8S (Batuli length 2rlr1 ANl6t.l6RS (For shof

F----,,-,;q:_-

-'--llE:=;Fr

+fi++if+- ts+l-

264

SrondardArcraftHandbook

PUJMAINGFITTINGSAN77+AN932

StandardParts

265

PLUMBING FITTINGS (Continued)

I

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Ehple:4N622,5..tt)6 n.lumjum90. etbowio| h h tuDhgedr

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26

StandardAircrn Handtook

Stndard Perts

267

ADDITIONAL STANDARD
PARTSIPATENTED)
The followingpagesillusrratea few fastenertypeswidely
usedon high-performance
aircraft.Thesefastenersare de,
signedand manufactured
by variouscompanies,
are palented,
andaregenerallyknownby theirtradenames.
It is emphasized
that the tbllowing pagesare in no way a
completelist of patentedfastenersavailable.Represenrative
example$
only areshownfor illustmtivepurposes.
All of lhese
procedures
fasteners
requirespecialinsrrllarion
toolsand
Installationmanualsareavailablefrom themanufacturers

tHr
L----J

268

Stan&rd Alrcraft Handbook

269

Standard Parts

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Appendix

TAP DRILL SIZES

American(National)ScrewThread Sries

T,'

ll

'ri

StandardAN aircrafibolts are threadedin NatronalFine,

Class3 (NF) threadseries

280

StandardAircraft Handbool,

WIRE AND SHEETMETAL GAGETABLE

AircraftThread and Tap Drill Sizes

ULTIMATE AND SHEAR STRENGTH

OF TYPICAL ALUMINUM ALLOYS

281

282

St

dard Aircaft Hadbook

CHEMICAL FLASHPOINTS
FOR VARIOUSLIQUIDS USED
IN THE AIRCRAFT INDUSTRY

Glossary

A lqurd'sflashpoint
is thelowesttemperrure
arwhichir will
giveoff enoughflammable
vaporat or nearitssurface
in mixture
withairanda sparkor flane sothatir ignites.Ifthe flashponr,
expressedasa temprature
in degrees,is lower tha thetemperature
o[theambienr
air.thevcporswillignilerecdilyin airwith source
of gnition.
Thoseofhigheremperanre
arerelativelysafer
ChemicalFlashpointsin DgrsFahrenheltand Celsius
n*pord ('D

Alcohol(Ethyl)
arcohol(MerhyrMthonot,
wbod)

0
60
55
54

Bnzie(PetDIeu Erher)
12
ErhylErher

KU L
Mrhy
ce 6ov ac6tt6-{Mca)
MlhylElhylKelos(MEK)
MrhyrlseBulyt Kstone_(MtBK)
MinerdSpn s-(Tuesnt'nsSubsr)
Naphlha,Petrot6L,m
Ethr
S|'ll 40

24
-4 9
95-r45
_ t0
95-r45
l(p
_1ts
r00- t65
120
o-80
40
132
30
5
20-45
0_80
1 @ -l l 0
90
20
40
95
10-80
63

Flag'poinr(t)
_128
156
124
122
t17
< -46 0
-230
_450
35 0-62 I
-230
350-62 I
374
-424
+ 37S -+ 73I
489
-17 g-+ 261

