DCS Handout Updated

Nizwa College of Technology
Department of Engineering
Chapter 1
Introduction
In recent years, control systems have assumed an increasingly important role in the development
and advancement of modern civilization and technology. Particularly every aspect of our day to
day activities is affected by some type of control system. For example in the domestic domain,
automatic controls in heating and air-conditioning systems regulate the temperature and humidity
of homes and buildings for comfortable living. To achieve maximum efficiency in energy
consumption many modern heating and air conditioning systems in large office and factory
buildings are computer controlled.
1.1 The principles of control system can be illustrated in many fields.
By turning a key the driver of an automobile can start a large H.P engine.
A person can lower the temperature in the room simple by turning a knob on the air
conditioner.
The driver of several tones automobile can control as motion by the simple use of steering
wheel, accelerator, and brake pedal.
Mixing blue & yellow color to produce green in a paint factory.
Walking along a straight line by the robot.
Safety locks of automatic washing machine.
Automatic filling of bottles.
Packing machine using conveyor belt system.
Packing of biscuits by weights automatically.
Computer controlled lathe machine.
Conveyor belt system to feed the material.
1.2 DEFINITION OF SYSTEM

A system is a combination or an arrangement of different physical components in some
fashion or configuration in order to achieve certain objective.
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Every physical object is actually a system. A class room is a good example of physical
system. A room along with the combination benches, whiteboard, fans, AC and lighting
arrangement can be called a classroom which acts as elementary system.
1.2.1 DEFINITION OF CONTROL SYSTEM
A control system can be defined combination or an arrangement of different physical
components in some fashion or configuration in order to regulate, direct or command itself or
some other system.
*Referred : Modern Control Engineering by K .Ogata
Examples:
a) TV Remote is a control system which is not connected but related to it. It is used for
controlling different channels of the TV.
b) Car speedometer is control system used for controlling the speed of the car. It is
connected to the car.
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
Control Systems are broadly classified into many types depending upon following:
1. Based on presence of feedback in control System
a. Open-loop control system
b. Closed-loop control system
2. Based on input-output relationship of the control System
a) Linear Control System
b) Non Linear Control System
3. Based on type of components of the control system
a) Mechanical Control System
b) Electrical and Electromechanical Control System
1.4 OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS (NON FEED BACK SYSTEMS)
Those systems in which the output has no effect on the control action are called open
loop control systems.
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In other words, in an open - loop control systems the output is neither measured nor
feedback for comparison with the input.
Figure 1.1. General block diagram of open loop system

Example 1: Rotational Generator
The input to rotational generator is the speed of the prime mover (e.g. steam turbine) in RPM.
Assuming the generator is on no load the output may be induced voltage at the output terminals.
Speed of the Prime mover
Rotational Generator
Induced Voltage
Fig 1.2 Rotational Generator

Example 2: Washing machine
Most (but not all) washing machines are operated in the following manner. After the clothes to be
washed have been put into the machine, the soap or detergent, bleach and water are entered in
proper amounts as specified by the manufacturer. The washing time is then set on a timer and the
washer is energized. When the cycle is completed, the machine shuts itself off. In this example
washing time forms input and cleanliness of the clothes is identified as output.
Fig 1.3 Washing Machine

1.5 CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS (FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS)
Those systems in which the output has effect on the input by providing feedback path
are called closed loop control systems.
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Fig 1.3 General Block Diagram of a closed loop control system

Example: HOME HEATING SYSTEM
Fig 1-4 Block diagram of Home Heating system.

A change in outdoor temperature is a disturbance to the home heating system. If the outside
temperature falls, the room temperature will likewise tend to decrease.
Comparison between Open Loop and Closed Loop Control System
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
Open Loop System

The circuit / system is simple
The circuit / system is Cheap
The circuit / system is easy to repair
The circuit / system is Less accurate
The output signal is directly affected by
the disturbance signal. The output
signal is determined by the initial
setting only
It has no feedback
Closed Loop System

The circuit / system is complex
The circuit / system is expensive
The circuit / system is difficult to repair
The circuit / system is more accurate
The output signal is controlled and
maintained at the set point value even
under the presence of disturbance signal
It has feedback
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The input is modified with the information

from output as feedback signal
There is a comparison element and a
feedback sensor element
Input is not modified
There is no comparison element and

feedback sensor element
The output measurement is not required The output measurement is necessary
10
Highly sensitive to environmental

changes
Less sensitive to environmental changes
1.6 Transfer Function

The transfer function of a linear time- invariant system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace
transform of the output (response) to the Laplace transform of the input (driving function) under
the assumption that all initial conditions are zero.
Transfer function is given by
1.6.1 Comments on transfer function

1. The transfer function is an expression relating the output and input of a linear time invariant
system in terms of the system parameters and is a property of the system itself independent of
the input.
2. It does not provide any information concerning the physical structure of the system (the
transfer functions of many different physical systems can be identical).
3. The highest power of
in the denominator of the transfer function is equal to the order of
the system.
4. The transfer function between an input and output of a system is defined as the Laplace
transform of impulse.
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1.7 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF CONTROL SYSTEM

The control system after designing should be tested and analyzed before using it in an
intended application. An accurate model that describes a system completely must be determined
in order to analyze a dynamic system.
An idealized representation of physical system is called a Physical Model.
The process of obtaining the desired mathematical description of the system is called
Mathematical Modeling.
1.7.1 Modeling of Electrical Systems

Electrical systems can be idealized as resistance-inductance-capacitance systems and the
governing differential equations can be obtained on the basis of Kirchoffs voltage and current
laws, which states that
V = IR: algebraic sum of voltages sources and voltages drop in a loop must equal to zero.
I = 0: Algebraic sum of currents entering and currents leaving a junction in an electric circuit
is equal to zero.
Inductance and Capacitances are the energy storage elements where in energy can be stored and
retrieved without much loss and hence referred as conservative elements. Resistance represents
the energy loss (energy absorption) in the system and hence is referred as dissipative element.
Basic Elements and their representations
Sno
Element
Resistor
Inductor
Capacitor
Representation
Voltage Equation
Current Equation
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Example 1:
Write the modeling equation of the electrical system given and determine the transfer
function.
Solution
The required Transfer function is
Applying KVL to above electric circuit we get

