What is Steam?

Contents:
1.

How steam works

2.

Dry Steam vs. Wet Steam

3.

Steam as a Source of Power

4.

Steam as a Source of Heat

a.

Direct Steam Heating

b.

Indirect Steam Heating

Steam is the gas formed when water passes from the liquid to the gaseous state. At
the molecular level, this is when H2O molecules manage to break free from the
bonds (i.e. hydrogen bonds) keeping them together.

How steam works

In liquid water, H2O molecules are constantly being joined together and separated.
As the water molecules are heated, however, the bonds connecting the molecules
start breaking more rapidly than they can form. Eventually, when enough heat is
supplied, some molecules will break free. These 'free' molecules form the
transparent gas we know as steam, or more specifically dry steam.

Dry Steam vs. Wet Steam

In steam-using industries, two commonly referred to types of steam are dry steam
(also called saturated steam) and wet steam.
Dry steam applies to steam when all its water molecules remain in the
gaseous state. It's a transparent gas.
Wet steam applies to steam when a portion of its water molecules have
given up their energy (latent heat) and condense to form tiny water droplets.
Take the example of a kettle boiling water. Water is first heated using an element.
As water absorbs more and more heat from the element, its molecules become
more agitated and it starts to boil. Once enough energy is absorbed, part of the
water vaporizes, which can represent an increase as much as 1600X in molecular
volume.
Sometimes a mist can be seen coming out of the spout. This mist is an example of
how dry steam, when released into the colder atmosphere, loses some of its energy
by transferring it to the ambient air. If enough energy is lost that intermolecular
bonds start forming again, tiny airborne droplets can be seen. This mixture of water
in the liquid state (tiny droplets) and gaseous state (steam) is called wet steam.

For more information about the nature and various types of steam, read the
following article on thetypes of steam.

Steam as a Source of Power

Steam played a vital role in the industrial revolution. The modernization of the
steam engine in the early 18th century led to major breakthroughs such as the
invention of the steam locomotive and the steamboat, not to mention the steam
furnace and the steam hammer. The latter is not a reference to water
hammer found in steam piping, but rather to a steam-powered hammer used to
shape forgings.
Nowadays, however, internal combustion engines and electricity have often
replaced steam as a power source. Even so, steam is still being widely used in
electrical power plants and for some large scale industrial applications.

Steam as a Source of Heat

Steam is now mostly known for its heating applications, as both a source of direct
and indirect heat.

Direct Steam Heating

The direct steam heating method refers to processes where steam is in direct
contact with the product being heated.
The example below shows Chinese dumplings being steamed. A steaming basket is
placed over a pot of boiling water. As the water boils, steam rises into the basket
and cooks the food. In this setup, the boiler (pot) and steaming vessel (basket) are
combined together.

The principle behind steaming food is that by allowing steam to come in direct
contact with the product being heated, the latent heat of steam can be directly
transferred to the food, and the water droplets formed through condensation can
supply moisture.
In industry, the direct steam heating method is often used for cooking, sterilization,
steam smothering, vulcanization and other processes.

Indirect Steam Heating

The indirect steam heating method refers to processes where steam is not in direct
contact with the product being heated. It is widely used in industry because it
provides rapid, even heating. This method often uses a heat exchanger to heat the
product.

The advantage of this method over direct steam heating is that the water droplets
formed during heating will not affect the product. Steam can therefore be used in a
variety of applications such as for melting, drying, boiling and the like.
Indirect steam heating is used in a wide range of processes such as those for the
production of foods and beverages, tires, paper, cardboard, fuels such as gasoline
and medicine to name a few.
For greater details on the usage of steam in industry, read the following article on
the principal applications for steam.

Principal Applications for Steam

Contents:
1.

Steam for Heating

a.

Positive Pressure Steam

b.

Vacuum Steam

2.

Steam for Propulsion/Drive

3.

Steam as Motive Fluid

4.

Steam for Atomization

5.

Steam for Cleaning

6.

Steam for Moisturization

7.

