Evernote Shared Notebook - 2

9/8/2016
Evernotesharednotebook:
AncientIndiaCulture
Friday,July42014,3:58PM
IndusValleyCivilization
Science&Technology
Astronomy
1.Theywereawareofdirectionsgiventheyhadtraderoutes,theirdeadwereburiedinNSdirections,theirtown
planningmadeuseofdirectionsetc.Sotheymusthaveusedastronomicalbodiestogaugedirection.
2.RecentlyobservatorieswereexcavatedfromLothalandDholavira.
MedicalScience
1.TheywereawareofsurgeryasevidenceofskullsurgeryhasbeenfoundfromKalibanganandLothal.
ChemicalScience
1.Theyuseddifferentcolorsontheirpots.
Mathematics
1.Weightsandmeasuresofspecificstandardswereused.
2.Thebrisktradeindicatessomeknowledgeofbasicmathematics.
Metallurgy
1.Bronzeworking+copper,gold,silverandtinworking.
CivilEngineering
1.Theyconstructedpublicbuildings,embankments,drains,usedburntbricks.
2.Theyknewthetechniqueofwaterproofing.
Arts&CraftsTechniques
1.Industry:Sealmaking,preciousstoneworking,beadmakingandterracottamakingwerequiteadvanced.
2.Agriculture:Theyusedtoploughtheirfieldswithwoodenploughsasisevidentfromterracottaploughfigurines
from Banwali. Plough furrows discovered in Kalibangan. They also had irrigation and water conduits
(underground in some areas) and small scale inundation canals (to lead the water where desired) have been
found.
Architecture(READFROMNCERTALSO)
Features
1.Used permanent material on a large scale: In villages mud bricks were used with stone being used in
foundationsanddrains.Incities,burntbrickswereused.InKutch,stoneswereusedonalargescale.
2.Planned: The bricks were laid in English bond style. The bricks had standard ratio. There is no correlation
betweenplanningandsizeofthesettlement.
3.Technicalknowhow:Theyknewthetechniqueofwaterproofing.Houseshadseparatebathroomsnearthewell
andthebathingareawasslopingtowardsthedrainandwaterproof.
4.Secular.
5.Housestructure:Housessizesdifferfromlargetosmallones.Peoplegenerallylivedinhouseswithacentral
courtyardandroomssurroundingit.Doorsandwindowsopenedinsidestreetsnotthemainstreet.Therewere
doublestoriedhousesandstaircasesaswell.Doorsweresometimespaintedorcarved.
Monuments
1.Citieswerefortified.Theyhadwelllaidoutroadsanddrains.
2.Greatbath,assemblyhall,granaries.
Pillars
1.RemainsofstonepillarshavebeenfoundfromDholavira.
Paintings
1.Theyusedtopainttheoutersideoftheirpotswithgeometricaldesigns,birds,animalsetc.Theoutersurfaceof
theirpotsusedtoberedonwhichpaintingsweremadeinblack.
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Sculpture
1.They made use of metal, alloys, stones and terracotta figurines. Terracotta masks and faience bangles were
alsomade.
2.The images were both secular and religious in nature. Examples are numerous terracotta figurines of mother
goddess,animalsetc.,thebeardedpriest,thebronzedancinggirl,theredtorsoetc.
Music&Dance
1.Thestatueofdancinggirlshowstheywereawareofmusicanddance.
2.Imagesofastringedmusicalinstrumenttoohavebeenfoundonsomepots.
Pottery
1.The pottery was blackonred ware where both inner and outer surfaces were red. On the outer red surface,
designsofbirds,animals,geometrywerepaintedinblackcolor.
2.Therimsofthepotsarestrongtohelpinliftingthemandmovingaround.Thebottomportionhasadditionalclay
aswell.
VedicAge
Science&Technology
Astronomy
1.Various astronomical bodies like sun, moon, jupiter, venus, mars, saturn are mentioned in Vedas but perhaps
theirastronomicalsignificancewasmissingandtheyweremoreforastrological/religioususe.
MedicalScience
1.ThesystemofAyurvedaemergedinthisage.
ChemicalScience
1.Theyknewfermentationtechniquesandmadesomaras.
2.Theyknewtanningofleather.
3.Theyuseddifferentcolorsonpots.
Mathematics
1.Firealtars.
Metallurgy
1.Techniqueofbronzemakingandlaterironmakingwerepresent.
1.Industry:Carpentryandchariotmakingwereadvancedprofessions.
Architecture
Monuments
1.Vedictextscontainreferencesofhugepalacesofkingsbutnosuchimposingstructureshavebeenfound.
2.Wood,mudbricksandthatchedroofswereused.
Stupas
1.ThetermstupahasbeenreferredtoinRigVedabutnotinthecontextasweknowit.Thetermthenreferredto
thefirecomingoutofthesacrificialaltar.
Paintings
1.They used to paint their pots. The outer surface of the pots was grey on which they painted floral and
geometricaldesigns.
2.Onthegreysurface,bluecolorwasusedtomakethedesigns.
Dance&Music
1.MusicwitnessedprogressintheformofthehymnsofSamVeda.
Pottery
1.PGWwasthedistinctivepottery.Itwascoarsewithmediumfabric.Theoutsidesurfacewasgreyonwhichblue
floralandgeometricaldesignsweremade.
PreMauryanAge
Science&Technology
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Astronomy
1.Astrologicalchartsetc.wereprepared.
MedicalScience
1.Taxilawasafamouscentreofmedicalscience.Aitrayawasafamousteacherthere.
2.Bimbisara'spersonaldoctorDhanvantriwasafamousdoctor.
ChemicalScience
1.ThepolishofNBPWwasveryglossy.Themethodtomakethispolishisalsodescribedindetailincontemporary
works.
Mathematics
1.Sulvasutraisatextongeometry.Ittalksaboutcircles,triangles,squaresandrectangles.Ittellshowtomakea
circleequalinareatoasquareorarectangle.
CivilEngineering
1.Wefindevidencesoffortificationsandembankments.
1.Agriculture&industry:Theuseofironbecamewidespread.
2.Trade: Punched marked coins came into existence. They along with NBPW distribution help us in tracking the
traderoutesoftheage.
Architecture
Features
1.Wood,mudbricks,thatchedroofsetc.wereused.
2.Stonefortificationswerealsoused.
Monuments
1.WefindevidencesofwoodenpalisadeinPP.StonefortificationsexistedinRajgirandLicchavirepublic.
Dance&Music
1.Theywerepatronizedbythecourtwhichmaintainedcourtesans.AmrapaliwasafamouscourtesaninLicchavi.
Sculpture
1.ThereisareferenceinKingKharvela'sHathigumphainscriptionthatNandakingtookawayajinaimagewhen
heconqueredKalinga.
Pottery
1.ThedistinctivepotteryoftheagewasNBPW.Itwashighlyglossy,mediumtofinefabricandwouldhavebeen
usedbyrich.
MauryanAge
Architecture
SEETHETRIANGLESINTHISMAPMAJORROCKEDICTS
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Features
1.Stonemasonryreachednewheights.