228
44
-67-+ 7 2
< _178
-17 g-+ 26?
@0
37E -433
322
350
172

alclad Trademarkused by the Aluminum Companyof

sheet-aluminum
Americato identifya groupot high-slrength,
with
alloyscovered
a high-purityaluminum.
allowance An ntentionadfferencepermittedbetween
themaximummateriaIimitsofmatingparts.It is theminimurn
(positiveallowance)
(negclearnce
or maxmumnterference
pafts.
ativeallowance)betwen
composed
of lwo or moremetalsor of a
alloy A substance
metaanda nonmetalintimatelyuni(ed,usuallyby beingfused
togetheranddssolvingin eachotherwhenmolten.All rivets
andsheetmetalusedfor structuralpurposes
in aircraftare alloys.
A.N (or AN) An abbreviation
for Air ForceandNavy;especialyassocialed
wrhAir ForceandNavystandards
orcodes
for materialsand supplies Formerlyknown as Annr-lVar')
AN specilications Dimensional
standards
for aircraf(fastenersdeveloped
by theAeronaulical
Standards
Group.
angleof hcad ln countersukheads,the nrcludedangles
ofe conicalunderponion
or bearingsurface,usually100".
bearing surface Supponingor locatingsurfaceof a faslenerwith respectto thepatto whichit fastens(mates).Loading of a fasteners usuallythroughthebeaingsurface.
blind riveting Theprocessof attachingrivetswhereonly
onesideof thework is accessible
broching The processof removingmetalby pushingor
pullinga cultrngtool,calleda rac,[,alongthe surface.
buckng To braceor hold a pieceof meralagainsttheoppositesideof materialbeingrivetedto flattentheend o[ rivet
asanstmaterial,

2U

StandardAircraft Handbook

bucking bars A pieceof metal held by a rivet bucker

aginsttheoppositeendofa rivet beinginse ed into rnaterial.
burnishing Theprocessof producinga smoorhsurfaceby
rubbingor rollinga tool overthesurface.
burr A smallamountof materialextendingout from the
edgeofa hole,shoulder,
etc.Removalofburrsis calledr',rrg
centerpunch A handpunchconsstrng
ofa shot steelbar
with a hardened
coniclpoinrat oneend.whichis usedto mark
thecenterofholesto be drilled
chip A smallfragmentof metalremovedfroma surfaceby
cuttingwith a tool
chip chaser A flat, hookedpieceof metal insertedbetweenmaterialsbeingdrilledto removechrps.
chord The straightline thatjornsthe leadingand trailing
edgesof an airfoil
coin dipng A form of counrersinking
resultingfrom
squeezing
a singlesheetofmaterial
betweena maleandfemale
die lo form a depression
in the materialandallow the fastener
headto be flushwith e material'ssurface
collsr A raisedring or flangeof materialplacedon rhe
heador shankof a fastener
to acrasa lockingdevce.
corrosion Thewearingawayor ahetationof a metalor alloy eitherby directchemicalattackor electrochemic
al eaction
counterboring The processof enlargingfor part of its
deptha previouslyformedholeto providea shoulderat bottom
of he enlargedhole. Specialtools.called(ou,tterbores,ae
generallyusedfor thisopemtion.
countersnking Theprocess
of bevelng
or flaingaheend
of a hole Holesin whichcountersunk
head-type
fasteners
areto
t|usedmustbecountersunk
loprovidea matingbarngsurface.
CRT Cathode-ray
tube.
cyogenictmperaturs Extremelycoldor verylow temperaturesthat are associated
with ordinarygasesin a liquid
Starc,
defect A discotlnuitythat interferesw'th the usefulness
of the part,a fault in any material,or a partdetrimentalto its
serviceability.