V(t) = R i(t) + L di/dt + (1/C) i(t) dt
Applying Laplace Transform to above equation, we get
V(s) = R I(s) + LS I(s) + (1/CS) I(s)
V(s) = [R + LS + (1/CS)] I (s)
The required Transfer function is
Example 2:
Write the modeling equation of the electrical system given and determine the transfer
function.
Solution
Applying KVL for loop 1 corresponding to i1(t) we get
V(t) = L di1(t)/dt + R1 i1(t) + R2 [ i1(t) i2(t) ] (1)
Applying KVL for loop 2 corresponding to i2(t) we get
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0 = (1/C) i2(t) dt + R2 [ i2(t) i1(t) ] . (2)

Applying Laplace transform for equations 1
V(s) = LS I1(s) + R1 I1(s) + R2 [ I1(s)-I2(s) ]
V(s) = [ LS + R1 + R2] I1(s) - R2 I2(s) . (3)
Applying Laplace transform for equations 2
0 = (1/CS) I2(s) + R2 [ I2(s)-I1(s) ]
0 = [(1/CS) + R2] I2(s) - R2 I1(s)
[(1/CS) + R2] I2(s) = R2 I1(s) => I1(s) = [(1/CS) + R2] I2(s) / R2
Substitute equation for I1(s) in equation (3)
V(s) = I2(s) ([ LS + R1 + R2] [ 1+ R2CS ] - [R2 R2 CS] ) / R2CS
Transfer function = I2(s) / V(s)
= R2CS / [ LS + R1 + R2] [ 1+ R2CS ] - [R2 R2 CS]
1.8 Time Response Analysis of Control Systems

Time is used as an independent variable in most of the control systems. It is important to
analyze the response given by the system for the applied excitation, which is function of time.
Analysis of response means to see the variation of output with respect to time. The output
behavior with respect to time should be within these specified limits to have satisfactory
performance of the systems. The stability analysis lies in the time response analysis that is when
the system is stable output is finite
The system stability, system accuracy and complete evaluation is based on the time
response analysis on corresponding results.
1.8.1 DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF TIME RESPONSE

Time Response:
The response given by the system which is function of the time, to the applied excitation
is called time response of a control system. Practically, output of the system takes some finite
time to reach to its final value.
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This time varies from system to system and is dependent on different factors. The factors
like friction mass or inertia of moving elements some nonlinearities present etc.
Example: Measuring instruments like Voltmeter, Ammeter.
Classification of Time Response:
The time response of a control system is divided into two parts.
1 Transient response ct(t)
2 Steady state response css(t)
C(t) = Ct(t) +CSS(t)
Where C(t)= Time Response
Total Response=Zero State Response +Zero Input Response
1. Transient Response:
It is defined as the part of the response that goes to zero as time becomes very large.
Lim Ct(t)=0
t
A system in which the transient response does not decay as time progresses is an unstable
system.
The transient response may be experimental or oscillatory in nature.
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2. Steady State Response:

It is defined the part of the response which remains after complete transient response
vanishes from the system output.
. Lim ct(t)=css(t)
t
The time domain analysis essentially involves the evaluation of the transient and steady
state response of the control system.
Standard Test Input Signals

For the analysis point of view, the signals, which are most commonly used as reference
inputs, are defined as standard test inputs.
The performance of a system can be evaluated with respect to these test signals.
Based on the information obtained the design of control system is carried out.
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Types of test signals

1.
Step input signal (position function)

It is the sudden application of the input at a specified time
Example :a. If the input is an angular position of a mechanical shaft a step input represent
the sudden rotation of a shaft.
b. Switching on a constant voltage in an electrical circuit.
c. Sudden opening or closing a valve.
When, A = 1, r(t) = u(t) = 1
The step is a signal whos value changes from one value
(usually 0) to another level A in Zero time.
In the Laplace Transform form R(s) = A / S
Mathematically r(t) = u(t)
= 1 for t > 0
= 0 for t < 0
2. Ramp Input Signal (Velocity Functions):

It is constant rate of change in input that is gradual application of input as shown
Ex:- Altitude Control of a Missile
The ramp is a signal, which starts at a value of zero and
increases linearly with time.
Mathematically r (t) = At for t 0 = 0
for t 0.
In LT form R(S) = A
S2
If A=1, it is called Unit Ramp Input
Mathematically
r(t) = t u(t)
t for t 0
=
{ 0 for t 0
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In LT form R(S) = A
1 = 1
S2 S2
3. Parabolic Input Signal (Acceleration function):
The input which is one degree faster than a ramp type of input as shown in fig (3.4 )
or it is an integral of a ramp.
Mathematically a parabolic signal of magnitude
A is given by r(t) = A t2 u(t)
2
At2 for t 0
=
2
0 for t 0
In LT form R(S) = A
S3
If A = 1, a unit parabolic function is defined as r(t) = t2 u(t)
2
2
ie., r(t) = t for t 0
{ 2
0 for t 0
In LT for R(S) = 1
S3
4. Impulse Input Signal :
It is the input applied instantaneously (for short duration of time ) of very high amplitude
as shown
Eg: Sudden shocks i e, HV due lightening or short circuit.
It is the pulse whose magnitude is infinite while its width tends to zero.
Area of impulse = Its magnitude
If area is unity, it is called Unit Impulse Input denoted as (t)
Mathematically it can be expressed as
r(t) = A for t = 0
= 0 for t 0
In LT form R(S) = 1 if A = 1
Standard test Input Signals and its Laplace Transforms.
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r(t)
R(S)
Unit Step
1/S
Unit ramp
1/S2
Unit Parabolic
1/S3
Unit Impulse
1.9 Steady State Error

Sometimes a system might never achieve the desired steady state value, but instead will settle on
an output value that is not desired. The difference between the steady-state output value to the
reference input value at steady state is called the steady state error of the system. We will use
the variable ess to denote the steady-state error of the system.
Consider the simplest feedback configuration of a single-input single output system given
The general transfer function of the given figure is

C(S) =
G(S)
.
R(S)
1+G(S) H(S)
The closed loop T.F is given by (1).
The T.F. b/w the actuating error signal e(t) and the i/p
signal r(t) is,