2.ShiningpolishofNBPWwasalsoappliedtothestonepillars.
3.Permanent material like burnt bricks, stone began to be used again along with wood. It enabled them to
constructlargeranddurablestructurewhichmadedenserhabitationspossibleandhencegrowthoftownsand
spreadofMauryanculture.
4.Ring wells were another distinct feature. Water could be stored in these and also they could be used for
sanitation.Henceitbecamepossibletohavedenserhabitationsfartherawayfromtherivers.
5.Itwasbothreligiousandsecularincharacter.
6.ItwaspanIndianincharacter.
7.Art and architecture received court patronage. Private merchants ad craftsmen also donated for religious
causes.
8.Largemonumentsshowthatarchitecturewastechnologicallyadvanced.
Foreign(Iranian)InfluenceonMauryanArchitecture
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(a)Similarities
1.TherearesimilaritiesbetweenCGM'spalaceandDarius'.
2.Both Asokan and Archimidean pillars use stone, glossy polish and have a bell shaped part. Because the
Archimideanpillarswereolder,theconceptofpillarsitselfwasborrowedbyAsokafromIran.
(b)Differences
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1.CGM'spalacewasmadeofwoodbutDarius'palacewasmadeofstone.
2.Inpillars,theshaftofAsokanpillarsismonolithicwhereastheArchimideanpillarshavejoints.
3.TheshaftofAsokanpillarstapersfrombottomtotopwhereasArchimideanpillarsarecylindrical.
4.TheshaftofAsokanpillarsissmoothwhereasthatofArchimideanpillarshasgotgrooves.
5.AsokanpillarsareerectedwithoutanysupportbasewhereasArchimideanpillarshaveasupportbase.
6.The bell shaped part of Asokan pillars is at top while that in Archimidean pillars is at bottom. In reality, the so
calledbellshapedpartofAsokanpillarsisaninvertedlotus.
7.TheAsokanpillarswerenotapartofanyotherstructure.Thepurposebehindtheirconstructionwastoengrave
instructions and carry them fat. But Archimidean pillars were part of palace and their job was to support the
roof.
8.TheAsokanpillarshavecapitalswhichhavesculpturesoflions,elephantsandbulls.ButtheArchimideanpillars
havenocapitalsandonlyimagesofhumansareengravedontheirshafts.
9.TheglosspolishwasknowntoIndiansfromNBPWindependentofIran.
Monuments
1.Stonemasonrywasintroducedonawidescale.ThepalaceofCGMatKumrahar(Patna)had80stonepillars.
2.DuringAsokantime,thetraditionofwoodenarchgavewaytostonearch.
Pillars
1.AsokanpillarsmadeuseofwhitespottedredsandstoneinMathuraandgreycoloredsandstoneinChunarand
weremonolithinstyle.Onlytheircapitalsinformoflions,elephantsandbullswerejoinedfromthetop.
StonepolishingwasasshinyasNBPW.
Caves
1.ThepracticeofcuttingcavesintorocksbeganwiththeLomarishicavesinBarabarhillsandalsoNagarjuniHills
whichweredonatedtoAjivikasect.Thesecaves,however,weresimpleandwithoutmuchornamentation.But
theirgateswerecarvedoutasifwooden.
Stupas
1.InitiallystupaswereBuddha'srelicplaces.Thenitgotextendedtohisfollowersaswellandgraduallystupaitself
becameanobjectofworship.AccordingtoBuddhisttradition,Asokabuilt84Kstupas.
2.SomestupashavebeenfoundinSanchi,Sarnath,Deorkothar,Lumbini.HuenTsangmentionsseeingstupasat
Tamralipti,Karnasuvarna,Samtata.
Painting
1.63rocksheltershavebeenfoundinDeorkothar(Rewa,MP)withpaintings.Oneofthemhadapaintingofstupa
andatreetogetherenclosedinarailing.
Dance&Music
1.Itwaspatronizedbythecourtandcourtesansweremaintainedbythecourt.
2.Nuts,acrobats,singers,musicians,dancerslivedinthesocietyandentertainedthepublicspeciallyonfairsand
festivals.
Sculpture
1.Multipleimagesofthefolkdeitiessuchasyakshaandyakshiniandanimalssuchaselephantshavebeenfound
fromParkham(Mathura)andPP.
2.ThecapitalsofAsokanpillarswerebeautifulcarvedimagesandwereaddedlatertothetopofthepillars.
3.FromDhauli(Odisha),rocksculptureoffrontpartofanelephanthasbeenmade.Itlooksliketheelephantisin
forwardmotionandiscomingoutoftherock.
4.AnakedandheadlesstorsoofajinatirthankarahasbeenrecoveredfromLohanipur(Patna).Thisistheearliest
Jainaimagefound.
Pottery
1.NBPWcontinued.
TheLeisurelyActivities
1.Fairsandfestivalswereorganizedwheremagicians,acrobats,dancers,musiciansandactorsperformed.
2.Bullfights,chariotraces,horseracesandelephantfights,huntingwerepopularsport.
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3.Bothmenandwomenworeornaments.
4.Courtesansweremaintainedintheroyalcourt.
Science&Technology
ChemicalScience
1.TheglossypolishofNBPWcontinued.Inaddition,theglossypolishappearedonAsokanpillars.
CivilEngineering
1.Useofburntbricksandringwells.
2.Stonemasonryreachednewheights.
3.Palaceswereconstructed.Sudarshanlakewasbuilt.
1.Trade: There was great development in means of transport as is evident from the transportation of Asokan
pillars.
PostMauryanAge(NorthIndia)
Architecture
Features
1.Burntbrickswerenowusedforflooringandtilesforbothflooringandroofing.Thiswasofindigenousorigin.
Temples
1.Hindutemplesfollowed3mainarchitecturaldesignsoblong,apsidalorsquare.ExamplesofoblongareVishnu
temple@Besnagar,SivaandVishnutemples@Dangwada,Vishnutemple@Nagari.Examplesofapsidalare
Lakshmitemple@Atiranjikhera,MatrikasandNagatemples@Sonkh.ExampleofsquaretempleisSivatemple
@Gudimallam.Nagarjunkondacontainstemplesofallthreetypes.
2.Intheoblongtemples,therewere2ellipse.Themainshrinewasintheinnerellipsewhichwasseparatedfrom
the outer ellipse by a gap which usually was the circumambulatory path. The outer ellipse had rectangular
projectionleadingouttotheentrance.Thetempleusuallyhadaplinthmadeofbricksormudorstonesandthe
superstructurewasmadeofwoodandmud.Thetempleswereusuallyeastfacing.
3.Theapsidaltempleshadapsidalrooms,plinthsofbrickormudorstoneandsuperstructureofwoodandmud.
4.TheNagarjunkondatemplesapartfromhavingallthreedesigns,sometimeshadmultipleshrinesinwhichcase
eachshrinehadamandapa(pillaredhall)too.Thepillarsweremadeofstoneandbrickwasusedforthetemple
superstructure.