Steam for Humidification

Steam is used in a wide range of industries. Common applications for steam are, for
example, steam heated processes in plants and factories and steam driven turbines
in electric power plants, but the uses of steam in industry extend far beyond this.
Here are some typical applications for steam in industry:

Heating/Sterilization
Propulsion/Drive
Motive
Atomization
Cleaning
Moisturization
Humidification
In the sections that follow, we will discuss various types of applications for steam,
and provide some examples of steam-using equipment to illustrate them.

Steam for Heating

Positive Pressure Steam

Steam is typically generated and distributed at a positive pressure. In most cases,

this means that it is supplied to equipment at pressures above 0 MPaG (0 psig) and
temperatures higher than 100C (212F).
Heating applications for positive pressure steam can be found in food processing
factories, refineries, and chemical plants to name a few. Saturated steam is used as
the heating source for process fluid heat exchangers, reboilers, reactors,
combustion air preheaters, and other types of heat transfer equipment.
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

In a heat exchanger, steam raises the temperature of the product by heat transfer,
after which it turns into condensate and is discharged through a steam trap.
Steam Oven

Superheated steam heated to 200 800C (392 - 1472F) at atmospheric pressure

is particularly easy to handle, and is used in the household steam ovens seen on the
market today.

Vacuum Steam
The use of steam for heating at temperatures below 100C (212F), traditionally the
temperature range in which hot water is used, has grown rapidly in recent years.
When vacuum saturated steam is used in the same manner as positive pressure
saturated steam, the temperature of the steam can be quickly changed by adjusting
the pressure, making it possible to achieve precise temperature control unlike
applications using hot water. However, a vacuum pump must be used in conjunction
with the equipment, because merely reducing the pressure will not drop it to below
atmospheric pressure.
Heating with Latent (Steam) Heat

Compared with a hot water heating system, this system offers fast, even heating.
The set temperature is rapidly reached without causing unevenness in temperature.

Steam for Propulsion/Drive

Steam is regularly used for propulsion (as a driving force) in applications such as
steam turbines. The steam turbine is a piece of equipment that is essential for the
generation of electricity in thermal electric power plants. In an effort to improve
efficiency, progress is being made toward the use of steam at ever-higher pressures
and temperatures. There are some thermal electric power plants that use 25 MPa
abs (3625 psia), 610C (1130F) superheated, supercritical pressure steam in their
turbines.
Superheated steam is often used in steam turbines to prevent damage to
equipment caused by the inflow of condensate. In certain types of nuclear power
plants, however, the use of high temperature steam must be avoided, as it would
cause problems with the material used in the turbine equipment. Instead, high
pressure saturated steam is typically used. Where saturated steam must be used,
separators are often installed in the supply piping to remove entrained condensate
from the steam flow.
Besides power generation, other typical propulsion/drive applications are usually for
either turbine-driven compressors or pumps, ex. gas compressors, cooling tower
pumps, etc.
Generator Turbine

The driving force from the steam causes the fins to turn, which then causes the
rotor on the attached power generator to rotate, and this rotation generates
electricity.

Steam as Motive Fluid

Steam can also be used as a direct motive force to move liquid and gas streams
in piping. Steam jet ejectors are used to pull vacuum on process equipment such as
distillation towers to separate and purify process vapor streams. They are also used
for continuous removal of air from surface condensers, in order to maintain desired
vacuum pressure on condensing (vacuum) turbines.
Ejector for Surface Condenser

High pressure motive steam enters the jet ejector through the inlet nozzle and is
then diffused. This creates a low pressure zone which entrains air from the surface
condenser.
In a similar type of application, steam is also the primary motive fluid for secondary
pressure drainers, which are used for pumping condensate from vented receiver
tanks, flash vessels, or steam equipment that experiences stall conditions.

Steam for Atomization

Steam atomization is a process where steam is used to mechanically separate a
fluid. In some burners, for example, steam is injected into the fuel in order to
maximize combustion efficiency and minimize the production of hydrocarbons
(soot). Steam boilers and generators that use fuel oil will use this method to break
up the viscous oil into smaller droplets to allow for more efficient combustion. Flares
also commonly use steam atomization to reduce pollutants in the exhaust.
Steam Assisted Flare

In flares, steam is often mixed in with the waste gas before combustion.