E(S) = R(S) C(S) H(S) = 1 C(S) . H(S)
R(S)
R(S)
R(S)
= 1
=
G(S) H(S)
=
1 + G(S) H(S)
1
1+ G(S) H(S) G(S)H(S)

1+G(S) H(S)
.
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1 + G(S) . H(S)
Where e(t) = Difference b/w the i/p signal and the feed back signal
E(S) =
1
. .R(S)
1 + G(S) . H(S)
The steady state error ess may be found by the use of final value theorem and is as follows;
ess = lt e(t) = lt
t S O
Substituting (1),
ess = lt
SO
s E(S)
s.R(S)
.
1+G(S) . H(S)
Type and order of a system

Consider the general equation for open loop system
In the above equation the term present in the numerator will give the information of Zeros and
the term in denominator will give the information of poles.
Number of poles in origin will decide type of the system and total number of poles decides order
of the control system.
STATIC ERROR CONSTANTS
Steady state error is represented by
ess = lt
SO
s.R(S)
1+G(S) . H(S)
Case 1: Input is unit step

R(s) = 1/s
Substitute in steady state error equation
(Type -0 system)
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Where
Kp=
is called as Positional error constant and common in type -0 system

Case 2: Input is unit ramp
R(s) = 1/s2
(Type -1 System)
Where
is called as velocity error constant and common in type -1 system
Case 3: Input is unit parabolic
R(s) = 1/s3
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Where
is called as acceleration error constant
Time response (Transient) Specification (Time domain) Performance:The performance characteristics of a controlled system are specified in terms of the transient
response to a unit step i/p since it is easy to generate & is sufficiently drastic.
The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits damped oscillations before
reaching steady state. In specifying the transient response characteristic of a control system to
unit step i/p,
it is common to specify the following terms. They are called time domain
specifications.
1.10 Time domain specifications

It is possible to determine the time domain specifications of a second order system by comparing
the coefficients of the given system with standard second order system equation.
The general equation for the transfer function of a second order system is given by
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1) Delay time :-
(td)
It is the time required for the response to reach 50% of its final value for the 1st time.
2) Rise time :- (tr)

It is the time required for the response to rise from 10% and 90% or 0% to 100% of its
final value. For under damped system, second order system the 0 to 100% rise time is
commonly used. For over damped system, the 10 to 90% rise time is commonly used.
Rise time is expressed as
Where
3) Peak time :- (tp)
It is the time required for the response to reach the 1st of peak of the overshoot.
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4) Maximum over shoot :- (MP)

It is the maximum peak value of the response curve measured from unity. The amount of max
over shoot directly indicates the relative stability of the system.
5) Settling time :- (ts)

It is the time required for the response curve to reach & stay within a range about the final
value of size specified by absolute percentage of the final value (usually 5% to 2%). The
settling time is related to the largest time const., of C.S.
For 2%
For 4%
PROBLEMS;
1. The time response of a feed back system to a step input is
a)
C(t) = 1+0.2e-60t 1.2e-10t
b)
C (t) = 5/2 +5t 5/2 e-2t.
Obtain the expression for closed loop transfer function. Also determine the natural frequency and
damping ration of the system.
2.Obtain the time response of the unity feedback system whose open loop transfer function is
and when the input is unit step.

3.The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is given by
Determine the closed loop transfer function, damping ratio and percentage overshoot.
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4. A unity feed back is characterized by an open loop transfer function
Determine the value of K so that the system will have damping ratio of 0.5. Also determine
setting time, peak overshoot for a unit step input.
5.Find the steady state error constants and steady state error for the system whose open loop
transfer function is given by
a)
b)
c)
d)
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Chapter 2
Stability Analysis in Time Domain
2.1 Introduction
Every system, for small amount of time has to pass through a transient period whether
system will reach its steady state after passing through transients or not. The answer to this
question is whether the system is stable or unstable. This is stability analysis.
For example, we want to go from one station to other. The station we want to reach is our
final steady state. The traveling period is the transient period. Now anything may happen during
the traveling period due to bad weather, road accident etc, there is a chance that we may not
reach the next station in time. The analysis of whether the given system can reach steady state
after passing through the transients successfully is called the stability analysis of the system.
2.1.1 Concept of stability:
In Pendulum where pointer keeps on oscillating when certain force is applied. Such
systems are neither stable nor unstable & hence called critically stable or marginally stable
systems. The stability of control systems is an important property. Considering any bounded
input signal of a system, and if the output signal of the system to such a signal is also bounded,
then the system is called bounded-input-bounded-output stable. If the output signal does not
show this property, the system is unstable.
Figure 5.1: (a) Stable and (b) unstable system response to a bounded input signal
2.1.2 Stable system:
Stability in a system implies that small changes in the system input, in initial conditions
or in system parameters do not result in large changes in system output.
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2.1.3 Conditions for a stable system:

i)
When a system is excited by a bounded input, the output is bounded. This

concept is called bounded-input bounded-output stability (BIBO stability ).
ii)
When no input is applied, the output tends towards zero irrespective of the
initial conditions. This stability is called asymptotic stability.
iii)
The BIBO stability is satisfied if the impulse response h(t) is absolutely

integrable.
iv)
Conditionally stability is satisfied if for a certain condition if a particular

parameter of the system, its output is bounded one.
v)
critically or marginally stable if for a bounded input its output oscillates with
constant frequency & Amplitude. Such oscillation of output are called
Undamped or Sustained oscillations.
vi)
The system is said to be relatively more stable or unstable on the basis of

settling time. System is said to be more stable if settling time for that system is
less than that of other system.
2.2 Routh Hurwitz Criterion :