Glodsary

As

die One of a pair of hardened

metalblocksusedro form,
impress,or cut out a desiredshape;a tool for cuttingexternal
threads.
d lling The processof fomrngholesby meansof specalized,pointedcultngtools,called/ilh.
edgedisfanc Thedistanceftom thecenterline
of therivel
holeto thenearesledgeof thesheet.
elongated Stretched
out,lengthened,
or longin proportion
to width.
endurancelimit The maximumstressat a fastenercan
withstandwithoulfailurefor a specifiednumberof stresscycles(^lso calledat igue lim ).
facing A machiningoperationon e end, flat face,or
shoulderof a faslener,
fastene A mchanrcal
deviceusedto hold two or more
bodiesin definirepositions,with respectto eachother
faying surface The sideof a pieceof materialthat contactsanotherpieceof materialbeingjoinedro it.
ferrous metal A metalcontainingiron. Steelis a ferrous
metal.Seenon-fefious netal
fit A teneral term usedlo signify the rage of tthtness
thalresultsfromtheapplication
ofa spcificcombinaton
ofalIowances
andtolerances
in thedesignofmtingpars
grinding Theprocess
of removinga portionof thesurface
ofa materialby thecuttrngactionof a bondedabrasivewheel.
gip In general,
thgripofafasteneris thethickness
ofthe
materialor partsthatthefastener
is designed
to securewhenassembled
g As usedin riveting,somefom of manualor powered
tool usedto driveandfastenrivetsin place.
holc finder A toousedto exactlylocateandmarkthepositionof holeslo be drilled to matche locationof a pilot or
predrilledhole
addrincrment One of a seriesof regulrconsecutive
tions;for example,,(,l, andX.
interfrencefit A threadfit havinglimits of sizeso prescribedthat an interference
alwaysresultswhenmatingpafs
areassembled

76

Stsndad AircEft Handbook

jig A devicethat holdsand locatesa pieceof work and

guidesthetoolslhatoperateuponit.
lighteningholes Holesrhatare cut in materialto lessen
lheoverallweightofthematerial,butnot weakenthestructural
strength.
nondestructive
testng(\DT) An inspection
or examinationof theaircraftfor defectson thesurfaceor insideof thematerial,or hiddenby otherslructures,
withoutdamaging
thepart.
(NDI ).
Sometimes
callednorestruct
ive inspection
non.ferrousmetal Meralthardoesnot containiron.Aluminumis a non-fe[ousmetal,
peen To draw,bend,or flattenby hammering;
theheadof
a hammeroppositethestrikingfacepilot hole A smallhole usedfor markingor aligningto
drill a lagerhole.
pin A straightcytrndncalor taperedfastener,
with or without a head,designedto performa semi-permanent
atlachingor
locatingfuction.
pitch distence Thedisrance
measured
between
thecenters
of two adjoiningrivets.
platng The applicatioof a metallicdeposlton the surface of a fastenerby electrolysis,impact,or other suitable
means,
puller Adeviceusedto formor drawce(aintypesofrivets.
punching The proess
of removigor trimmingmaterial
throughtheuseof a die in a press
quick-disconnectA deviceto couple(attach)an air hose
to air.drivenequrpment
thatcan be rapdlyderacbed
from the
equipmentream To finish a drilledor punchedholevery accurately
with a rotatingfluredtool of therequlreddiameter.
referencedimnsion A eference
dimesionon a fastener
is a dimensionwithouttolerance
usedfor rnformation
purposes
only.
dvet A short,metal.bohlike fastener,without threads,
whichis driveninto placewi!h someform of manualor poweredtool.

Glocssry

87

rvt set A smalltool (generallyound),havingone end

shaped
to fit a speclfic-shaped
rivet head,thatfits in aivet gun
head
to drivethemanufactured of therivet.
scribe A Dointedsteelinstrumentusedto mal(efine lines
on metalor othermaterials,
sealant A compoundor substance
usedto closeor seal
openingsin a material.
shaving A cuttingoperationin whichthin layersof mater'
ial areremovedfrom thesurfaces
of theproduct
shearstrength The stressreqiredto producea fracture
verticallyuponthecrosssectionof a material
whenimpressed
shm A thin pieceof sheetmetalusedto adjustspace
shoulder The enlargedpolion of the body of a threaded
fasteneror theshankofa unthreaded
fastenr
ski[, structural A sheathiDg
or coatingof metal placed
overa frameworkto povidea coveingmaterial,
sleeve A hollow,tubularpaft designedto fit overanother
pafl
soft Theconditionofa fastenerthathasbeenleft in theasfabricatedtgmper,althoughmadefrom a materialthatcanbe,
andnormallyis, hardened
bj healtrealment.
spohface To finisha roundspoton a roughsurface,usually arounda drilledhole,to provideagoodseatto a rivethead.
stsndardfastener Afastenerthatconforms
in all respects
to recognized
standards
or specifications
partof a fabnsubstructur Theunderlyingor supporting
catron,
swaging Usinga swagetool to shapemetalto a desired
form
torque A tumingor twistingforcethatproducesor tends
to producerotalionor torsion,
tolerance The totalprmissible
variationof a size.Toleranceis e differencebetweenthelimils of size
thecrosssectionre
upsetting Theproce\sof increasing
ndradiallf whentherivetis dflofarivet, bothlongitudinally
ven into Dlace.