Steam for Cleaning

Steam is used to clean a wide range of surfaces. One such example from industry is
the use of steam in soot blowers. Boilers that use oil or coal as the fuel source must
be equipped with soot blowers for cyclic cleaning of the furnace walls and removing
combusted deposits from convection surfaces to maintain boiler capacity,
efficiency, and reliability.
Boiler Tube Cleaning with Soot Blower
Steam released out of the soot blower nozzle dislodges the dry or sintered ash and
slag, which then fall into hoppers or are carried out with the combusted gasses.

Steam for Moisturization

Steam is sometimes used to add moisture to a process while at the same time
supplying heat. For example, steam is used for moisturization in the production of
paper, so that paper moving over rolls at high speed does not suffer microscopic
breaks or tears. Another example is pellet mills. Often mills that produce animal
feed in pellet form use direct-injected steam to both heat and provide additional
water content to the feed material in the conditioner section of the mill.

Pellet Mill Conditioner

The moisturizing of the feed softens the feed and partially gelatinizes the starch
content of the ingredients, resulting in firmer pellets.

Steam for Humidification

Many large commercial and industrial facilities, especially in colder climates, use
low pressure saturated steam as the predominant heat source for indoor seasonal
heating. HVAC coils, often combined with steam humidifiers, are the equipment
used for conditioning the air for indoor comfort, preservation of books and records,
and infection control. When the cold air is heated by the steam coils, the relative
humidity of the air drops, and it must then be adjusted to normal levels with
addition of a controlled injection of dry saturated steam into the downstream air
flow.
Steam Humidifier in Air Duct

Steam is used to humidify air within an air duct before the air is distributed to other
regions of a building.

Types of Steam
Contents:
1.

Pressure-Temperature Relationship of Water & Steam

2.

Saturated Steam (Dry)

a.

Advantages of using saturated steam for heating

3.

Unsaturated Steam (Wet)

4.

Superheated Steam

a.

Advantages of using superheated steam to drive turbines:

b.

Disadvantages of using superheated steam for heating:

5.

Supercritical Water

6.

Various States of Water

If water is heated beyond the boiling point, it vaporizes into steam, or water in the
gaseous state. However, not all steam is the same. The properties of steam vary
greatly depending on the pressure and temperature to which it is subject.
In the article Principal Applications for Steam, we discussed several applications in
which steam is used. In the sections that follow, we will discuss the types of steam
used in these applications.

Pressure-Temperature Relationship of Water & Steam

Click on a word to view animation.

Saturated (dry) steam results when water is heated to the boiling point (sensible
heating) and then vaporized with additional heat (latent heating). If this steam is
then further heated above the saturation point, it becomes superheated steam
(sensible heating).

Saturated Steam (Dry)

As indicated by the black line in the above graph, saturated steam occurs at
temperatures and pressures where steam (gas) and water (liquid) can coexist. In
other words, it occurs when the rate of water vaporization is equal to the rate of
condensation.

Advantages of using saturated steam for heating

Saturated steam has many properties that make it an excellent heat source,
particularly at temperatures of 100 C (212F) and higher. Some of these are:

Property
Rapid, even heating through
latent heat transfer
Pressure can control
temperature

High heat transfer coefficient

Originates from water

Advantage
Improved product quality and productivity
Temperature can be quickly and precisely
established

Smaller required heat transfer surface area, enabling

reduced initial equipment outlay
Safe, clean, and low-cost

Tips

Having said this, it is necessary to be mindful of the following when heating with
saturated steam:
Heating efficiency may be diminished if steam other than dry steam is used
for process heating. Contrary to common perception, virtually all of the steam
generated from a boiler is not dry saturated steam, but wet steam, which contains
some non-vaporized water molecules.
Radiant heat loss causes some of the steam to condense. The generated wet
steam thus becomes even more wet, and condensate also forms, which must be
removed by installing steam traps at appropriate locations.
Heavy condensate that falls out of the steam flow can be removed through
drip leg steam traps. However, the entrained wet steam will reduce heating
efficiency, and should be removed through point-of-use or distribution separation
stations
Steam that incurs pressure losses due to piping friction, etc., may result a
corresponding loss in steam temperature as well

Unsaturated Steam (Wet)

This is the most common form of steam actually experienced by most plants. When
steam is generated using a boiler, it usually contains wetness from non-vaporized
water molecules that are carried over into the distributed steam. Even the best
boilers may discharge steam containing 3% to 5% wetness. As the water
approaches the saturation state and begins to vaporize, some water, usually in the
form of mist or droplets, is entrained in the rising steam and distributed
downstream. This is one of the key reasons why separation is used to dis-entrain
condensate from distributed steam.