This represents a method of determining the location of poles of a characteristics equation
with the respect to the left half & right half of the s-plane without actually solving the equation.
The T.F.of any linear closed loop system can be represented as,
b0 sm + b1 sm-1 +.+ bm
C(s)
=
R(s)
Where a & b are constants.
a0 sn + a1 sn-1 + . + an
To find the closed loop poles we equate F(s) =0. This equation is called as Characteristic
Equation of the system.
F(s) = a0 sn + a1 sn-1 + a2 sn-2 + .. + an = 0.
Thus the roots of the characteristic equation are the closed loop poles of the system which decide
the stability of the system.
Rouths Table:
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It is also called Rouths array method or Routh-Hurwitzs method. Routh suggested a method of
tabulating the coefficients of characteristic equation in a particular way. Tabulation of
coefficients gives an array called Rouths array.
Consider the general characteristic equation as,
F(s) = a0 sn + a1 sn-1 + a2 sn-2 + .. + an = 0.
Method of forming an array :
Sn
a0
a2
Sn-1
a1
a3
Sn-2
b1
Sn-3
c1
c2
S0
an
a4
a6
a5
b2
a7
b3
c3
Coefficients of first two rows are written directly from characteristics equation.
From these two rows next rows can be obtained as follows.
a1 a2 a0 a3
b1 =
a1 a4 a0 a5
,
b2 =
a1
,
a1
a1 a6 a0 a7
b3 =
a1
From 2nd & 3rd row , 4th row can be obtained as

b1 a3 a1 b2
b1 a5 a1 b3
C1 =
,
C2 =
b1
b1
This process is to be continued till the coefficient for s 0 is obtained which will be an. From this
array stability of system can be predicted.
2.2.1 Necessary Condition to have all closed loop poles in L.H.S. of s-plane.
In order that the above characteristic equation has no root in right of s-plane, it is necessary
but not sufficient that,
1. All the coefficients off the polynomial have the same sign.
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2. Non of the coefficient vanishes i.e. all powers of s must be present in descending order
from n to zero.
These conditions are not sufficient.
Examine the stability of given equation using Rouths method :
Routh stability criterion:
For a system to be stable, it is necessary and sufficient that each term of the first column of the
Routh array of its characteristics equation be positive if a0 > 0.
If this condition is not met, the system is unstable and the number of sign changes of the terms
of the first column of the Routh array correspond to the number of roots of the characteristic
equation in the right half of the S-plane .
Difficulty 1: The first element in any row of the Routh array is zero while the rest of the row
has at least one non-zero element.
Difficulty 2:
All the elements in any one row of the Routh array are zero.
Whenever difficulty-1 or difficulty-2 arises, the system is UNSTABLE.

Exercise
1.
2.
3.
4.
s6+2s5+8s4+12s3+20s2+16s+16=0
s5+s4+2s3+2s2+3s+5=0
9s5-20s4+10s3-s2-9s-10=0
S7+9s6+24s5+24s4+24s3+24s2+23s+15=0
2.3 Root Locus Technique:

The root locus is the locus of the roots of characteristic equation of a closed loop system in the Splane as the open loop gain (k) is varied from 0 to .
The root locus plots the poles of the closed loop transfer function as a function of a gain
parameter.
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In addition to determining the stability of the system, the root locus can be used to design
the damping ratio and natural frequency of a feedback system.
Consider a simple second order system
G(s) =
k
; k constant
s ( s 6)
The open-loop transfer function has two poles, one at s = 0 and the other at s = -6.
The closed-loop transfer function
C (s)
G ( s)
=
;
R( s)
1 G ( s ).H ( s )
The characteristic equation is 1 + G(s). H(s) = 0; ie

The roots are s1, s2 = -3 9 k .
s + 6s + k = 0;
The root locations for various values of k are

1) when 0 < k < 9, the roots are real and distinct. When k = 0, the two roots
1
are s = 0 and s = -6.

1
2) when k = 9, the roots are real and equal, ie s = s = -3.

3) when 9 < k < the roots are complex conjugate with real part = -3.
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Figure 4.4
Rules for the construction of Root Locus:

Rule 1:
The root locus is symmetric about the real axis
Rule 2:
At the open-loop poles, k = 0 and at the open-loop zeros , k =
As the open-loop gain K is varied from zero to infinity, each branch of the root locus
originates from an open-loop pole where K = 0 and terminates on an open-loop zero or zero at
infinity where K = .
The number of branches of root locus terminating on infinity equals the number of openloop poles minus open-loop zeros.
If n number of open-loop poles; and
m number of open-loop zeros and n > m , the
open loop transfer function has (n - m) zeros at infinity and (n m) branches of the root locus
terminates on these zeros.
Rule 3:
Segments of the real axis having an odd number of real axis open-loop poles and
zeros to their right are parts of the root locus.

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Rule 4: The (n-m) branches of the root locus which go to infinity travel along straight line
asymptotes whose angles are given by
q =
Rule 5:
( 2q 1)
; q = 0,1,2, (n-m-1)
( n m)
The asymptote cross the real axis at a point known as centroid

Centroid = =
Rule 6:
sum of real parts of poles - sum of real parts of zeros

number of poles - number of zeros
The break away point of the root locus are the solution of
dK
ds
= 0
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Problem
Draw the root locus plot for
G(s). H(s) =
K
s ( s 1)( s 3)
Solution: There are three open-loop poles at s = 0, s = -1, s = -3. So there are three branches of
the root locus. There are no finite open-loop zeros. So all the three zeros are at infinity.
Therefore, there are three asymptotes. The three branches of the root locus start at the open-loop
poles s = 0, s = -1, and s = -3 where K = 0 and terminates at the open-loop zeros at infinity where
k = .
The three branches of the root locus go to the zeros at infinity along straight line
asymptotes making angles of
( 2q 1)
q =
; q = 0,1,2
0 =
= 60 ;
( n m)
3
1 =
= 180 ;
3
2 =
5
= 300 ; with the real axis.
3
The point of intersection of the asymptotes on the real axis is called centroid .
Centroid = =
=
sum of real parts of poles - sum of real parts of zeros

number of poles - number of zeros
(0 1 3) (0)
= - 1.33
(3 0)
The root-locus exists on the real axis between s = 0 to s = -1 and from s = -3 to - .

The break points are given by the solution of
dK
= 0.
ds
1 + G(s).H(s) = 0
| G(s).H(s) | = 1
|
K
|=1
s.( s 1).( s 3)
K = s.(s+1).(s+3) = s3 + 4s2 + 3s
dK
d
=
(s3 + 4s2 + 3s) = 3s2 + 8s + 3 = 0
ds
ds
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s=
8 82 (4 3 3)
8 28
=
= - 0.451 or - 2.28.
6
( 2 3)
Out of these two break points, s = - 0.451 is the actual break point and s = - 2.28 break point
can be ignored as no root locus exists there.
Out of the three branches of the root locus, one is the real root locus branch. It starts at
s = -3, travels along the negative real axis along the asymptote with 180 and ends at s = - . The
other two branches of the root locus start at s = 0 and s = -1, move in opposite directions on the
negative real axis approaching each other, meet at point s = - 0.451 called the break away point,
breakaway from the real axis, and one branch moves to infinity along the 60 asymptote and the
second one moves to infinity along the 300 asymptote.
Figure 4.5 Root Locus Diagram

Exercise
1. Sketch the root locus of the system whose open loop transfer function is
Find the value of K so that the damping ratio is 0.5.

