Sean Gared S.

Luna

8 - Virgo

Complex Fractions
I sometimes refer to complex fractions as "stacked" fractions, because they tend to have fractions stacked on
top of each other, like this:
Simplify the following expression:

This fraction is formed of two fractional expressions, one on top of the other. There are two methods for
simplifying complex fractions. The first method is fairly obvious: find common denominatorsfor the
complex numerator and complex denominator, convert the complex numerator and complex
denominator to their respective common denominators, combine everything in the complex numerator
and in the complex denominator into single fractions, and then, once you've got one fraction (in the
complex numerator) divided by another fraction (in the complex denominator), you flip-n-multiply.
(Remember that, when you are dividing by a fraction, you flip the fraction and turn the division into
multiplication.)
This method looks like this:

Nothing cancels at this point, so this is the final answer.

(The "for x not equal to zero" part is because, in the original expression, "x = 0" would have caused
division by zero in the complex fraction. Depending on your book and instructor, you may not need
to account for this technicality . If you're not sure, ask now, before the test.)
The other method is to find one common denominator for all the fractions in the expression, and then
multiply both the complex numerator and complex denominator by this expression. Then simplify.
This method looks like this:

Then the final answer is:

By multiplying through, top and bottom, by the same thing, I was really just multiplying by 1. This is similar to
multiplying the fraction 1/2 by 2/2 to convert it to 2/4. In my experience, books and teachers often use the first
method, but students generally prefer the second method. When I was in school, I was taught the first method.
As soon as I encountered the second method, I switched to it. In the remaining examples, I will demonstrate
this second method, but you can use either method you prefer.
(If your text or instructor requires that you find the restrictions on the domains [the "x not equal to zero" part in
the above example], you might find it helpful to use the "flip-n-multiply" method covered first, since this will give
you the full fraction form of the denominator at some point in the computations.)
Simplify the following expression:

Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2003-2011 All Rights Reserved

Can I start by hacking off the x's? Or lopping off the 3's? (Hint: No!) I can only cancel off factors, not
terms, so I can't do any canceling yet. The first thing I'll do is find the LCM for this expression.
The LCM (Least Common
Multiple, or, for us older types,
the LCD, Lowest Common
Denominator) of the given
denominators within this
complex fraction is (x 1)(x +
4), so I'll multiply through, top
and bottom, by this
expression:

(If you're not sure how I

multiplied those factors to get
the cubic results, review this
lesson on multiplying
polynomials.)

Can I now cancel off the x3's? Or cancel the 6's into the 12? Can I go inside the adding and rip out parts
of some of the terms? (Hint: No!) Nothing cancels, so this is the final answer:

Simplify the following expression:

Can I start by hacking off the x 3's? Can I cancel the 4 with the 12? Or the 3with the 9 or the 12?
(Hint: No!)
The common denominator for this
complex fraction would be x 3, so I'll
multiply through, top and bottom, by
that.

Clearly, nothing cancels, so my final answer is:

It is highly unusual for a complex fraction to simplify this much, but it can happen. In this case, the "except
for x equal to 3" part is rather important, since the original fraction is not always equal to 3/4. Indeed, it is not
even defined for x equal to 3 (since this would cause division by zero).
Simplify the following expression:

Can I start off by canceling like

this:

DON'T DO THIS!

I can only cancel factors, not terms, so the above cancellations are not proper.
The first thing I need to do is
multiply through, top and bottom,
by the common denominator of xy.

Then my final answer is:

Simplify the following expression:

Can I start by canceling off the 1's or the 1/t's? (Hint: No!)
I'll multiply through, top and
bottom, by the common
denominator of t.

Can I cancel off the t's now? Or cancel off the 1's? (Hint: No!) I can only cancel off factors, not terms,
and nothing factors here, so this is as simplified as it gets. The final answer is:

When working with complex fractions, be careful to show each step completely. Don't try to skip steps or do
everything in your head. And don't get careless with cancellation; remember that you can only cancel factors,
not terms. If you remember this, and do your work clearly, you should be fairly successful with these problems.

Sean Gared S. Luna

8 - Virgo

How is heat transferred?

Heat can travel from one place to another in three ways: Conduction, Convection and Radiation. Both
conduction and convection require matter to transfer heat.
If there is a temperature difference between two systems heat will always find a way to transfer from the higher
to lower system.
CONDUCTION-Conduction is the transfer of heat between substances that are in direct contact with each other. The better the
conductor, the more rapidly heat will be transferred. Metal is a good conduction of heat. Conduction occurs
when a substance is heated, particles will gain more energy, and vibrate more. These molecules then bump
into nearby particles and transfer some of their energy to them. This then continues and passes the energy
from the hot end down to the colder end of the substance.
CONVECTION-Thermal energy is transferred from hot places to cold places by convection. Convection occurs when warmer
areas of a liquid or gas rise to cooler areas in the liquid or gas. Cooler liquid or gas then takes the place of the
warmer areas which have risen higher. This results in a continous circulation pattern. Water boiling in a pan is
a good example of these convection currents. Another good example of convection is in the atmosphere. The
earth's surface is warmed by the sun, the warm air rises and cool air moves in.
RADIATION-Radiation is a method of heat transfer that does not rely upon any contact between the heat source and the
heated object as is the case with conduction and convection. Heat can be transmitted though empty space by
thermal radiation often called infrared radiation. This is a type electromagnetic radiation . No mass is
exchanged and no medium is required in the process of radiation. Examples of radiation is the heat from the
sun, or heat released from the filament of a light bulb
Heat Transfer - Conduction, Convection, and Radiation
Heat transfer is the physical act of thermal energy being exchanged between two systems by dissipating heat.
Temperature and the flow of heat are the basic principles of heat transfer. The amount of thermal energy
available is determined by the temperature, and the heat flow represents movement of thermal energy.
On a microscopic scale, the kinetic energy of molecules is the direct relation to thermal energy. As temperature
rises, the molecules increase in thermal agitation manifested in linear motion and vibration. Regions that
contain higher kinetic energy transfer the energy to regions with lower kinetic energy. Simply put, heat transfer
can be grouped into three broad categories: conduction, convection, and radiation.