Caves
(a)EvolutionofBuddhistCaveArchitecture
1.Phase1:ItbeganwiththeconstructionofLomarishiandSudamacavesinBarabarHillsbyAsoka.Thesewere
simple caves and the cave ran parallel to the rock face after entry. There was one large rectangular room
followedbyasmallercircularroom.
2.Phase2:Thesecondstage(100BC)showedupatKonditve.Thecavewascutperpendiculartotherockface
andtheinnerroomnowcontainedastupaandacircumambulatorypatharoundit.
3.Phase3:The next stage was when rows of pillars were built parallel to the walls creating a circumambulatory
passagerightafterentering.Thecentralroofwashigh,vaultedandsideroofwaslowandhalfvaulted.Bhaja,
Pitalkhora, Bedsa caves are examples. Sometimes cells, rock cut beds were cut around the central hall. An
exampleisBedsacaves.
4.Phase 4: During the KshatrapSatvahna kings, caves got royal patronage and became more elaborate and
ornamented.Thebasicfeaturesofpreviousphasecontinued.Avarietyofmithuncoupleswerecarvedonthe
gates, the pillars came to have elaborate capitals, the side roof became flat. Multistoried caves came up.
DoublestoriedviharascameupatKarleandtriplestoriedatAjanta.OtherexamplesareNasikcaves,Junnar,
Kanhericaves,Pitalkhora.
(b)JainaCavesvsBuddhistCaves
1.Jainacaveswerecutinsandstonewhichiseasytocutbutnotgoodforsculpting.ButBuddhistcaveswerecut
intohardrocksandwerebetterforsculpting.
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2.TheJainacaveshadnocongregationhallsorrockcutshrines.Later,however,somecellswereenlargedinto
shrines.TheBuddhistcavesontheotherhandhadclearhallsandtheshrinearea.
3.TheJainacavecellswerecutwherevertherockpermitted.Therewasnoplanning.TheBuddhistcavestructure
ontheotherhandwaswelllaidout.
4.TheJainacavesweresimpleandreflectedtheasceticismofjinamonks.Thecellsweretiny(nottallenoughto
stand,notlongenoughtostretchwhilesleeping,smallentrancessoastobendverylow).Theonlyluxurywas
occasionalshelvescutintorocksandslopingflooractingasapillowbutactuallydesignedtokeepofwaterfrom
accumulating.Onlytheouterportionswerecarvedsometimes.TheBuddhistcavesontheotherhandwerean
elaborateandspaciousaffair.
5.TheJinacavesareoftwotypesthosewithoutpillarsinverandahorthosewithpillars.Withoutpillarshadcells
cutalongthreesidesoftheverandah.Pillarsweresquareattopandbottomandoctagonalatmiddle.
6.Intermsofsimilarities,thesculpturesusesimilarmotifslikeanimals,plants.Thehoneysucklestyleissimilartoo.
ExamplesofsuchcavesareKhandgiriandUdaigiriinPuri.
Stupas
1.New large stupas were built. The new stupas had a circumambulatory path, a stone railing around it, two
staircasesleadinguptoit,thesummitandastoneumbrellaoverit.Theentirestructurewasenclosedinstone
railings and torandwars on all four sides. Sculpture decoration was found on the railings and the gateways.
ExamplesarethestupasatSanchi,Bharhut,Nagarjunkonda,Amrawati.
2.Mostearlierstupasusedtohaveasolidcore.However,atransitionwasmadetowardshavingaspokewheel
plan at the centre made of bricks and the spaces filled with mud. Spoked wheel is a symbol of Buddha's first
sermon.Bhattiprolustupa(200BC)isfromintermediatephasehavingcentralwheelplan(nospokes).
3.In AP stupas, at the 4 cardinal points of the raised platform, 5 free standing pillars were erected. These
representthe5importanteventsinBuddha'slifebirth,renunciation,enlightenment,firstsermon,death.
4.JainastupaisalsofoundinKankali@MathurawhichiscalledDevanirmitStupa.
Pillars
1.TheBesnagarpillarerectedbytheGreekambassadorHeliodorusisanexample.Hewasanambassadortothe
Sungaking.Itsshaftcontains4partsandithasaninvertedlotusandacapital.
Pottery
1.The
pottery
was
red
ware,
both
plain
and
polished
fabric.TheredpotterywasofCentralAsianorigin.
2.Sprinklersandspoutedchannelsarethedistinctivepotsofthisage.
with
fine
and
medium
Sculpture
ImageWorship
1.Thetraditionofimageworshipbecamepopularandnumerousidolsweremade.Imagesofyakshahavebeen
found from Pawaya, Besnagar which represents Kuber. Colossal images of yakshas and yakshis were built in
Mathura which disappeared later as the religion got absorbed into the dominant religion. Naga images have
been found at Mathura and Karimnagar. GajaLakshmi stone plaque from Atiranjikhera and mukhalinga from
Gudimallamareanotherexamples.InBuddhism,earlierthetraditionofimageworshipwasabsentandinstead
symbolsofBuddhawereworshippedalongwiththestupa.Nowimagesbegantobebuilt.
2.TerracottaimagesweremadeandChandraketugarh,Mathuraemergedasgreatcenters.
BuddhistReliefSculpture
1.The railings and gateways of Buddhist structures were elaborately worked upon. Human bodies along with
animals,birdsandotherscameup.Thelandscapedidn'tformabackgroundbutwasverymuchapartofthe
sculpture.
2.ThesculpturewasmainlymeanttobeseenfromonesideasagainsttheMauryansculpturewhichwassameas
viewedfromanyside.
3.The sculpture was narratory in nature. It narrated incidents from Buddha's life and Jatak stories. Sometimes
these narrations were just one single screenshot of a story or sometimes it was a continuous narration of a
sequenceofeventswithonescenemergingseamlesslyintothenext.
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4.Itmadeuseofsymbolstotellthestories.Example,wheelforfirstsermon,birthofbuddhaasMayasittingona
lotus,enlightenmentasbodhitree.
5.TheBuddhistsculpturealsodrewheavilyfromotherreligioustraditions.Forexample,anthromorphs(ofcopper
hoards),yaksha,yakshis,nagas,pipal,animalsetc.
TheGandharaSchool
1.This school emerged from 1 cent BC onwards. It was not patronized by Indo
GreeksbutbySakasandKushanas.HaddaandBamiyanweremaincenters.
2.ThiswasafusionofGreekandIndianstylesfromtheverybeginning.ThesubjectswereIndiansandthestyle
wasGrecoRoman.ThusthemotherofBuddharesembledaGreekgoddesswhileBuddhahimselftoohadan
Apollolikeface.GreekgodsweredepictedaspayingobeisancetoBuddha.
3.TheBuddhaofthisschoolisdepictedwithfocusonbodilyfeaturessuchasmuscularbody,curlyhairandsemi
transparentclothes.
4.Initiallytheyusedsoftmaterialsuchaswoodandstucco.Latertheybegantousebluegreystone.
