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Medicine Musica: the 18th century

rationalisation of music and medicine
Article January 2013

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Medicinemusica:theeighteenthcenturyrationalization
ofmusicandmedicine

Summer2013

Medicinemusica:theeighteenthcenturyrationalizationofmusic
andmedicine
DaisyFancourt,MMus
RoehamptonUniversity,London,UnitedKingdom
Legendsofmusic'shealingpowersonboththemindandthebodyareestimated
togoasfarbackasPaleolithictimes,whenmusicwasbelievedtobeamagicthat
coulddriveawaytheangryspiritsthatcausedillness.1Itwasn'tuntilthe
beginningsoflearnedmedicineintheGreekRoman,Arabic,Indian,andChinese
traditionsthattheoriesofmusic'smedicinalqualitiesbegantoberecorded.But
fromhereon,theybecameapopulartopicfordiscussion.IntheGreektradition
alone,theMyceneangodPajawoof2000BCusedholysongtocuredisease,and
Apollocombinedrolesashealerandmusician.Andevenamongstmeremortals,
TheOdysseytoldofthebleedingofOdysseusswoundsfromawildboaronly
beingstoppedwithamusicalincantationandthepoetPratinasinthe6thcentury
BCrecordedaplagueinSpartabeingquelledbythemusicofthecomposer
Thaletas.
Suchengagingtalesheldtheirownacrosscontinentsandcenturies,oftenwith
significantsimilaritiesbetweenbeliefs.Tarantism,thetheorythatsnakebites
couldbecuredbysinginganddancing,wasrecordedbyBolusofMendesin
Greeceinthe4thcenturyBC.ButitalsosurfacedwiththeRomans,inMedieval
Hindutraditions,andeveninsomesouthernpartsofItalyupuntilthe1950s,
showingapervasivetrustinmusic'spowers.Whatallthesetaleshadincommon
wastheirpurpose:toexplaintheunexplainableandgivehopewherenonewas
left.
Thisisallafarcryfromtoday'suseofmusicinmedicalsettings,eitheras

Instrumentsdemusique,1770
AnneVallayerCoster
MuseduLouvre,Paris

psychologicaltherapy,acommunicationaltool,painrelieforstressmanagement.
Music'smedicinalpotentialistestedthroughcellcounts,brainscansandlevelsofdrugconsumptionmeasuredon
depressionandqualityoflifescalesorevaluatedthroughindepthcasestudiesandpsychologicalassessments.
MusicactivitiesaremanagedbyMusicMedicineinstitutes,ArtsinHealthcentres,andMusicTherapyorganizations.
Thisisnottosaythatthebeautifulormysterioussideofmusichasbeensquashedbyscience,turnedintoa
mathematicalequation,ordispensedlikeapill.Farfromit:renownedandcreativeartsorganizationsare
collaboratingincreasinglywithhealthsectorstodeliverdiverseandinnovativeprojectsforpatients.Butthequality
ofthescientificinputhasdeepenedinanattempttoscrutiniseclaimsonmusic'shealthbenefitsandstopthewilder
talesfromdiscreditingthediscipline.
Soatwhatpointinhistorydidweswitchinourstancefromfantastical,superstitioustalestomoremeasured
accountsofmusic'spotential?Atwhatpointdidourviewofmusicasmedicinebecomerational?Thisquestionis
difficulttoanswerforthreereasons.First,becausescientificdiscussionsofmusichavebeenaroundforthousandsof
years,suchasthefamouswritingsofPlato.However,theoriesthatactuallyconsiderthewaysthatmusiccanbe
usedinappliedsettings,suchashealthcare,fortherapeuticeffectsneedtobesiftedoutandseparatedintotheir
ownsubcategory.Secondly,becauseevenaftermedicsandmusicianshadtakenthefirststepstoviewingthe
medicinalpowersofmusicinmorerealisticterms,thefabulousstoriesonthepowerofmusiccontinuedtoholdtheir
thrall.Andthirdly,becausethegrowthofthisnewdiscoursewasscatteredandsporadic.Therewasnounified
disciplineorclearpath.Nevertheless,someofthemostimportantearlystepstowardsthismoremeasuredview
tookplaceduringtheeighteenthcentury"AgeofEnlightenment,"amidstawaveofotherintellectual,scientificand
technologicaladvances.Forthepurposesofthisarticle,Ihavechosenonekeyindividualwhogivesafascinating