The image above, provided by NASA, highlights how all three heat-transfer methods (conduction,
convection, and radiation) work in the same environment.
Conduction
Conduction transfers heat via direct molecular collision. An area of greater kinetic energy will transfer thermal
energy to an area with lower kinetic energy. Higher-speed particles will collide with slower speed particles. The
slower-speed particles will increase in kinetic energy as a result. Conduction is the most common form of heat
transfer and occurs via physical contact. Examples would be to place your hand against a window or place
metal into an open flame.

The process of heat conduction depends on the following factors: temperature gradient, cross-section of the
material, length of the travel path, and physical material properties. The temperature gradient is the physical
quantity that describes the direction and rate of heat travel. Temperature flow will always occur from hottest to
coldest or, as stated before, higher to lower kinetic energy. Once theres thermal equilibrium between the two
temperature differences, the thermal transfer stops.
Cross-section and path of travel both play an important part in conduction. The greater the size and length of
an object, the more energy thats required to heat it. And the greater the surface area thats exposed, the more
heat is lost. Smaller objects with small cross-sections have minimal heat loss.
Physical properties determine which materials transfer heat better than others. Specifically, the thermal
conductivity coefficient dictates that a metal material will conduct heat better than cloth when it comes to
conduction. The following equation calculates the rate of conduction:
Q = [k A (Thot Tcold)]/d
where Q = heat transferred per unit time; k = thermal conductivity of the barrier; A = heat-transfer area; Thot =
temperature of the hot region; Tcold = temperature of the cold region; and d = thickness of the barrier.

A modern of use of conduction is being developed by Dr. Gyung-Min Choi at the University of Illinois.
Dr. Choi uses spin current to generate spin transfer torque. Spin transfer torque is the transfer of the
spin angular momentum generated by the conduction electrons to the magnetization of a ferromagnet.
Instead of using magnetic fields, this allows the manipulation of nanomagnets with spin currents.
(Courtesy of Alex Jerez, Imaging Technology Group, The Beckman Institute)
Convection
When a fluid, such as air or a liquid, is heated and then travels away from the source, it carries the thermal
energy along. This type of heat transfer is called convection. The fluid above a hot surface expands, becomes
less dense, and rises.
At the molecular level, the molecules expand upon introduction of thermal energy. As temperature of the given
fluid mass increases, the volume of the fluid must increase by same factor. This effect on the fluid causes
displacement. As the immediate hot air rises, it pushes denser, colder air down. This series of events
represents how convection currents are formed. The equation for convection rates is calculated as follows:
Q = hc A (Ts Tf)
where Q = heat transferred per unit time; hc = convective heat transfer coefficient; A = heat-transfer area of the
surface; Ts = temperature of the surface; and Tf = temperature of the fluid.

space heater is a classic convection example. As the space

heater heats the air surrounding it near the floor, the air will
increase in temperature, expand, and rise to the top of the room.
This forces down the cooler air so that it becomes heated, thus
creating a convection current.
Radiation
Thermal radiation generates from the emission of electromagnetic
waves. These waves carry the energy away from the emitting
object. Radiation occurs through a vacuum or any transparent
medium (either solid or fluid). Thermal radiation is the direct result of
random movements of atoms and molecules in matter. Movement of
the charged protons and electrons results in the emission of
electromagnetic radiation.
All materials radiate thermal energy based on their temperature.
The hotter an object, the more it will radiate. The sun is a clear
example of heat radiation that transfers heat across the solar system.
At normal room temperatures, objects radiate as infrared waves.
The temperature of the object affects the wavelength and

frequency of the radiated

of the emitted radiation

waves. As temperature increases, the wavelengths within the spectra

decrease and emit shorter wavelengths with higher-frequency

radiation. Thermal radiation is calculated by using the Stefan-Boltzmann law:

P = e A (Tr4 Tc4)
where P = net radiated power; A = radiating area; Tr = temperature of the radiator; Tc = temperature of
surroundings; e = emissivity; and = Stefans constant.
Emissivity for an ideal radiator has a value of 1. Common materials have lower emissivity values. Anodized
aluminum has an emissivity value of 0.9 while coppers is 0.04.

Solar panels harness the thermal radiation from the sun to create usable and renewable energy.
Efficiency of solar panels has risen in recent years. In fact, those currently being produced by
SolarCity, a company co-founded by Elon Musk, are at 22%.
Emissivity is defined as an objects effectiveness in emitting energy as thermal radiation. It is the ratio, at a
given temperature, of the thermal radiation from a surface to the radiation from an ideal black surface as
determined by the Stefan-Boltzmann law. Stefans constant is determined by constants of nature. The value of
the constant is as follows:
= (2 5 k4)/(15 c2 h3) = 5.670373 108 W m2 K4
where k = Boltzmanns constant; h = Plancks constants; and c = speed of light in a vacuum.