Index
Hctr'bki@l124'260

orn$r.dumUmdloy'52'53
ed.lra'sn (6' s) n@, r12, r43, 15r, r52,250

d'crdyhdg'un7,-74
d@n*(sk)d,2
dffiuAky4sbd'7,.7

71

o|p]ocknq!mb@k9i6iy6sod190
aN siaidd (6fedEar st
hi

240 a

wF Gus. (Arc) r$

E
dtnd)dd.d

.irP.r (.b4

d6oE,

re+rs

cDsF nr lPrririF, F..d e Prrn..) @wdrvr

290

StandardAircraft Handbook , -

D:

291

Indx

lrydrcp$17

ddq'6!hynsPdm.22].22

H' shea,(pr)
rveG,r 30,r31
di b, 73 M (s* a e sPsdtoryFs or)

MiLa,ysbnda'n (Ms) 23+240

d$didarca']03'265

E
N
Ndd ercsPace sbda'6 (NAS)23s 2e
Navara'ai Fado'y (NAF)8e 2e
Nishaa,pnslivdt 125i35
o+druds ra*s (ND. 21e.7

dehs

pnlHhsar)ib

h}dEuic|nss169

rarhadI v6b (obrds). 1or.253

rart pra n ) l s t u , r ! 6 , ! 7 , 2 51

orhd!6ph c Prcidi 211 2r2

sAE (s 6ryoi AonofivaEneh6c) 2

rom .osle6 nkins(dmplhs).erea

sahti4 b
prah(fai)washe6,
r 46,f7, 2s1

ns r5lie

I
292

StandardAircraft Handbook

Fl*shf

ME), ro r3j

About the Editor

s np g g n 9 r e b | 1 9 1 2 5

tuqF

sPd

h@ntuss r7e1M

wtttrnfheAviatrcn rmd SpaLeDitlio ar,-,Mach I undBeyttd,

the Pn|ate Pilot s G ide,
rhe rcmft Repatr Mc t trt.
^

+nig asmn) ids 2$

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4Esb

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ns). 2r. 2P a
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OECIMALEOUIVALENfS

rl LrJtE A
Thedeiinitivenuts-and-bolts
shopmanuallbr all-metalair
craft,fromCessna150sto Boeing74?s,lhis newlyresed
andupdtedclassicgivesmechanics
andtechniciansclear
stepby.step,fully illustratedprocedures
for all slandard
aircrafttasks.TheSirth Editionof this bestseller:
. Fea[ures
coodinated
step'bystepprocedures,
methods,
andtechniques-including
thoseusedby
Lockheed
andRockwell
Boeing
. Detailsbasicshoppractices
suchasdrilling
andriveting
. Shows
youhowboinstallelectricalwiringand
plumbing
. Givescleardirections
for nondestructive
[esting,
prevention
corrosion
andcontrol,andother
tal ta.sks
. Fullydemonshates
formingandfabricating
. Covers
materialsandmaterialshandling
. Andmorel
TheStandard,Aircrafi Handbookfor Mechanicsand.
Technicians
1sLheo\e all-metal-aircraft
sourcethat you'll
projecls
turn [o aginandagain,for
largeandsmall.

rsBN0-0? llq8rL 0

u.D ,l .

ilililil|i
036466

MATERIAL
ON
Nondestructve
Testing
Corrosion
Control
In5peqtion
Procedures
Riveting
Forming
Fabrication