TheMathuraSchool
1.Itwastheoldestandflourishedfrom2centBConwards.Itwasindigenousinoriginandwaspatronizedbylocal
rulers.ButlaterwiththeadventofKushanas,foreigninfluencewasvisibleclearly.
2.Initial subjects were Buddha, Mahavira and Kanishka. Krishna was ignored before the Gupta period. Beautiful
imagesofSivaasardhnariishwarwerebuilt.Krishna,balramandSuryatoowereitssubjects.
3.Theimageshaveadeepspiritualoutlook.Buddhaisshowninmeditationmode.Focusisnotonhighlightingthe
bodilyfeaturesofBuddhabutonhisspiritualisticauraandcontentonface.PopulardepictionsofBuddhaarein
thePadmasanamudra(sittingcrossedleggedandmeditating)andDharmaChakraParivartanaMudra (giving
sermons).
4.Theyusedwhitespottedredsandstone.
TheAmrawati/VengiSchool
1.Itflourishedfrom1centBConwardsinVengi,Nagarjunkonda,KurnoolandKrishnaGodavariregion.
2.ItwasindigenousthroughoutandwaspatronizedbySatvahnas,IkshavakusandlaterVakatakas.
3.ItmadeimagesofBuddhaandbrahmanicaldeities.
4.Theseimagesarefamousfortheirfemininebeautyandsensuousappeal.
5.Theyusedwhitemarbleintheirimages.
Drama
1.TheGreeksintroducedthecurtaininIndiandrama.
Painting
1.ThecavepaintingsofAjantabeganinthisperiod.TheywereBuddhistincharacter.
Science&Technology
Astronomy
1.IndianastronomyandastrologydrewagreatdealfromtheGreeksincludingthetermhorasastra (astrology in
Sanskrit) itself from Greek term horoscope. The names of seven days and the zodiac signs all come from
Greeks.
MedicalScience
1.CharakbelongedtothisperiodandwasassociatedwithTaxillaschoolofmedicine.
2.Wefindmanybrahmanicaltextsonmedicinewrittenwhichcouldhaveobviouslybeenwrittenbythosewhohad
a formal education and yet brahmanical literature places medical practitioners at low level. Thus despite the
theoretically low level the social utility of such professions was high enough to warrant formal education and
medical practice. Veterinary sciences developed and books on horses and elephants were written (obviously
drivenbymilitaryneeds).
1.Industry:Leathershoes,glassmaking(duetocontactwithRomans).
2.Trade:TheGreekcoinswereagreatimprovementovertheilldesignedpunchmarkedcoins.Plinytellsusthat
Indianshipswere75tonnesandsomeothersourcestellustheycouldcarry700persons.
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3.Agriculture:AhydrauliclifthasbeenfoundinSringverapurawhichmaynothavebeenusedforirrigationperse
but the technology for moving water by varying the water levels may have been derived from or influenced
irrigation.Wealsofindtheuseofwheeltodrawwaterfromthewell.Theliteratureaswellasinscriptionprovide
ampleevidenceoftanks,wellsandembankments.
Metallurgy
1.Indianironandsteeltechnologiesmaderapidadvancementsandlargenumberofironimplementsweremade
whichwereevenexportedtoAbyssinianports.
CivilEngineering
1.TheSudarshanlakewasrepairedbyRudradaman.
2.Cavearchitectureprogressed,highlyornamentedmultistoriedviharaswerebuilt.
PostMauryanAge(Satvahnas)
Architecture
UseofBurntBricksandTiles
1.From Peddabankur (Karimnagar), we have found use of flat baked bricks, perforated roof tiles and 22 brick
wells.Thisfacilitateddensehabitationasitaddressedtheissuesofsanitation,drinkingwateranddurabilityof
structures.
Fortifications
1.TheSatvahnatownswerefortified.Plinytalksofover30walledtowns.
Caves
1.The tradition of cutting into rocks reached new heights under Satvahnas. It became associated wit Buddhism
andmanychaityas (shrines) and viharas (monasteries) were cut out in rocks. Famous chaitya is at Karle and
viharasatNasik.Chaityawasalargehallwithanumberofpillars.Viharawasalargehallwhichwasenteredby
adoorwhichseparateditfromtheverandahinfront.
Stupas
1.FamousstupasareatAmaravatiandNagarjunkonda.
SangamStatesinTamilLand
Literature
1.TheSangamtextsarethemostimportantpiecesofwork.TheywerecomposedbybrahmansofPrakritSanskrit
learning.
2.Tamil text Tolkkapiyam deals with grammar and poetics and Tirukkal with philosophy. Then there are
epicsSilappadikaran and Manimekalai. Silappadikaran was written by a Jaina scholar and is a love story of a
dignitarypreferringacourtesanoverhiswife.Manimekalaiistheadventurestoryofhisdaughter.Theseepics
throwlightonthesocioeconomiclifeoftheSangamage.
GuptaAge
ReligiousPractices
1.Idol worship reached its true popularity in this age. The agricultural festivals were also given much of their
religiouscolorandfanfareinthisage.
Paintings
1.ThegreatestspecimenofBuddhistartinGuptatimesistheAjantacavepaintings.Theywerebuiltfromaperiod
spanning from 1 cent to 7 cent AD. But most work was done in Gupta
age. They depict various scenes from the life of Buddha and his previous births. They are life
like,naturalandhavebrilliantcolorsevenafterallthesecenturies.Ajantapaintingsweredominatedbybuddha,
bodhistava,
jatak
stories,
natural
scenery,
animals
etc.
ButitcannotbesaidthatGuptaspatronizedthesepaintings.
2.Even though the theme is religious in most paintings, we also find a glimpse of the lives of the princes, kings,
samantasetc.inthem.Butthereisnoreflectionofthecommonman'slifeinthesepaintings.Inthiswaythey
reflectthecontemporarysocietyanditsvaluesaswell.
3.Bagha paintings have a materialistic theme and tell us about the contemporary clothing style, hair styles,
makeup,ornamentsetc.BaghapaintingsweremadeinGuptaperiodonlyasagainsttheAjantapaintingswhich
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were spread over multiple periods. So they have more uniformity. They also have more secular theme and
scenesandthusaremorevaluableasahistoricalsource.
4.Boththefrescoandthetemperastyleswereused.Thefrescostylepaintingsaremadeonwetplasterandthe
temperastylepaintingsaremadeondryplaster.
5.Kamasutratellsusthatpaintingwasanestablishedformofartandwasstudiedinasystematicway.
Sculpture
1.The Mathura, the Gandhara and the Amaravati schools continued and new school developed at Benaras /
Sarnath.PPalsobecameanimportantcenter.
2.Statues were made of both stone and metals and carved on caves, temples or free standing. The relief
sculptureshowedscenesfromreligionaswellaseverydaylife.