insightintohowthesedevelopmentstookplace,theobstaclestotheirreceptionineighteenthcenturysociety,and
thefarreachingimpacttheyarestillhavingtoday:RichardBrocklesbyandhis1749treatiseReflectionsonthe
PowerofMusick.
Bornin1722,BrocklesbywaseducatedinIrelandandScotlandbeforesettinguphisownpractice
inEngland.Heachievedmodestrecognitioninhislifetime,succeedingthefatherofmilitary
medicine,JohnPringle,asSurgeonGeneraloftheBritishArmyin1758,andbeingawardeda
prestigiousCroonianlectureshipattheRoyalCollegeofPhysiciansin1763.However,forthemost
parthiscontributionshavebeenforgotten,andofthefactsthatarestillcirculatedabouthim,many
arescantorincorrect.Historians2haveeitherclaimedthatBrocklesbywasthefirstandonly
eighteenthcenturyscholartodiscussmusicasatherapy(whenRichardBrownestreatisewas
publishedtwentyyearsearlier3),oromittedBrocklesbyaltogether,andcitedCharlesBurneyin
Richard
Brocklesby

1789asthefirsttodescribeamorescientificandexperimentalapproachtomusicinmedicine
(whenBrocklesbyexplicitlydiscussestheeverydayarrivalofnewproofsfromrepeated

4
Americanartist experiments. )WhatareoverlookedarethewaysinwhichBrocklesbystreatisewasseminal:he
JohnSingleton tookanewattitudetomusicinmedicine,breakingwiththemyths,arguingwithoutdatedscientific

Copley

theories,andproposingnewwaysthatmusicexertedaneffectonboththemindandthebody,
manyofwhichwestillrelyontoday.Assuch,hehasneverreceivedtherecognitionhedeserves,