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2.4 Stability Analysis in Frequency Domain

It was pointed out earlier that the performance of a feedback control system is more
preferably measured by its time domain response characteristics. This is in contrast to the
analysis & design of systems in the communication field, where the frequency response is of
more importance, since in this case most of the signals to be processed are either sinusoidal or
periodic in nature. However analytically, the time response of a control system is usually difficult
to determine, especially in the case of high order systems. In the design aspects, there are no
unified ways of arriving at a designed system given the time-domain specifications, such as peak
overshoot, rise time, delay time & setting time. On the other hand, there is a wealth of graphical
methods available in the frequency-domain analysis, all suitable for the analysis & design of
linear feedback control systems once the analysis & design are carried out in the frequency
domain, time domain behavior of the system can be interpreted based on the relationships that
exist between the time-domain & the frequency-domain properties. Therefore, we may consider
that the main purpose of conducting control systems analysis & design in frequency domain is
merely to use the techniques as a convenient vehicle toward the same objectives as with timedomain methods.
Frequency response of a control system refers to the steady state response of a system
subject to sinusoidal input of fixed (constant) amplitude but frequency varying over a specific
range, usually from 0 to . For linear systems the frequency of input and output signal remains
the same, while the ratio of magnitude of output signal to the input signal and phase between two
signals may change. Frequency response analysis is a complimentary method to time domain
analysis (step and ramp input analysis). It deals with only steady state and measurements are
taken when transients have disappeared. Hence frequency response tests are not generally carried
out for systems with large time constants.
The frequency response information can be obtained either by analytical methods or by
experimental methods,
2.4.1 Comparison between Time Domain and Frequency Domain Analysis
An interesting and revealing comparison of frequency and time domain approaches is based on
the relative stability studies of feedback systems. The Rouths criterion is a time domain
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approach which establishes with relative ease the stability of a system, but its adoption to
determine the relative stability is involved and requires repeated application of the criterion. The
Root Locus method is a very powerful time domain approach as it reveals not only stability but
also the actual time response of the system. On the other hand, the Nyquist criterion (discussed
later in this Chapter) is a powerful frequency domain method of extracting the information
regarding stability as well as relative stability of a system without the need to evaluate roots of
the characteristic equation.
2.5 Frequency-Domain characteristics:

If a control system is to be designed or analyzed using frequency-domain techniques, we need
a set of specification to describe the system performance. The following frequency-domain
specifications are often used in practice.
Peak response Mp :
The peak response Mp is defined as the maximum value of magnitude M() of a closed loop
transfer function. In general, the magnitude of M p gives an indication of the relative stability of a
feed back control system. Normally, a large M p corresponds to a large peak overshoot in the step
response.
Resonant frequency p :
The resonant frequency p is defined as the frequency at which the peak resonance Mp occurs. It
is an indicative of speed of transient response.
Bandwidth:
The bandwidth, BW, is defined as the frequency at which the magnitude of M (j), drops at
70.7 percent of its zero-frequency level, or 3 dB down from the zero-frequency gain. In general,
the bandwidth of a control system indicates the noise-filtering characteristics of the system. Also,
bandwidth gives a measure of the transient response properties, in that a large bandwidth
corresponds to a faster rise time, since higher-frequency signals are passed on to the outputs.
Conversely, if the bandwidth is small, only signals of relatively low frequencies are passed, &
the time response will generally be slow & sluggish.
Cutoff rate:
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Slope of the log-magnitude curve near cur off frequency is called cut off rate. The cut off rate
indicates the ability of a system to distinguish the signal from noise.
Gain Margin: It is the reciprocal of the magnitude of open loop transfer function at phase cross
over frequency. .
Gain Crossover frequency: This is the frequency at which the open loop gain first reaches the
value 1.
Phase Margin: This is the number of degrees by which the phase angle is smaller than -180o at
the gain crossover. A good stable control system usually has typically an open loop phase shift of
between 45o and 65o
Phase Crossover Frequency: The phase crossover frequency at which the phase angle reaches
-180o
Graphical Methods to Represent Frequency Response Data
Two graphical techniques are used to represent the frequency response data. They are:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Bode plot
Polar plots
Nichols plots.
M&N circles
Nichols chart
2.6 Bode Plots

A Bode plot is a graph of the transfer function of a linear, time-invariant system versus
frequency, plotted with a log-frequency axis, to show the system's frequency response. It is
usually a combination of a Bode magnitude plot, expressing the magnitude of the frequency
response gain, and a Bode phase plot, expressing the frequency response phase shift.
The frequency response of a system is described by values of the gain and the phase angle which
occur when the sinusoidal input signal is varied over a range of frequencies. The term BODE
PLOT is used for the pair of graphs of the logarithm to base 10 of the gain plotted against
logarithm to base 10 of the frequency and the phase angle plotted against the logarithm to base
10 of the frequency. The reason for the graphs being in this form is that it enables plots for
Page 30 of 54

complex frequency response functions to be obtained by merely adding together the plots
obtained for each constituent element.
Example :
Find the gain and phase margins along with their crossover frequencies for the system
represented by following transfer function
There are four terms in transfer function, namely 1) 25 2) S 3) S+5 4) S+12

Put S=jW, above terms will be changed to 1) 25+j0 2) 0+jW 3) 5 + jW 4) 12 + jW
The magnitude of the transfer function will become
Phase angle of the transfer function will become