Superheated Steam
Superheated steam is created by further heating wet or saturated steam beyond
the saturated steam point. This yields steam that has a higher temperature and
lower density than saturated steam at the same pressure. Superheated steam is
mainly used in propulsion/drive applications such as turbines, and is not typically
used for heat transfer applications.

Advantages of using superheated steam to drive turbines:

To maintain the dryness of the steam for steam-driven equipment, whose

performance is impaired by the presence of condensate
To improve thermal efficiency and work capability, e.g. to achieve larger
changes in specific volume from the superheated state to lower pressures, even
vacuum.
It is advantageous to both supply and discharge the steam while in the superheated
state because condensate will not be generated inside steam-driven equipment
during normal operation, minimizing the risk of damage from erosion or carbonic
acid corrosion. In addition, as the theoretical thermal efficiency of the turbine is
calculated from the value of the enthalpy at the turbine inlet and outlet, increasing

the degree of superheating as well as the pressure raises the enthalpy at the
turbine inlet side, and is thereby effective at improving thermal efficiency.

Disadvantages of using superheated steam for heating:

Property

Disadvantage

Low heat transfer

Reduced productivity

coefficient

Larger heat transfer surface area needed

Variable steam

Superheated steam needs to maintain a high velocity,

constant pressure

the system

Sensible heat used to

Temperature drops can have a negative impact on

Temperature may be

Stronger materials of construction may be needed,

extremely high

requiring higher initial equipment outlay

temperature even at

transfer heat

otherwise the temperature will drop as heat is lost from

product quality

For these reasons and others, saturated steam is preferred over superheated steam
as the heating medium in exchangers and other heat transfer equipment. On the
other hand, when viewed as a heat source for direct heating as a high temperature
gas, it has an advantage over hot air in that it can be used as a heat source for
heating under oxygen-free conditions. Research is also being carried out on the use
of superheated steam in food processing applications such as cooking and drying.

Supercritical Water
Supercritical water is water in a state that exceeds its critical point: 22.1MPa, 374 C
(3208 psia, 705F). At the critical point, the latent heat of steam is zero, and its
specific volume is exactly the same whether considered liquid or gaseous. In other
words, water that is at a higher pressure and temperature than the critical point is
in an indistinguishable state that is neither liquid nor gas.
Supercritical water is used to drive turbines in power plants which demand higher
efficiency. Research on supercritical water is being performed with an emphasis on
its use as a fluid that has the properties of both a liquid and a gas, and in particular
on its suitability as a solvent for chemical reactions.

Various States of Water

Unsaturated Water

This is water in its most recognizable state. Approximately 70% of the weight of the
human body is from water. In water's liquid form, hydrogen bonding pulls water
molecules together. As a result, unsaturated water has a relatively compact, dense,
and stable structure.
Saturated Steam

Saturated steam molecules are invisible. When saturated steam is released to the
atmosphere by being vented from piping, part of it condenses by transferring its
heat to the surrounding air, and clouds of white vapor (tiny droplets of water) are
formed. When steam includes these tiny droplets, it is called wet steam.
In a steam system, steam released from steam traps is often misinterpreted to be
saturated (live) steam, while it is in fact flash steam. The difference between the
two is that saturated steam is invisible immediately at the outlet of the pipe
whereas flash steam contains visible water droplets the instant it is formed.
Superheated Steam

As long as it retains its superheated state, superheated steam will not condense
even if it comes into contact with the atmosphere and its temperature drops. As a
result, no clouds of vapor are formed. Superheated steam stores more heat than
does saturated steam at the same pressure, and the movement of its molecules is
more rapid so it is has lower density (i.e., its specific volume is greater).
Supercritical Water

Though it is not possible to tell by visual observation, this is water in a form that is
neither liquid nor gaseous. The general idea is of a molecular movement that is
close to that of gas, and a density that is closer to that of a liquid.