3.Statues of Buddha were built at Mathura and Sarnath. Buddha images now had more mudras and wore
transparentclothes.OnebronzeimageofBuddhahasbeenfoundfromSultanganj.TheBuddhaimagesfrom
east UP and Bihar show Buddha in a serene spiritual form (as against the emphasis on the body as in the
Gandharaform).TheimageshadalargeandclearprabhamandalasagainsttheGandharaimageswheresuch
afeaturewasnotprominent.TheBuddhistreliefsculpturemadeanattempttoabsorbtheyaksha,gandharva,
apsaratraditionsbydepictingthemontheirreliefsculpture.
4.ImagesofJinatirthankaraswerealsosculpted.InscriptionsatUdayagiri(Vidisha)andKahaum(Gorakhpur)talk
aboutestablishingtirthankaraimages.
5.For the first time images of Hindu gods were built. Sometimes these images were solo and sometimes the
image of the main god was accompanied with other minor gods. Vishnu images in human, varah as well as
anthromorphic forms. Shiva images came up in linga and anthromorphic forms. Images were often more
symbolicthanrepresentationalthusthegodsandgoddessesmayhavemultiplehandseachholdingasymbol.
Architecture
Features
1.Bothreligiousandsecularcharacterwasvisiblethoughreligiouswasmoreprominent.
2.Templearchitecturecameup.Thefirststylewasthenagarastyle.
3.Therewasincreasinguseofreusedorbrokenbricks.Eg.BhitainAllahbad.
4.Gupta period can be called the golden age of sculpture and image making. But the same can't be said for
architecturebecausethetemplearchitectureform(nagara)justemergedinthisphaseandyetitpeakedonlyin
thepostGuptaage.ThuswhileimpressivebuddhistviharasandchaityascanbeseenfromtheGuptaage,we
havetowaituntilthe8thcenturytoseeimpressivetemples.
Monuments
1.TheBuddhistuniversityofNalandacameupinthisage(5centAD).Itsearlieststructuresweremadeofbricks
inthisage.
2.Jina temples were constructed mostly in S India by Kadambas. The Hoskote (Bangalore) and Banavasi
inscriptionareexampleswhichmentionoflandgrantstosuchtemples.
Temples
1.Thefirstbrickandstonetempleswerebuiltinthisage.TheywereofNagarastyle.
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2.
3.Theearlytemplewasbuiltonaraisedplatform.Therewasamaindeityroomcalledgarbhagrihathentworows
ofpillarsleadingtoasmallerroominthefrontofthegarbhagrihacalledthemandapa.Themandapawasused
tohousethedevotees.Thegarbhagrihahadaflatroofandapoleontop.Theentirecompoundwaslikeand
enclosed courtyard and walled with gates for entry and exit. Temple walls were plain but the doorways were
profuselycarved.Templesweregenerallybuiltfromrock.
4.Examples of such brick temples are Bhitargaon (Kanpur), Paharpur (Rajshahi, Bangladesh), Sirpur (Raipur,
Chattisgarh), Vishnu temple @ Deogarh and Tighwa, Shiva temple @ Bhumra and Koh, Parvati temple @
Nachna.ThereareremainsofatemplefromDahParbatiainAssam.
5.LatertheinfluenceofDravidianstylealsobecamevisible.Thetemplehadaplinthandashikhara.Thepillarsof
thesetempleshavecapitalsintheformofkalash.Deogarhtempleisonesuchexamplewithavimanaontop.
Caves
1.The Buddhist caves include Bagha caves, Mandargiri and Udaigiri. The pillars were richly carved and on the
stupa,aBuddhawascarved.Intheviharas,ashrineroomwasnowintroduced.
2.ShivacaveswerebuiltinElephanta.
Pillars
1.TheMehrauliironpillar.
2.TheBhitaristonepillarinscriptionofSkandagupta.
Stupas
1.The independent stupa building activity lost momentum. Few examples are Dhamekh stupa @ Sarnath,
Charsada,Taxila.However,thestupabuildinginBuddhistcavescontinued.
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Drama
1.Two things are evident from plays of this age. First, the higher classes speak Sanskrit whereas shudras and
womenspeakPrakrit.Second,noneofthemaretragedies.
2.TheSanskritdramaMrichchakatika(bySudrak)wascomposedinthisage.Itwasthelovestoryofabrahmanin
lovewiththedaughterofacourtesan.
3.13playswerewrittenbyBhasa.
Literature
1.A different ornate style of Sanskrit was developed during this period which was different from the old simple
Sanskrit.Greateremphasiswaslaidonkavyathanonprose.Theaudienceofthekavyaliteraturewasmainlyan
urbaniteanditwasplayedingoshtisandfestivals.Thisliteraturewasnotforreligiouspurposesbutfocusedon
urbanlife.
2.ThetransitionfromPrakrittoSanskritinroyalinscriptionswascomplete.
3.Patanjali composed Mahabhashya and Panini composed Ashthadhyayi. Amarsimha composed Amarkosha.
KamandakwroteNitisaraandVatsayanwroteKamasutra.
4.The epics, the sutras etc. were compiled in this age. Panchatantra too was written under Vakatakas. Various
commentariesonphilosophicalschoolswerewritteninthisperiod.
5.Playswereromanticcomediesandtragedywasavoided.MrichchhakatikawaswrittenbyShudrakandgivesa
descriptionofurbanlife.MudrarakshashawaswrittenbyVishakhadutta.
Dance&Music
1.Gupta rulers patronized music and dance and some rulers themselves were indulged in it. Samudragupta is
depictedasplayingveenainsomeofhiscoins.
2.Thegrowthoftemplesledtogrowthofdanceandmusicaswell.Theinstitutionofdevdasisbegan.
Science&Technology
Metallurgy
1.Bronze and iron technologies advanced further as evident from the Mehrauli pillar and Buddha's bronze
statues.
Astronomy
1.AryabhattacameupwithAryabhattikain5centAD.Healsogavetruereasonfortheoccurrenceofeclipsesand
measuredthecircumferenceofearth.Hebelievedthatearthwassphericalandrotatedonitsownaxis.
2.Varhamirain6centADexplainedthemovementofsomeheavenlybodiesinhisbookBrihadSamhita.
3.Previously the year was divided into 3 units of 4 months each. Now it came to be divided into 12 equal lunar
months.Thiswasusefulforagriculturaloperations.(MatharasofOdisha)
Mathematics
1.Aryabhattacameupwithzero,threevariableequations,conceptofplacevalueandthedecimalsystem.
MedicalScience
1.Benarasschoolwasafamousschoolofsurgery.Sushrutacamefromthere.
2.DhanvantriwasagreatphysicianandinthecourtofCGV.
3.PalkapyawroteHastiAyurveda.SialhotrawroteAsvaShastra.
4.Nagarjunadiscoveredmedicinalpropertiesofcertainmetalsandherbaljuices.
ChemicalScience
1.VarhamiraandKalidasaintheirrespectiveworkstalkaboutthemethodofpreparingvariouscoloredpastes.
2.ThepaintingsincavesofAjantaandBaghauserichcolors.
CivilEngineering
1.BricktemplesbegantobeconstructedintheNagarastyle.
1.Trade:Shipbuildingindustryflourished.Largeshipscapableofcarrying500personswerebuilt.