Phase angle = tan-1(0 / 25) - tan-1(W/ 0) - tan-1(W / 5) - tan-1(W / 12)
Phase angle =0 90o -- tan-1(W / 5) -- tan-1(W / 12)
Assign some different values for frequency w and obtain corresponding values
W
Phase Angle in
Degrees
Magnitude
Magnitude in db =
20*log10(magnitude)
0.1
-91.632
4.16
12.393
-106.073
0.407
-7.8046
-157.619
0.0544
-25.2890
10
-193.240
0.0143
-36.8842
12
-202.380
0.0094
-40.4976
50
-250.793
1.93 10-4
-74.2650
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100
-260.294
20
2.47 10-5
-92.1147
Bode Diagram
Gm = 32.213 dB (at 7.746 rad/sec), Pm = 83.276 deg (at 0.41492 rad/sec)
Magnitude (dB)
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
-90
Phase (deg)
-135
-180
-225
-270
-1
10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Result:
Gain Margin= 32.21 db, Phase Margin=83.27 deg, Wgc=0.414 rad/sec ,Wpc=7.746 rad/sec
Page 32 of 54

2.7 Nyquist Stability Criterion

A stability test for time invariant linear systems can also be derived in the frequency domain.
It is known as Nyquist stability criterion. It is based on the complex analysis result known
as Cauchys principle of argument. Note that the system transfer function is a complex
function. By applying Cauchys principle of argument to the open-loop system transfer
function, we will get information about stability of the closed-loop system transfer function
and arrive at the Nyquist stability criterion (Nyquist, 1932).
The importance of Nyquist stability lies in the fact that it can also be used to
determine the relative degree of system stability by producing the so-called phase and gain
stability margins. These stability margins are needed for frequency domain controller
design techniques. The Nyquist method is used for studying the stability of linear systems
with pure time delay.
For a SISO feedback system the closed-loop transfer function is given by
M (S )
G(S )
1 H (S ) G(S )
where G(S) represents the system and H(S) is the feedback element, the closed loops are
obtained by solving the following equation which is a characteristic equation.
1 H (S ) G(S ) 0
D(S ) 1 H (S ) G (S )
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sIrRR
-me
p{0{
lss
a}}
n
e
2.7.1 Nyquist Stability Criterion

It states that the number of unstable closed-loop poles is equal to the number of
unstable open-loop poles plus the number of encirclements of the origin of the Nyquist plot
of the complex function D(S).
The number of unstable closed-loop poles (Z) is equal to the number of unstable open-loop
poles (P) plus the number of encirclements (N) of the point (-1,j0) of the nyquist plot of G(S)
H(S)
Page 34 of 54

Chapter 3
3.1 State variables method
Definitions:
State: A minimal set of variables such that knowledge of these variables at t = to together with
knowledge of the inputs t greater than to.
State variables: The variables involved in determining the state of a dynamic system X(t). These
are normally energy storage elements contained in the system.
State space: The space whose coordinates axes are nothing but the n state variables with time as
the implicit variable is called state space.
3.2 State models:

To obtain the state model for a given system, it is necessary to select the state variables. The
various physical quantities of system itself are selected as the state variables.
For electrical systems the currents through various inductors and the voltage across the various
capacitors are selected to be the state variables. The equations must be rearranged in the standard
form so as to obtain the required state model.
Problems
1. Obtain the state model of the given electrical system
3.3 State variables methods

1. State space representation using phase variables
2. State space representation using canonical variables
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3.3.1 State space representation using phase variables

The phase variables are those state variables which are obtained by assuming one of the system
variable as state variables and other state variable as derivatives of the selected system variable.
Most of the time the system variable used is the output variable which is used to select the state
variable.
Problem
1. Construct the state model using phase variables if the system is described by the
differential equation
d 3Y (t )
d 2 Y (t )
dY (t )
4
7
2Y (t ) 5U (t )
3
2
dt
dt
dt
3.3.2 State space representation using Canonical variables

This method of obtaining the state model using the canonical variables is also called parallel
programming method and matrix A obtained using this method using this method used to have
canonical form. The method is basically based on partial fraction expansion of the given transfer
function.
Problem
1. Obtain state space model of the system with transfer function
Y (s)
6
3
2
U ( s ) s 6 s 11s 6
3.4 Eigen values

Consider an equation AX=Y , if A transforms in to a vector X
Then X is called the solution of the equation.
AX X
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X AX 0
[I A] X 0
The set of homogeneous equations have a nontrivial solution only under the condition,
I A 0
The determinant
I A
is called characteristic polynomial and
I A 0
is called the
characteristic equation.
Hence values satisfying characteristic equation are the closed loop poles of the system. The
eigen values are the closed loop poles of the system.
3.4.1 Eigen Vectors

Any non-zero vector Xi such that AXi = i is said to be eigen vector associated with eigen value
i. Thus let =i satisfies the equation
[i I A] X 0
Then solution of this equation is called eigen vector of A associated with eigen value i and is
denoted as Mi.
Mthematically the eigen vector can be calculated by taking cofactors of matrix [i I A]
Along any row.
3.4.2 Modal matrix M

Let 1, 2,.. n are the eigen values of the matrix A while M1,M2,..Mn are the eigen vectors
corresponding to the eigen values 1, 2,.. n respectively. Placing the eigen vectors in column
of another matrix. Such a matrix is called modal matrix or diagonalizing matrix of matrix A.
M = Modal matrix -= [ M1:M2:.:Mn]
Diagonal matrix = M 1 A M
Problems
1. Determine characteristic equation, eigen values, and eigen vectors for the matrix A
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0 2
A 4 0
48 34
1
9
2. Determine eigen values, and eigen vectors for the matrix A
0 1 0
A 0 0 1
6 11 6
Solution of state equations by Laplace transform method
The laplace transform method converts integro differential equations to simple algebraic
equations. Thus the equations shows response obtained earlier by classical approach.
X (t ) L1[ ( s )] X (0) L1[ ( s ) BU ( s )]
( s ) [ sI A] 1
Adj [ sI A]
sI A
L1[ ( s )] (t ) e At
Problems
1. Find the state transistion matrix for
Page 38 of 54