Flash Steam
Contents:
1.
a.

What causes Flash Steam?

Additional Note

2.

Calculating the % Flash Steam Generated

3.

Volume of Flash Steam generated

a.

Calculating Flash to Condensate Ratio (Metric)

b.

Calculating Flash to Condensate Ratio (Imperial)

4.

What to Do With Flash Steam?

Flash steam is a name given to the steam formed from hot condensate when the pressure is
reduced.
Flash steam is no different from normal steam, it is just a convenient name used to explain how
the steam is formed. Normal or live steam is produced at a boiler, steam generator, or waste
heat recovery generator whereas flash steam occurs when high pressure / high temperature
condensate is exposed to a large pressure drop such as when exiting a steam trap.
High temperature condensate contains an excess of energy which prevents it from remaining in
liquid form at a lower pressure. The result is that the excess energy causes a percentage of the
condensate to flash.

Flash Evaporation During Condensate Discharge

Condensate discharged out of the orifice of a trap partially evaporates (flash evaporation) due to
the pressure difference (illustration).

What causes Flash Steam?

Flash steam occurs because the saturation point of water varies according to pressure. For
example, the saturation point of water is 100 C (212 F) at atmospheric pressure, but is 184 C
(323 F) at 1.0 MPaG (145 psig).
So what happens when condensate kept under pressure at 184 C (363 F) is released to
atmosphere? The condensate contains too much energy (enthalpy) to remain entirely liquid, and
a portion of it evaporates, causing the temperature of the remaining condensate to drop to the
saturation temperature (i.e., 100 C or 212 F if discharging to atmosphere). This phenomenon is
known as flash evaporation.
In other words, when hot condensate is discharged into a lower pressure environment, its
enthalpy (total energy) remains the same, but its saturation point drops (the temperature at which
condensate can exist in both the liquid and gaseous state). To compensate for the excess amount
of energy, part of the water molecules absorb the excess energy as latent heat and evaporate to
form steam.
Additional Note
One of the first things that come to mind when visualizing flash steam are the steam clouds that
can appear outside a non-sub-cooling trap releasing to atmosphere. These steam clouds can often
be misinterpreted as a live steam leak when in fact they are simply comprised of flashed
condensate with fine water droplets in suspension, caused by the flashing of hot condensate
being released to atmosphere.
For a more detailed explanation, please read the article: Is My Trap Leaking Live Steam?.

Calculating the % Flash Steam Generated

The % of flash steam generated (flash steam ratio) can be calculated from:

where:
hf1 = Specific Enthalpy of Saturated Water at Inlet *
hf2 = Specific Enthalpy of Saturated Water at Outlet
hfg2 = Latent Heat of Saturated Steam at Outlet

In traps designed to have a significant amount of sub-cooling of the condensate before

discharge, the sensible heat of condensate at the trap inlet can be significantly lower than when
estimated using inlet pressure saturated steam values.
*

As seen in the below examples, a higher % of flash steam is generated when condensate is
discharged to atmosphere (example 1) compared to when it is discharged into a closed return
system (example 2):

SI Units

Imperial Units

Tip
Use TLV's online Engineering Calculator for quick and accurate
calculation of:
Flash Steam Generated by Hot Condensate.
Access Now

Volume of Flash Steam generated

Steam is much less dense than water, which means that a small increase in the percentage of
flash steam generated can appear as a large increase in volume of steam generated. The
animation below shows the difference in ratio of steam to condensate for examples 1 and 2 (see
above) when applied to condensate return piping.

Flash Steam in Condensate Recovery Piping

The greater the pressure difference, the larger the amount of flash steam generated at discharge.