sohopefullybyilluminatingthatcontributionhere,wecanpaycredittoaremarkablyinsightfulscientist.
Inhistreatise,Brocklesbyisenthusiasticaboutmusic'stherapeuticpotentialforillnessesthat"havehithertotoo
frequentlyeludedtheordinarypowersofmedicine"5andkeentoshowitswidespreadpracticeinAmerica,Africa,
AsiaandEurope.However,hewarnsagainst"superstitiousandfabulousaccounts"ofmusic'seffects,explainingthat
thetalespasseddownfromancienttimes"partlyconsistinanelegantexaggerationofphysicaltruths."6Healso
takesacriticalviewofsocietyforbeingsogullible,labellingita"surprisingreadiness...todeceive[itself],andbe
imposedon,withthegrossestimprobabilities,andsilliestdelusionsthatfollycouldentertainorcraftcoulddevise."7
Indeed,hiscriticismsturntocondemnationashebrandstheAncientGreeksasapeoplewho"amplify'd"truths,8
andcallsEgypt"'theparentcountryofextravagantbelief."9
AprimeexampleofBrocklesby'sscepticismisinthecaseofthefamousmusical"tarantism"asacurefor
snakebites.Inanattempttodebunkthemyths,heexplainsthatsomeofthecases"cured"bymusicwerenot
actuallysnakebitesatall,but"othercauses"thatweremisdiagnosed.10Fortheothercases,hewrites"itistobe
presumed...thatthosewhoundersuchcircumstancessupposedthemselvescuredbymusick,wouldhave
recoveredwithoutanyotherremedy...infacthavingreceivednoinfection."11Thismorerealisticinterpretationhas
sincebeenconfirmedbyhistorianErnestodeMartino,12andotherexplanationshavebeenproposed,suchasthe
musicanddancingcausingthevictimtosweatoutthesnakespoison.Whateverthereason,Brocklesbysrefusalto
acceptthismusical"cure"simplyonthebasisofitbeinganengagingtale,andhislogical,scientificattemptsto
explainitshowanenlightenedattitudetomusicinmedicine.Brocklesbyalsomovesmusicfromanarenawhere
beliefsaresimplyairedas"truth,"toonewhereproperscientificdebatecantakeplace.
Inlinewiththis,havingridhimselfofthelessbelievableaccountsofmusic'shealingpotential,Brocklesbythenputs
forthsomeofhisowntheoriesonthemorerealisticwaysthatmusiccanbeusedinmedicalsettings.Thedepthof
Brocklesbysinsightisshowninthefactthatsomeofthetheoriesheexplainshave,inthelastfewdecades,become
firmlyestablishedasmusicalandmedicalconcepts.Forexample,hisdiscussionofMasterStanley,atwoyearold
childwhorespondsinnatelytohappyandsadmusicbybecomingeitherhappyorsadhimself,parallelstheconcept
ofthe"musicchild,"coinedbyPaulNordoffandCliveRobbinsinthe1950stodescribetheinherentresponsiveness
tomusicineveryhumanbeing.AndBrocklesby'sdiscussionofhowmusiccanhelp"'tocheerthesinkingspiritsof
pregnantwomen,"sothatshe"maybefreedofthenumeroustrainofills,thatusuallyattendthefairsexinthis
condition"13fitsinwithcontemporaryresearchintotheuseofmusictohelpimprovesymptomsofpostnatal
depressionamongstnewmothers.14Finally,helooksindetailattheuseofmusictotreatfevers.Brocklesby
contendsthat"theremedy,whichofallothersbidsfairesttorelievethepatient,ismusick:asitawakestheattention
inthemostagreeablemanner,andrelievestheanxiousmind...andgraduallyreducesthementalfacultiestothe
duestandardofcommonsense.15Overthelastcoupleofdecades,scientistshavenotedthatpatients'heartrates
candecreasewithcalmingmusic,skintemperaturecanbelowered,16andpainlevelscanbedecreased,allofwhich
helpcontrolsymptomsoffever.17Musichasalsobeenshowncapableofprovidingpsychologicaldistractionby
relievinganxietyandstress,whichcanhelppreventsymptomsworsening.18SoagainBrocklesby'sdiscussionof
musicissubstantiatedbytwentyfirstcenturyscience,showingamuchmorerealisticandrationalviewofmusicin
medicine.