0 1
A
2 3
Chapter 4
4.1 Introduction to Digital Control
In most modern engineering systems, there is a need to control the evolution with time of
one or more of the system variables.
The controller that manipulates the error signal to determine the desired control action
has classically been an analog system, which includes electrical, fluid, pneumatic, or mechanical
components. These systems all have analog inputs and outputs (i.e., their input and output
signals are defined over a continuous time interval and have values that are defined over a
continuous range of amplitudes). In the past few decades, analog controllers have often been
replaced by digital controllers whose inputs and outputs are defined at discrete time instances.
The digital controllers are in the form of digital circuits, digital computers, or microprocessors.
4.1.1 Why Digital Control?
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Digital control offers distinct advantages over analog control that explain its popularity. Here are
some of its many advantages:
Accuracy: Digital signals are represented in terms of zeros and ones with typically 12 bits or
more to represent a single number. This involves a very small error as compared to analog
signals where noise and power supply drift are always present.
Implementation Errors: Digital processing of control signals involves addition and
multiplication by stored numerical values. The errors that result from digital representation and
arithmetic are negligible. By contrast, the processing of analog signals is performed using
components such as resistors and capacitors with actual values that vary significantly from the
nominal design values.
Flexibility: An analog controller is difficult to modify or redesign once implemented in
hardware. A digital controller is implemented in firmware or software, and its modification is
possible without a complete replacement of the original controller. Furthermore, the structure of
the digital controller need not follow one of the simple forms that are typically used in analog
control. More complex controller structures involve a few extra arithmetic operations and are
easily realizable.
Speed: The speed of computer hardware has increased exponentially since the 1980s. This
increase in processing speed has made it possible to sample and process control signals at very
high speeds. Because the interval between samples, the sampling period, can be made very small,
digital controllers achieve performance that is essentially the same as that based on continuous
monitoring of the controlled variable.
Cost: Although the prices of most goods and services have steadily increased, the cost of digital
circuitry continues to decrease. Advances in very large scale integration (VLSI) technology have
made it possible to manufacture better, faster, and more reliable integrated circuits and to offer
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them to the consumer at a lower price. This has made the use of digital controllers more
economical even for small, low-cost applications.
4.2 The Structure of a Digital Control System

The basic structure of a typical digital control system or computer-controlled system or discretetime system is shown in Figure 5.1. The control system generally consists of a plant G(s), a
transducer and a compensator or controller C(s). The plant may consist of an object, such as an
antenna, to be controlled, a motor and possibly a power amplifier. The system (plant or process)
under control is a continuous-time system (e.g., a motor, electrical power plant, robot, etc.).
The heart of the controller is the digital computer. The A/D converter converts a continuoustime signal into a discrete-time signal at times specified by a clock. The D/A converter, in
contrast, convert the discrete-time signal output of the computer to a continuous-time signal to be
fed to the plant. The D/A converter normally include a hold circuit. The quantizer converts a
discrete-time signal to binary digits.
Examples o f Digital Control Systems

a) Closed-Loop Drug Delivery System
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b) Computer Control of an Aircraft Turbojet Engine

c) Control of a Robotic Manipulator
4.2.1 Concept of digitization

Digitizing or digitization is the representation of a signal (usually an analog signal) by a discrete
set of its points or samples. The result is called digital representation or, more specifically, a
digital image, for the object, and digital form, for the signal. Strictly speaking, digitizing means
simply capturing an analog signal in digital form.
ADC
The device that performs the sampling, quantization and coding is an A/D converter. Figure
is
a block diagram representation of the operations performed by an A/D converter.
4.2.3 Digitization occurs in two parts:

Discretization
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The reading of an analog signal A, and, at regular time intervals (frequency), sampling the value
of the signal at the point. Each such reading is called a sample and may be considered to have
infinite precision at this stage;
Quantization
Samples are rounded to a fixed set of numbers (such as integers), a process known as
quantization
Sampling Process:
Sampling is a process of converting a continuous-time signal into discrete-time signal. A
discrete-time signal is constructed by sampling a continuous-time signal, and a continuous-time
signal is reconstructed by interpolating a discrete-time signal.
Sampling interval:
After sampling, the signal is defined at discrete instants of time and the time interval
between two subsequent sampling intervals is called sampling interval.
Fig 5.3 a sampling operation
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In the figure above the switch is closed for a very short interval of time , during which the
signal available at the output.
Therefore, if the input is x(t), the output is x(nT), n = 0, 1, 2, and x(nT) is called the
sampling sequence of x(t).
Where T time interval between successive samples and
Fs =
1
Hz Sampling frequency
T
Consider the signal x(t) is band limited to f m. That is the highest frequency component of x(t) is
is fm. Then X(j) = 0 for || > m
Figure 5.4
From the figure 5.4
If
> m, the replicas will not overlap as in 5.4(c).
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The frequency spectrum X(j) can be recovered from Xs(j) by using a low pass filter which
has sharp cut off at =
If
< m, the frequency replicas will overlap as shown in fig 5.4(d) and as a result, the
frequency spectrum X(j) will not be recovered from the frequency spectrum of Xs(j).
4.2.4 Aliasing:
The superimposition of high frequency component on the low frequency is known as frequency
aliasing. Aliasing error can be prevented if the highest frequency component m in the signal
x(t) is less than or equal to
That is
if fs =
1
then
T
. fs m
. fs 2fm
or
fs 2fm
That is, to avoid aliasing the sampling frequency must be greater than twice the highest
frequency present in the signal.
Sampling theorem:
A band limited signal x(t) with X(j) = 0 for || > m is recovered from its samples x(nT), if
the sampling frequency fs 2.fm, i.e, sampling frequency must be at least twice the highest
frequency present in the signal.
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Nyquist rate: The frequency 2.fm, which under sampling theorem, must be exceeded by the
sampling frequency is known as the Nyquist rate.
Chapter 5
5.1 Continuous and Discrete Signals
The signal here occupies a continuous range in the time domain. At each instant, within the signal
time interval, the amplitude of the signal is well defined.
Continuous both in the time domain & amplitude domain
Example
Figure 6.1.
Y(t)= T [f(t)]
When the signal in the time domain occurs only at certain time instants, it is called discrete time
Page 46 of 54

signal. In this case the signal is a sequence of samples.