To understand with great detail, the specific volume of condensate at 100 C (212 F) is 0.00104
m3/kg (0.0167 ft3/lb), and the specific volume of atmospheric steam is 1.67 m3/kg (26.8 ft3/lb).
When high temperature condensate at 1.0 MPaG (145 psig) is discharged to lower pressure such
as atmosphere, 16.1% by mass of that condensate flashes into steam. The resulting volumetric
ratio can be contrasted as follows:
Calculating Flash to Condensate Ratio (Metric)

Condensate Volume: (1 - 16.1%) x 0.00104 m3/kg = 0.000873 m3/kg

Steam Volume: 16.1% x 1.67 m3/kg = 0.269 m3/kg

Flash to Condensate Ratio: 0.269 m3/kg / 0.000873 m3/kg = 308:1

Calculating Flash to Condensate Ratio (Imperial)

Condensate Volume: (1 - 16.1%) x 0.0167 ft3/lb = 0.0140 ft3/lb

Steam Volume: 16.1% x 26.8 ft3/lb = 4.31 ft3/lb
Flash to Condensate Ratio: 4.31 ft3/lb / 0.0140 ft3/lb = 308:1

What to Do With Flash Steam?

The vapor cloud formed by flash steam is a natural by-product of condensate discharge. Since
flash steam is of the same quality as live steam, modern facilities often try to reuse significant
amounts of flash steam whenever possible.
Reusing flash steam generated by a higher pressure system for use in a lower pressure system
can enable considerable energy savings in addition to improving a plant's working environment
by reducing vapor clouds. When trying to implement a waste heat management system,
condensate recovery systems and flash steam recovery systems are often evaluated together as a
pair.

Example of Flash Steam Recovery System

Flash steam from a high pressure system is recovered into a flash tank and reused as steam in a
low pressure system.

How to Read a Steam Table

Contents:
1.

Saturated Steam Tables

2.

Two Formats: Pressure Based and Temperature Based

3.

Different Units: Gauge Pressure and Absolute Pressure

4.

Superheated Steam Tables

Just as a map (or GPS navigation system) is necessary when driving in a new area or
a flight timetable is indispensable when taking the plane, steam tables are essential
to steam users in industry. This article will introduce steam tables, pointing out the
different types and offering an overview of the different elements found within
them.

Saturated Steam Tables

A saturated steam table is an indispensable tool for any engineer working with
steam. It's typically used to determine saturated steam temperature from steam
pressure, or the opposite: pressure from saturated steam temperature. In addition
to pressure and temperature, these tables usually include other related values such
as specific enthalpy (h) and specific volume (v).
The data found in a saturated steam table always refers to steam at a particular
saturation point, also known as the boiling point. This is the point where water
(liquid) and steam (gas) can coexist at the same temperature and pressure.
Because H2O can be either liquid or gas at its saturation point, two sets of data are
required: data for saturated water (liquid), which is typically marked with an "f" in
subscript, and data for saturated steam (gas), which is typically marked using a "g"
in subscript.

Example of Saturated Steam Table

Legend:

P = Pressure of the steam/water

T = Saturation point of steam/water (boiling point)
vf = Specific volume of saturated water (liquid).
vg = Specific volume of saturated steam (gas).

hf = Specific enthalpy of saturated water (energy required to heat water from 0C (32F)
to the boiling point)
hfg = Latent heat of evaporation (energy required to transform saturated water into dry
saturated steam)
hg = Specific enthalpy of saturated steam (total energy required to generate steam from
water at 0C (32F)).

Source: 1999 JSME Steam Tables

Heating processes using steam generally use the latent heat of evaporation (H fg) to
heat the product. As seen in the table, this latent heat of evaporation is greatest at
lower pressures. As saturated steam pressure rises, the latent heat of evaporation
gradually decreases until it reaches 0 at supercritical pressure, i.e. 22.06 mPa (3200
psi).

Tip
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Access them here:

Saturated Steam Table by Pressure

Saturated Steam Table by Temperature
Superheated Steam Table

Two Formats: Pressure Based and Temperature Based

Since saturated steam pressure and saturated steam temperature are directly
related to one another, saturated steam tables are generally available in two
different formats: based on pressure and based on temperature. Both types contain
the same data that is simply sorted differently.
Pressure Based Saturated Steam Table
P R E SS .
(GAUGE)

T E M P.