ThefinalsectionofBrocklesbystreatiseconsiderswhatsortofmusicismosteffectiveinmedicine,showingan
attempttounderstandbetterthemechanismsthatcausepositiveeffectsonhealth.Thisisaquestionwhichisstillat
theforefrontofresearch,mainlybecauseindividualtasteandexperienceplayssuchalargefactorthatthereisno
singletypeof"healing"music.However,thereisagrowingconsensusthatcertainfeaturesinacompositioncan
contributetoitspsychologicallyandphysiologicallyrelaxingeffectfeaturesthatBrocklesbyidentifieswith
remarkableforesight.Ifwecomparehistheorieswithmorerecentresearch,thisisshownwithrealclarity.
First,Brocklesbynotesthat"themostgenerallyaffectingcompositionsinmusick,aremadeupofdiversnotes,
whosevibrationsregularlycoincidewitheachother,andarecalledbymusicians,unisonnotes.19Hecallsthis
"consonancy,"whichis"thecharmsofsound."20Thishasbeencorroboratedbymorerecentevidence,showingthat
majormodesandpredominantlyconsonantharmoniescausethegreatestlevelofrelaxationinlisteners.21
Brocklesbyalsohighlightstheimportanceofregular"rythmus"(metricalbeat)inbars,whichhebelievescauses"a
superiorpleasure"inthelistener22comparedtoworksthat"perplex...withsuchobscurityandintricacythatthe
audience...losetheconnexion."23ResearchfromAmericahassinceconfirmedthataregularphrasestructureand
calmpulse,preferablyaround6070bpmencouragesthehearttoslowtomatchthisrhythm,whichinturnreduces
stressandanxiety.24Brocklesbyalsodiscussesthebenefitsof"unityofdesign"or"symmetry"whichhearguesis
"preestablishedinthemind,"sowhenitislackingincompositions,"thepleasureabatesinproportion."25Recent
musicpsychologyresearchhasshownthatlistenerssubconsciouslylookforparallelpassagesinmusic,andthe
recognitionthatarisesfromrepetitionandsymmetryhasthemostcalmingeffectsonbloodpressureand
hormones.27
Brocklesbymighthavelackedthescientificunderstanding,particularlyofthemorecomplexneuroscienceconcepts,
toexplainorevenunderstandfullyhistheories.Buttheclearcorrelationbetweenhisstatementsandexperiments
fromthelastcoupleofdecadeshighlightsthecomprehensivenessofhisideas.Histreatiseisnotcontentsimplyto
takemusicasabroadconceptbutreallydigsdeepintowhyandhowthisworks,layingdownguidelinesthatare
stillconsideredintheapplicationofmusicinhospitalstoday.
ThroughexaminingthecontributionofBrocklesby,wecanseesomeoftheearly,decisiveeffortsthattookplaceto
forgeanew,rationalpositionformusicwithinthefieldofmedicine.Infact,itisatestamenttomusic'shealing
propertiesthatsuchaprominentphysicianfeltitworthwrestlingthelegitimateclaimsonmusic'spowersfromthe
clutchesofcenturiesofmyth,fabricationandsuperstition.However,itseemshisstanceremainedratheruncommon
intheeighteenthcentury.Oneofthecentury'sbestsellingEnglishbooks,publishedtwentyfiveyearsafter
Brocklesby'streatise,madeanumberofsatiricalreferencestomusic'smagicalpowers.JohnBicknell'sMusical
Travelsthro'Englandof1774jokedaboutmusicconqueringenemies,conjuringfoodandmakingcowsjumpover
moons.SowhateverstepsBrocklesbytooktoarealisticconsiderationofmusicinmedicine,thisalonewasnot
enoughtoturnthegeneralopinion.ThereisasensethatBrocklesbyrecognizedthisashediscussed'howdifficulta
matteritisforaprivateman,evenofgreatabilities,toestablishanyopinion,whenthesentimentsofhis
contemporariesdonotnearlycoincidewithhisown.28

Ofcourse,anobviousexplanationisthatBrocklesby'streatisewassimplynotwellenoughknown
atthetime.Butworryingly,theremaywellhavebeenalinkbetweenBrocklesby'srational
theoriesandthehystericaltalessurroundingtheinfamousinstrumentthe"armonica."Talesofthis
instrumenthavebeendocumentedinanumberofjournals,includingarichandvibrantarticlein
HektoenInternational(index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=696).Essentially,the
centuriesoldtheorythatthesoundfromrubbingglassesfilledwithliquidscouldproducehealing

Benjamin
Franklin'sglass

effectsonthelistenerwasgivenanewleaseoflifeinthe1750s,whenscientistandfounding

armonica
fatheroftheUnitedStates,BenjaminFranklin,inventedhisownversionoftheinstrument.Franklin Fromaletterc.
himselfispurportedtohavecuredlistenersbyplayingthearmonica,includingPrincessIzabella
1762tothe
CzartoryskaofPoland,whoonherdeathbedin1772,wentontoliveanother60years.And
anothernotoriousfigure,theGermanphysicianFranzMesmer,causedascandalbyplayingthe
armonicaathissancestohealpatients,leadingtoclaimsthatthearmonica'smusiccouldwake

Italianphysicist
Giovanni
BattistaBeccaria

thedead.Thesensationwasshortlived,asin1784KingLouisXVIorderedaninvestigationofthe
wildclaims,andthelackofscientificevidencefound,alongwithfurtherfearsthatthearmonicawascausingfainting,
convulsionsandevendeathcauseditsrapiddemise.By1830,thearmonicawasallbutforgotten.
Thiswholescenarioisexactlythesortof"superstitiousandfabulousaccount"thatBrocklesbywarnedagainst.Yeta
copyofBrocklesbystreatisewasfoundinthecollectionofBenjaminFranklin,theinventorofthearmonica.And
whilstresearchingforthisarticle,twoletterswerefound,exchangedbetweenFranklinandBrocklesbydiscussingthe