Discrete in the time domain, but continuous in the amplitude domain
Example
Figure 6.2 Q(k) = T[ x(k)]
5.2 Z-TRANSFORM BASIC DEFINITION & ROC

Z -Transform is a powerful mathematical tool for the analysis of Discrete in Time (DIT)
signals and systems. It is used to transform a DIT signal or an LTI system to a complex
variable frequency domain called the Z-domain. This transform helps us to study discrete time
signals and systems in the frequency domain and get information about the frequency contents of
discrete time signals or the frequency response of discrete time systems.
Definition of Z-Transform
The Z - transform of a discrete time signal or sequence x[n] is defined as
Where x(n) and X(z) are said to form an z-transform pair. This is written symbolically as x [n ] X
(z ) Here the variable z is a complex variable.
If r = 1, we get a circle of radius unity. It is called the unit circle
5.3 Region of Convergence (ROC):
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We see from the definition of the z-transform that it is an infinite power series and hence the
summation may not converge (i..e. becomes finite value) for all values of z.
The set of values of z for which the summation converges is called the Region of Convergence
(ROC) of the Z-transform. ROC should always be mentioned along with the z-transform.
For a finite series, the Z-transform will converge but not at all values of z.
Figure 6.3
Example of ROC
Page 48 of 54

Page 49 of 54

Z-TRANSFORM OF FINITE LENGTH SEQUENCES

Right sided Sequence
A sequence x[n] is said to be right sided if x[n] = 0 for all n < 0. A right sided sequence is
called a causal sequence.
x[n] = [ 2 3 1 5 ]
EXAMPLE: Find the z-transform and ROC of the right sided sequence
We see that X(z) becomes infinity at z =0. Except at z = 0, X(z) is finite for all values of z.
Therefore we can say that the ROC of this z transform is the entire z-plane except at z = 0. ie.,
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ROC : |z| > 0.
Figure 6.4
Left sided Sequence
A sequence x(n) is said to be left sided if x(n) = 0 for all n > 0. A left handed sequence is
called a non causal sequence. x[n] = [ 2 3 1 5 ]
EXAMPLE: Find the z-transform and ROC of the Left sided sequence
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We see that X(z) becomes infinity at z = . Except at z = , X(z) is finite for all values of z.
Therefore we can say that the ROC of this z transform is the entire z-plane except at z =
ie.,ROC: |z| <
5.4 Stability of Digital Control Systems
Stability is a basic requirement for digital and analog control systems. Digital control is based on
samples and is updated every sampling period, and there is a possibility that the system will
become unstable between updates. This obviously makes stability analysis different in the digital
case. We examine different definitions and tests of the stability of linear time-invariant (LTI)
digital systems based on transfer function models.
Asymptotic Stability:
A system is said to be asymptotically stable if its response to any initial conditions decays to zero
asymptotically in the steady statethat is, the response due to the initial conditions satisfies
Lim Y(k) =0 as k
Marginally stable:
If the response due to the initial conditions remains bounded but does not decay to zero, the
system is said to be marginally stable.
Bounded-inputbounded-output (BIBO): A system is said to be BIBO stable if its response to
any bounded input remains bounded.
A discrete-time system is said to be bounded-input, bounded-output stable or simply stable, if
every bounded input sequence excites a bounded output sequence. The condition for a system
with digital transfer function G(z) to be stable is that every pole of G(z) must lie inside the unit
circle of the z-plane or have a magnitude less than 1. This condition can be deduced from the
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continuous-time case where stability requires every pole to lie inside the open left half s plane.
Discrete stability requires every pole to lie inside the unit circle of the z-plane.
In the continuoustime case, we can use the Routh test to check whether all roots of a
polynomial lie inside the open left half s-plane. In the discrete time case , we have similar test
called the jury test. Consider the polynomial
D( z ) a0 z 4 a1 z 3 a2 z 2 a3 z a 4
a 0 greatertha n0
It is a polynomial of degree 4 with a positive leading coefficient. We form the table below. The
first row is simply the coefficient of D(z) arranged in the descending power of z. the second row
is the reversal of the order of the coefficients in the first row. We then take the ratio k1 of the last
elements of the first two rows as shown in the table. The subtraction of the product k1 and the
second row from the first row yields the first b row. The last element of the b row will be zero
and will be disregarded in the subsequent development. We reverse the order of the coefficients
of the b row and repeat the process as shown in the table. If D(z) is of degree n, then table
consists of 2n+1 rows.
5.5 Jury test conditions
All roots of the polynomial of degree 4 and with a positive leading coefficient lie inside the unit
circle if and only if the four leading coefficients in the table are positive (b0 , c0 , d 0 , e0 )
Although this test is stated for a polynomial of degree 4, it can be easily extended to the general
case.
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Example Problem
Exercises:
Test the stability of the control system described by difference equation give below
F(z) = Z5+26Z4-0.56Z3-2.05Z2+0.00775Z+0.35
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Mixing blue & yellow color to produce green in a paint factory.

Walking along a straight line by the robot.

Safety locks of automatic washing machine.

Automatic filling of bottles.

Packing machine using conveyor belt system.

Packing of biscuits by weights automatically.

Computer controlled lathe machine.

Conveyor belt system to feed the material.

1.2 DEFINITION OF SYSTEM

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Figure 1.1. General block diagram of open loop system

Fig 1.2 Rotational Generator

Fig 1.3 Washing Machine

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Fig 1.3 General Block Diagram of a closed loop control system

Fig 1-4 Block diagram of Home Heating system.

Open Loop System

Closed Loop System

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The input is modified with the information

Input is not modified

There is no comparison element and

The output measurement is not required The output measurement is necessary

Highly sensitive to environmental

Less sensitive to environmental changes

1.6 Transfer Function

1.6.1 Comments on transfer function

in the denominator of the transfer function is equal to the order of

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1.7 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF CONTROL SYSTEM

1.7.1 Modeling of Electrical Systems

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Applying KVL to above electric circuit we get

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0 = (1/C) i2(t) dt + R2 [ i2(t) i1(t) ] . (2)

1.8 Time Response Analysis of Control Systems

1.8.1 DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF TIME RESPONSE

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2. Steady State Response:

Standard Test Input Signals

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Types of test signals

Step input signal (position function)

2. Ramp Input Signal (Velocity Functions):

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1.9 Steady State Error

The general transfer function of the given figure is

signal r(t) is,

1+ G(S) H(S) G(S)H(S)

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Type and order of a system

Case 1: Input is unit step

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is called as Positional error constant and common in type -0 system

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1.10 Time domain specifications

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2) Rise time :- (tr)

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4) Maximum over shoot :- (MP)