SP E C IF IC VO LUM E

SPECIFIC ENTHALPY

k Pa G

m3/kg

kJ/kg

Vf

Vg

Hf

Hfg

Hg

99.97

0.0010434

1.673

419.0

2257

2676

20

105.10

0.0010475

1.414

440.6

2243

2684

50

111.61

0.0010529

1.150

468.2

2225

2694

100

120.42

0.0010607

0.8803

505.6

2201

2707

Temperature Based Saturated Steam Table

T E M P.

P R E SS .
(GAUGE)

SP E C IF IC VO LUM E

SPECIFIC ENTHALPY

k Pa G

m3/kg

kJ/kg

Vf

Vg

Hf

Hfg

Hg

100

0.093

0.0010435

1.672

419.1

2256

2676

110

42.051

0.0010516

1.209

461.4

2230

2691

120

97.340

0.0010603

0.8913

503.8

2202

2706

130

168.93

0.0010697

0.6681

546.4

2174

2720

140

260.18

0.0010798

0.5085

589.2

2144

2733

150

374.78

0.0010905

0.39250

632.3

2114

2746

Different Units: Gauge Pressure and Absolute Pressure

Saturated steam tables can also use two different types of pressure: absolute
pressure and gauge pressure.

Absolute pressure is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum.

Gauge pressure is zero-referenced against atmospheric pressure (101.3 kPa,
or 14.7 psi).
Saturated Steam Table using Absolute Pressure
P R E SS
(ABS.)

T E M P.

SP E C IF IC VO LUM E

SPECIFIC ENTHALPY

k Pa

m3/kg

kJ/kg

Vf

Vg

Hf

Hfg

Hg

--

--

--

--

--

--

20

60.06

0.0010103

7.648

251.4

2358

2609

50

81.32

0.0010299

3.240

340.5

2305

2645

100

99.61

0.0010432

1.694

417.4

2258

2675

Saturated Steam Table using Gauge Pressure

P R E SS .
(GAUGE)

T E M P.

SP E C IF IC VO LUM E

SPECIFIC ENTHALPY

k Pa G

m3/kg

kJ/kg

Vf

Vg

Hf

Hfg

Hg

99.97

0.0010434

1.673

419.0

2257

2676

20

105.10

0.0010475

1.414

440.6

2243

2684

50

111.61

0.0010529

1.150

468.2

2225

2694

100

120.42

0.0010607

0.8803

505.6

2201

2707

Gauge pressure was created because it is often easier to reference measured

pressure against the pressure we normally experience.
Steam tables based on gauge pressure indicate atmospheric pressure as 0, while
steam tables based on absolute pressure indicate it as 101.3 kPa (14.7 psi). Also, to
distinguish gauge pressure from absolute pressure, a "g" is typically added to the
end of the pressure unit, for example kPaG or psig.
Converting Gauge Units to Absolute Units
For SI Units
Steam Pressure [kPa abs] = Steam Pressure [kPaG] + 101.3 kPa
For Imperial Units
Steam Pressure [psi abs] = Steam Pressure [psiG] + 14.7 psi

Important note: Problems can easily occur when absolute pressure is mistaken for
gauge pressure (or vice versa), so it is always extremely important to pay close
attention to the pressure units used in the table.
Summary Table
Gauge pressure:

Zero-referenced against Atmospheric Pressure*

Zero pressure = Atmospheric Pressure
Absolute pressure:

Zero-referenced against Absolute Pressure

Zero pressure = Perfect Vacuum

*
Atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa (14.7 psi)

Superheated Steam Tables

Values related to superheated steam cannot be obtained through a regular
saturated steam table, but rather require the use of a Superheated Steam Table.
This is because the temperature of superheated steam, unlike saturated steam, can
vary considerably for a same pressure.
In fact, the number of possible temperature-pressure combinations is so great that
it would be virtually impossible to gather them all in a single table. As a result, a
large number of superheated steam tables use representative pressure-temperature
values to form a summary table.

Example of Superheated Steam Table

The above superheated steam table contains data about Specific Volume (Vg), Specific Enthalpy
(Hg) and Specific Heat (Sg) at typical values of pressure and temperature.