AnEstimateofGuptaAge
1.Aryabhatta's and Varahmihira's principles were not all indigenous. THey had also borrowed from the Romans
andtheGreeks.
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2.Kalidasa'sworkarenotasymbolofanyHinduintellectualrenaissancebuttheyaremerelyadevelopedformof
anolderstyleofwriting.Evenpuranasandepicswerecomposedinearlierage,Guptascholarsmerelycompiled
them.
3.Bhakti movement in Vishnu and Siva sects was not a new phenomenon. It was a mere continuation and
strengtheningofanolderstrand.
PostGuptaAge
1.The growing feudal order in the society limited inter regional mobility and gave a boost to the development of
regionalculturalstrands.EventheinscriptionsareinalldifferentscriptssuchthatevenifweknowGuptabrahmi
script,itwouldbedifficulttoreadvariousregionalinscriptions.
Science&Technology
Astronomy
1.Brahmaguptain7centADinhisbookBrahmaSphutiSiddhantatalkedaboutvariousastronomicalinstruments
andsuggestsobservationbasedastronomy.
2.Bhaskaracharyain12centADinhisbookSiddhantaShiromaniexplainedthemotionofheavenlybodies.
MedicalScience
1.Vaghavatta in 8 cent AD wrote AshtangaHridaya which explained the functioning of different parts of heart.
DhanvantriwroteNighantu.
ChemicalScience
1.Indian chemists made great progress in alchemy (due to tantric and magic influence). They were trying to
convertmetalslikeiron,copperetc.intogold.Obviouslytheydidn'tsucceedinthatbutintheprocesstheymade
manyacidsandbases.
Mathematics
1.Bhaskaracharya'sbookhadanelaboratechapteronmathematicscalledLeelavati.
2.Brahmagupta developed the concept of cyclical quadrilateral i.e. sum of the the opposite angles of a
quadrilateralis180ifallitsverticeslieonacircle.
Metallurgy
1.Largeumberoffinebronzesculpturesweremadespeciallyofthenatrajatheme.
CivilEngineering
1.Largeembankments,canalsetc.werebuiltinthisperiodforirrigationalpurposes.
2.Hugetempleswerealsobuilt.
1.Agriculture Technology: Irrigation increased, use of animals for threshing and milling sugar and oil, persian
wheel,anduseofonehumpedcamelindryareas.
2.ManufacturingTechnology:Cottongincameupinweaving.
3.MilitaryTechnology:Leatherandwoodenstirrupsweretherebutironstirrups,concavesaddlesandironhorse
shoewereabsent.Horsearcherywasalsoabsent.Useoffirearmsandmangonelswasabsentaswell.
Architecture
Features
1.Religious.
2.Courtpatronage.
3.Rockcut,shapedoruseofpermanentmaterial.
4.They didn't use arch, vault, dome and mortar. So when they began to construct huge buildings there was no
wayotherthanconstructingtaperingpyramidicaltopsortoinstallthickpillarstosupportheavybeams.Solarger
andlargerstoneshadtobeusedandthisnecessitatedtheneedforsculptingthemforaestheticappeal.
5.Highlyornamented,elaborate,massiveandadvancedtechnology.
6.Multidimensionali.e.manyformsofarchitecturewerepursued.
7.Indigenous.
8.Thenotionthatthearchitectmustremainanonymouswasbeliedinthetemplesofthisageandthemostfamous
architectwasKokasa.Individualenterpriseandstylewasencouragedbutatthesametimetextswerewrittenon
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architecture(vastusastra)whichledtosomestandardization.Italsoprovesthatdespitethebrahmanicalliterary
rhetoric,architectcastewasnotheldinlowesteeminreality(otherwisewhyabrahmanwouldstudyarchitecture
andwriteatextonit).Similarlyshilpashastraswerewrittenonsculpture.Thesutradharawasanexaltedposition
and he supervised the construction activity while the stapathi was the master builder. Some of them even
receivedlandgrantsandwereheldasbelongingtothevisvakarmalineage.
Styles
1.Thedravidastyletemples:ItwasprevalentinthesouthofKrishnariver.Inthephase1,themainfeaturewas
buildingpyramidicalshikharaabovethegarbhgriha(chiefdeityroom).Theshikharahadadomeatthetopand
this entire structure was called vimana. Later in phase 2, in front of the vimana was a pillared hall with
elaborately cared pillars and flat roof called mandapa. A circumambulatory path was provided around the
garbhgriha and images of multiple gods were carved along this passage. The entire structure was walled and
hadloftygatescalledgopuram.Inphase3,additionalstructuresbegantocomeupinthetemplecomplexand
theygrewhorizontallyandbecamemoremassive.AjantaandElloraareexamplesaswell.
2.ThenagarastylewasprevalentnorthofVindhyas.Itconsistsof(a)asquareelevatedplatformwithanumberof
projectionsinthemiddleofeachsidegivingitacruciformshape,and(b)inthelateragetheflatroofedtemples
gave way to a shikhara (which reflected the temple's plan) on the main shrine and smaller shikharas on the
secondaryshrines.
3.Therathtemplestyle:Intherathtemples,entirerockwascutandshapedfromoutsidetogiveittheshapeofa
temple.Beautifulimageswerethencarvedonit.
4.TheChalukyasofBadamipatronizedthevesarastyle(prevalentbetweentheKrishnaandtheVindhyas)which
wasafusionofthedravidianstyleandthenagarastyle.Suchexamplesarefound@AiholeandPattadakal.It
wasprevalentfromVindhyastoKrishna.Likedravidianstyleithadavimana,amandapaandinsomecasesan
additional open mandapa. Like nagar style the vimana was heavily sculpted. Like nagara style its
circumambulatory path was open. Like nagara style the outer walls had chariots carved out on them. Other
examplesareJainatemplesinDharwadandKalleshwartempleinKukanoor(Hyderabad).
Caves
1.ThePallavas:Theybuiltthecavetemplesof4thgenerationwithelaboratepillarsandornamentedentries.This
was under the Mahindra style (64074 AD ) and the Mamalla style (64074 AD). The cave pillars are square
from bottom and top and octagonal in the middle. These caves are less complex than those @ Ajanta and
Ellora.
2.TheChalukyasofBadami:Theytoopatronizedcavearchitecture.4thgenerationcaveswerecut.
ElloraCaves
1.Political Dimension: They represent different dynasties. The famous Kailashnath temple was built by
Rashtrakutas.
2.Religious Dimension: They represent different different religions. Caves are there from Jaina, Buddhist and
Hindu traditions. Even in Hindu tradition, they represent multiple gods and multiple forms of the same god as
well. The Buddhist cages represent the last in the tradition of Buddhist cave cutting. It shows a development
overpreviousstyles.Theyaremultistoreyedandhighlyornamented.TheKailashnathtemplecontainsimages
ofShivapantheonaswellasVishnu.
3.Architectural Features Dimension: They represent multiple styles of architecture. The famous Kailashnath
templehasasuperstructureinDravidianstyle.Itismultistoreyedandhighlyornamented.