SevenYearsWar(inwhichFranklinwasmilitarychiefandBrocklesbySurgeonGeneral)whichimplythatamore
substantiallinkexistedbetweenthetwomen.ThissuggeststhateitherFranklinignoredBrocklesby'srationalcritique
ofmusicinmedicineinfavourofthemorefashionablemyths.Or,perhapsworse,thatFranklinstillmanagedtotake
Brocklesby'stheories,howeverrationaltheywere,asencouragementthatmusicpossessedinnatemagicalqualities.
Eitherway,itshowsthetidalwaveofmisconceptionthatBrocklesby,anddoubtlessotherscientists,hadtobattle
against.

Consequently,itisnowonderthattherationalizationofmusicinmedicinetooksuchalongtimetoestablish.With
everymeasuredstepforwards,ascandaloustaleforcedtwostepsbackwards.ButBrocklesby'scontributionwasnot
invain.Farfromit,hesignalledtheearlystagesofamorescientificdiscourseandtookanimportantstepinclawing
backtheelementsofsensesurroundingmusicfromthejumbleofsensationaltales.Itisonthesefoundationsthat
scientistsandmusiciansoftheprevioustwocenturieshavebuilt,andfromthesetantalizingearlystagesthatthe
moderndisciplineofmusicinmedicinehasgrown.Wemaystillhavetofightwithimprobableclaimsaboutmusic
andfalseresultsofmusicseffectsonhealth,butforthemostparttheyareoverwhelmedbygroundedtheoriesand
practice.SoweoweadebtofgratitudetoindividualssuchasRichardBrocklesbyforholdingontotheirfaithinthe
genuinescientificeffectsofmusiconhealthandgivingartsandsciencethechancetoformsuchapowerful
partnership,thebenefitsofwhicharestillbeingdiscoveredtoday.

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Notes
1.West2000,51.
2.EgRorke2001,66.
3.RichardBrowne'sMedicineMusica:oramechanicalessayontheeffectsofsinging,musickanddancingonhuman
bodieswaspublishedin1729.
4.Brocklesby1749,1.
5.Ibid.,1.
6.Ibid.,56.
7.Ibid.,6.
8.Ibid.,7.
9.Ibid.,8.
10.Ibid.,58.
11.Ibid.,67.
12.Martino1959.
13.Brocklesby1749,75.
14.EgFriedman2010.
15.Brocklesby1749,49
16.InHodges2009.
17.Staricoff2002,3840.
18.Friedrich2004,1555.
19.Brocklesby1749,15.
20.Ibid,16.
21.Muir2010.
22.Brocklesby1749,77.
23.Ibid,78.
24.Honing2012.
25.Brocklesby1749,79.
26.Sloboda1988,240.
27.Janata2012.
28.Brocklesby1749,64.


DAISYFANCOURT(MAILTO:DAISY.FANCOURT@CHCH.OXON.ORG),MMusstudiedmusicatChristChurch,Oxford
whereshewasanAcademicscholarandJoanConwayscholar,graduatingwithadoublefirst.Shewentontoreceive
adistinctioninhermastersatKing'sCollege,LondonwhereshewasbothanSMAandWorldORTscholar,
specializinginthelinksbetweenmusicandmedicine.DaisynowworksontheintegrationofmusicintoNHShospitals
tosupportthetreatmentofdifferentillnesses.ShehaspreviouslyworkedonartsprogrammesinBirmingham
Children'shospital,Oxford'sJohnRadcliffeHospital,andnowmanagestheperformingartsattheChelseaand
WestminsterHospitalinLondon.SheisalsocurrentlyundertakingaPhDinpsychoneuroimmunologyandisa
researchassociatewiththeCentreforPerformanceScience,partoftheRoyalCollegeofMusic,researchingthe
impactofmusicontheimmunesystemsofhospitalpatients.
Home(/)>Summer2013

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