Temples
1.The Ganga rulers of Odisha: They patronized temples between 812 cent AD. The Lingaraja temple @
Bhubneswar,Jagannathtemple@PuriandSuntemple@Konarkwereallbuiltduringthisperiod.TheOdisha
templeshavepyramidicalshikharasontheirmandapsaswell.Theyalsotypicallyhavechariotscarvedouton
theirouterwalls.Moreoverthemainshikharahasmultiplesmallershikharasatthetop.Thereisagateineach
direction. The sculpture of the Konark temple shows clear evidence of tantric influence like the temples of
Khajuraho.
2.TheSolankirulersofGujarat:TheypatronizedmanytemplesinMt.Abu.TheDilawaraandTejpalatemplesare
most famous Abu temples. White marble was used in construction. They also built the Karnameru temple @
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AnhilwaraandRudramallahtemple@Siddhpur.ThetemplesofGujaratareimmenselyrichandwerestudded
with semi precious and precious stones. Such a lavish temple building was possible only due to immense
prosperity brought by the trade. It also reflected the high level of skills mastered by the guilds of sculptors in
Gujarat.Acharacteristicfeatureofthisstylewasthepresentofbawrisinthebasementforwaterstorage.
3.The Chandela rulers of Bundelkhand: They patronized the Khajuraho temples. These temples are built of
granite and red sandstone. Kanderiya temple @ Khajuraho is the only temple in Khajurao to have shikhara
(reflecting Dravidian influence). The central Indian temples are known for their extensive use of richly carved
pillars.Eachmandapahasthinshikharas.Thekhajuraotemplesareinpanchyatanstylei.e.therearesmaller
templesonthe4cornersoftheplinth.Alltemplesarebuiltonaplinth.Thesetemplesclearlyshowtheinfluence
oftantricism.
4.ThePallavas: Their architecture was divided into the Mahindra style (61040 AD), the Mamalla style (64074
AD), the Rajsimha style (674800 AD) and the Nandivarman style (800875 AD). Cave temples
called mandaps were cut in Mahindra style. They were essentially chaityas and viharas of 4th generation.
Examplesare@PallavaramandMahendrabad.IntheMamallastyle,rathtempleswerecutinadditiontothe
cave temples which became more ornamented. There are 5 Pandava rathas. Examples of both styles are @
Mahabalipuram. In the Rajsimha style, cave and ratha temples were discontinued and independent dravidian
style temples emerged. Examples are the Shore temple @ Mahabalipuram and Kanchi. In the Nandivarman
style,thePallavapowerwasonadeclineandthiswasreflectedinthetemplesaswellwhichbecamesmaller
andlesselaborate.Examplesare@KanchiandGudimallam.
5.TheCholas:Theypickeduponthethedravidianstyleandtookittonewheights.TheearlyCholatempleswere
relatively small and superb in simplicity. One example is the Narttamalai temple of 9th cent a free standing
templefacingsomerockcutcaves.From11thcentADthevimanas(pyramidicalshaped)andgopurams(which
graduallyoverwhelmedtheshikharas)becamemassive.Thegarbhgrihawasenteredbyoneormoremassive
mandaps with multiple pillars. The balanced proportion of the structure gave it aesthetic quality. The temple
complexgrewhorizontallyasnumeroussmallerstructurescameup.Thiswaslinkedtothemilitaryvictoriesof
the Chola kings. Examples are @ Padupattu & Tanjore. After there decline we can see that no attempt was
madetomaintainthegrandeurofthetemplesandthisisareflectionoftheeconomicdeclinewhichhadsetin.
6.Kerala: Here the temples were made of wood instead of stone and many temples were circular in form the
circularsanctumbeingsurroundedbyconcentricallyarrangedareas.
7.The Chalukyas of Badami:The Chalukyan temples evolved from Gupta style and their architecture developed
intotheVesarastylewhichisafusionofdravidianstyleandnagarastyle.Examplesaresometemples@Aihole
& Patdakal. The Durga temple @ Aihole is a continuation of the Buddhist chaitya plan. Aihole had megalithic
stoneworshipcentersinthevicinityandthusemergedasasacredtown.Cavetemplesarelocated@Badami.
The Ladkhan temple @ Aihole has a flat roof and a pillared mandapa. The comparison of plans of Ladkhan
templeandtheVirupakshatempleshowustherapidityofthechangeinarchitecturalstyles.
8.The Hosyals: They built elaborate temples in Halebid, Somnathpura and Belur. Their temples are known for
excellenceinreliefsculpture.EarliertheyjustpickedupfromtheChalukyastyle.Graduallytheybecamemore
ornate(theybegantousesoapstoneratherthansandstonewhichissofter).Thegroundplanofthesetemples
was no longer rectangle but star shaped or polygonal and the whole complex was built on a raised platform.
There was not so much emphasis (as in Chola temples) on shikharas and gopurams and thus the overall
templesappear'flat'.Onthetemplewallselaboratesculptingisdoneusinganimalandfloralmotifs,musicians,
dancers,battlescenes,andreligiousliteratureevents.Thestarshapedplanprovidedmorespaceforsculpting.
Thewide,circularpillarsareadistinctivefeature.
Sculpture
TempleRelief
1.The temple walls were carved with images of gods and goddesses and their attendants, yaksha and yakshis,
kingsandqueensetc.
2.They show scenes of wars, love, dance and music. The Tiruparantik form of Diva is popular in the
Brihadeshwaratemple@Tanjore.
3.In N India the sculpture @ Khajurao, Odisha shows clear tantric influences. The sculptures are exquisitely
materialisticinappearanceanreflectthecontemporarysociety.Wecanseethecosmetics,clothingstyle,hair
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stylesetc.ofwomeninthesociety.
4.The Pallava sculpture was inspired more from the Buddhist tradition of Amaravati school and remained linear
andavoidedoverornamentationsomethingwhichwaspresentintheChalukyansculpture.
IndependentSculpture
1.ThebronzedancingfigureofShivai.e.NatrajabecameapopularthemeunderCholasandRashtrakutas.The
dancingSivahas2typesangryandpacificsymbolizingthecreationanddestructionofuniverse.Thesnakeis
theornamentandGangainhishairlocks.Twobackhandsholdaflameandadrumwhilethefronthandsarein
abhayamudraandonepointsdowntowardsfeet.
2.Thebronzeimagesusedlostwaxtechnique.ThesefiguresweresolidfrominsideunliketheNIndiansculpture
whichwashollowfrominside.
3.Imagesofkingsandqueenswerealsobuiltinthisperiodandplacedinthetemples.
4.World's largest monolithic statue is the Jina statue of Gomteswar is present at Sravana Belgola (Hassan,
Karnataka).
5.InSIndia,therewasatraditionofherostonesorviragals.Theyholdaswordinrighthand,bow/shieldinleft
andarrowsonshoulder.Usuallythereisaninscriptionrecordingthedeedsofthehero.
6.InNIndiatheimageslackthegrandeuroftheGuptaageprobablybecausenowtheyweremostlyofgodsand
goddessestobeusedmostlyforworship.
Painting
1.TheChalukyasofBadami:ThecavepaintingsofElloraandElephantabelongtothisperiodandcontainthemes
of secular nature, brahmanical religion, Buddhism as well as Jainism (Ellora). One cave painting shows
PulakesinIIreceivingaPersianambassador.
2.TheRashtrakutas:TheycontinuedtheElloraandElephantacavepaintings.KailashtemplewasbuiltbyKrishna
I.
Dance&Music
1.Templesplayedavitalrolethroughtheinstitutionofdevdasis,employingdancers,musicians,singersetc.and
alsothroughmultiplefestivalsfromthePallavaperiodonwards.Thedevdasisinitiallyalsocomposedpoemsand
performed some temple rituals which were related to the idea of the special power embedded in women (a S
Indianoriginalconcept)andritualsanddancewereanexpressionofit.Butgraduallythiswaslatermisusedto
providingentertainmenttoinfluentialpriestsandpersons.
2.Firstbooksonmusicbegantocomeup.NaradwroteSangeetamKaranand,SomeshwarwroteManollas.
Literature
1.While Sanskrit was the language of the elites, a remarkable feature was the growth in literature of regional
languages.Bytheendofthisage,regionallanguageshadovertakensanskrit.
2.The literature of this age also mentions brahmanical rituals less frequently indicating growth of bhakti. Erotic
mysticism also finds its way into the literature of the age reflecting the influence of bhakti. Bilhana's
ChaurpanchasikaandJayadeva'sGeetGovindaareexamples.
3.Medium of instruction of formal language was Sanskrit which shows its growing distance from day to day life.
Professional education was provided by the guilds. But in some professions we do find sanskrit works being
writtenindicatingsomeconfluence.
JainaLiterature
1.SanskritalsobegantobewidelyusedbyJainasandBuddhistsbythistime.Thejainaswereprolificinwriting
biographies,chroniclesofkingsandcourtsandtextsonreligion.Hemchandra(12thcent)andMerutunga(14th
cent)werefamousscholars.AninterestingaspectwaswritingstoriesonRamafromajainaperspective.
2.The jains insisted on literacy and thus preserved and recopied their texts as a treasury in the jaina temples.
Thesedevelopedintoimpressivelibraries.Bynowanewshardascriptwasusedwhichwasclosertodevanagari
thanbrahmi.
Sanskrit
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1.In most sanskrit works of the age we find lack of original and innovative thinking. They were merely
commentariesonoldsubjectsfromepicsetc.ThisagealsolacksimportanttextsonpoliticslikeArthasastraand
Nitisara.Focuswasmoreonlinguisticproficiency.ThespreadofSanskritgrewinSIndiaalongwiththespread
ofBrahmansandbecauseoftheproximitytokingsmuchoftheliteraturehaspoliticalmotives.
2.TherewasatrendofgrowingornatestyleinSanskritchampionedbyBanabhatta.Thiswasspeciallybecauseof
theroyalpatronagescholarsusedtoreceive.Thisperiodwitnessedthegrowthofkavyaaswellasgrammar.
3.TherewasagrowingtrendofwritinghistriographieslikeKalhanaandBilhana(Vikramankdevcharitahistorical
epic but written to please a king who had usurped the throne from his elder brother). Attempts were made to
providevanshavaliswheredescentwastracedfrommythologicallines.
4.A new style known as "shlesha style" emerged. An example is Shrutikirti's Dwisandhan which when read from
lefttorighttellsthestoryofRamaandwhenreadfromrighttolefttellsthestoryofKauravs.
5.Brahmagupta,Bhaskaracharya,VaghavattaandKalhanawroteinthisage.Sanskritdictionarywascomposedin
this era by Amarsimha (Amarkosha). Important plays were Mudrarakshah by Vishakhdatta, Bal Ramayan and
BalBharatbyRajshekhar.
6.Sanskrittextsonvariousprofessionslikekrishiparashar,shilpashastras,vastushastras,veterinarysciencesetc.
werewrittenreflectingsocialpriorities.
RegionalLanguages
1.Prakrit:ItgraduallybecameveryheavyandlostouttoPaliandSanskritandevenJainascholarsbegantowrite
inSanskritwhilebuddhistscholarsinPali.
2.Tamil>AlvarsandNaynarsaintspopularizeditfrom69AD.Theirwritingswerecollectivelycompiledin12th
cent and called Tirumurais. Tamil literature witnessed great development. Sometime the subjects were taken
from Sanskrit works like Kamban wrote Ramayna in Chola period but it was not merely a translation of the
Valmiki ramayna as the style, treatment of gender and even the narrative was varied according to the local
tradition. Thus he treats Ravan in a much more sympathetic way than Valmiki. In the Pallava age the tamil
poems contain rich description of general country life as well as the town life in Kaveripattnam. Confidence in
TamilcanbeseeninitsusealongwithSanskritininscriptions.
3.Kannada >Amoghavarsha (Rashtrakuta king)wrote the first work in Kannada poetry. It was patronized by
Rashtrakutas,ChalukyasandHosyals.Pampa,PonnaandRanna(the3Kannadajewels)wroteinthisage.
4.Apbhramsha>TheRashtrakutaspatronizeditandmanypoetsinthislanguagelivedintheircourts.Thedoha
style of writing began to come up in this age and specially popularized by the bhakti movement. The bhakti
saintsalsopopularizedotherlanguageslikeOdiya,Bengali.
5.Telugu > It was patronized by Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas and Hosyals. Mahabharata was written under
Chalukyankings.
Vijaynagar
Architecture
Features
1.Religiousaswellassecular.
2.Courtpatronage.
3.Rockcut,shapedoruseofpermanentmaterial.
4.Highlyornamented,elaborate,massiveandadvancedtechnology.
5.Multidimensionali.e.manyformsofarchitecturewerepursued.
6.In the 14th century, it was influenced by deccani style of Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas. During 15th century, a
typicalVijaynagarstylecalledprovidastyleemerged.Basicallyitwasanadvancedversionofthedravidianstyle.
In17thcent,thenayakstyleemerged(nayakswerethefeudatoriesofVijaynagarkings).
Temples
1.Intheprovidastyle,thestructuresofthechiefgodandgoddesswereseparatedandthegoddessstructurewas
calledshrineofthe"Amma".Anewstructurecalledkalyanmandapcameupwhichwasusedfortheceremonial
union of the chief god and the goddess. A thousand pillar hall was created in the temple complex for the
devotees.Thegopuramsbecamebiggerandmoreornamented.
2.ExamplesareViruprakashtempleandHazaraswamitemple@Hampi.
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3.Thenayakstyletempleswerebiggerandmoreornamented.ExampleisMeenakshitemple@Madurai.
Monuments
1.Palaces,queens'baths,stablesetc.wereconstructed.ExampleisLotuspalaceofKrishnadevrai.
Sculpture
1.Secularsculpturedevelopedwithbronzeimagesmadeofkingsandqueens.
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9/8/2016

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