OUTLINE

Applied
Geotechnics

Introduction

Lateral Earth Pressures

At rest
Active

RETAINING WALLS
A/Prof Hadi Khabbaz
Email: hadi.khabbaz@uts.edu.au
Room CB11.11.224

Passive

Rankines Theory

Coulombs Theory

Types of Retaining Walls

Design of Gravity Walls

http://www.geofffox.com/MT/archives/2005/05/12/the-collapse-along-the-henry-hudson-parkway.php

A retaining wall holding back a steep hill gave way, allowing the hill to
tumble onto the Henry Hudson Parkway and its access road. Debris
was piled up at least 7.5 m deep and you could see partially buried cars
at the edge of the slide area. This all took place in the shadow of the
George Washington Bridge.

Thisretainingwall collapsed after an unknown person drove a stolen

vehicle into it in May 2013. The City Council accepted a bid to fix the
wall for $34 K.

A retaining wall, which has collapsed on top of cars, is seen after heavy
rains caused by Typhoon Sanba in Yeosu, about 460 km (286 miles)
south of Seoul September 17, 2012. Tens of thousands of people were
forced to evacuate and hundreds of sea and air passenger services were
cancelled as the powerful typhoon Sanba made landfall in southern
South Korea on Monday, local Yonhap news agency reported.

10

Retaining Wall
Collapse in
Sydney

Lateral Earth
Pressures

Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest

Estimation of Ko:

In normally consolidated clays and

granular soils:
Ko = 1 sin

In over-consolidated soils:
Ko = (1 sin ) OCR0.5

Example 1
The conditions in the bed of a river consist of 1m of water
over sandy clay:
0 - 1m
Water
1 - 10m
Clay (overconsolidated)
t = 20 kN/m3
= 30
OCR = 2
Determine the total horizontal stress (h) at a point in the
soil 5 m below the surface of the water in the river, which is
4 m below the top of the soil layer.

Rankines Theory

Solution of the Example

1m

4m
Sandy clay

OCR=2

s = 20 kN/m3

= 30

Assume that the wall is frictionless;

Applicable to horizontal soil surface;

The vertical stress may then be calculated in the usual

way: v = t z.

The vertical and horizontal stresses throughout

the retained soil mass are the principal stresses:

The normal stress acting on the wall will thus be a

principal stress;
The retained soil is assumed to be at failure
everywhere and the horizontal stress can be calculated
from the failure criterion.

Types of Analyses

Rankines Theory
Active Earth Pressure

Drained:
Clays:

long time after construction, sand and

gravel: always.
No

excess pore pressure in the soil.

Use

drained strength parameters in an

effective stress analysis, effective stresses, ,
drained cohesion and friction angle, c & ;

Passive Earth Pressure

In

the presence of water, the water pressure

must be applied to the wall.

Types of Analyses

Undrained:
Clays,

immediately after construction.

There

Example 2

Find distribution of active earth pressure on

the wall and the resultant horizontal force
acting per metre run of the wall.

may be excess pore pressure in soil;

undrained strength parameters in a

total stress analysis, total stresses, ,
undrained cohesion, cu and undrained
friction angle, u (zero for saturated normally
consolidated clay).

Sand

Use

3m

t = 16 kN/m3
=30o

Example 3

Solution of Example 2

Find distribution of active earth pressure on

the wall.

2m

Sand
t = 21 kN/m3
= 30o, c = 0

2m

Clay
t = 20 kN/m3
= 0, c = 30kPa

26

Solution of Example 3

Tension Crack

Limitations in Rankines Theory

In a total stress analysis, Rankines theory indicates

negative stress in cohesive soils under a low vertical
stress.

Soil particles cannot provide tensile strength.

Cracks may develop in the tensile zone, which may be
filled with water if soil is submerged.
Water in
Depth of tension crack:
zc
the crack

Assume that the wall is frictionless;

In reality no retaining wall is smooth.

w zc

No surcharge

Applicable to vertical walls.

The method can be modified for non-vertical walls.

Applicable to horizontal soil surface;

Application to inclined surface is possible, but not

simple.

With surcharge

Rankins Equations
Chu (1991) Frictionless soil-wall interface

General Formulas
for
Lateral
Earth Pressures

Rankins Equations

Coulombs Limit Equilibrium Equations

Poncelet (1840)

Coulombs Limit Equilibrium Equations

Different Types
of
Retaining Walls

Passive earth pressure is overestimated . The error is small if

Types of Retaining Walls

Choice of the walls:

Masonry

or concrete gravity walls

Cantilever walls
Counterfort and buttress walls
Sheet piling
Anchored walls
Gabions
Others

(e.g. crib retaining walls, Geosynthetic reinforced soil

walls)

Types of Retaining Walls

Conterfort and Buttress Walls

Gravity walls

Rely on their weight for stability

Massive concrete or masonry walls
Cantilever walls
Common height: 3-4m
Gabions walls
Rarely > 8m
Counterfort and buttress

Embedded walls

Rely on passive pressure on embedded section for stability

Sheet piling
Slurry concrete walls
Soldier Beam and Lagging

Hybrid system

Cost effective for

temporary excavations
May show significant
ground movement

Anchored walls
Reinforced soil walls
40

41

42

Modes of Failure

Construction of shoring using soldier beams and lagging

Modes of failure
Sliding
Rotation
Bearing

failure
failure
Excessive
settlements
Excessive
deformation
Global

http://arconcretecorp.com/Quickstart/ImageLib/P7270144.JPG
43

Photo taken from: Guney Olgan (2003)

Separation of the facing panels due to vertical distortion and

spilled backfill material

Design of Retaining Walls

Using a single global factor of safety:

Design
of
Retaining Walls

F = 1.5 2.0 for sliding/overturning failure

2.0 4.0 for bearing capacity failure
Using

partial factors of safety:

Strength parameters decreased by reduction factors;

Applied loads increased by load factors;
Limit resisting force > Ultimate disturbing force
Limit resisting moment > Ultimate disturbing moment

Retaining Walls

Retaining Walls

Design for strength:

Overturing

failure

Design for strength:

Sliding

failure

Moments are usually calculated around

the toe of the foundation of the wall.

Factor of safety depends mainly on the

passive pressure.

Moment due to active earth pressure is

normally a function of (height)3. It
becomes increasingly large when the
wall height is large.

It is normal to ignore 0.5 to 1m of top

soil in front of the wall to reduce the
possibility of failure due to inadvertent or
careless excavation.

Action forces
Resistance forces

Action forces
Resistance forces

Retaining Walls

Retaining Walls

Design for strength:

Sliding

failure

Shear key

Retaining Walls
Design for strength:
Global

failure

A suitable method shall be employed

to check the overall stability of the soil
and wall together against general
global failure. Methods of analyses will
be discussed later.

failure

Eccentricity and inclination of the

resultant force on the foundation
reduces the vertical capacity of the
foundation.

It is normal to ignore 0.5 to 1m of top

soil in front of the wall to reduce the
possibility of failure due to
inadvertent excavation.

Design for strength:

Bearing

Factor of safety depends mainly on

the passive pressure.

Action forces
Resistance forces

Retaining Walls

Design for strength:

Structural

failure

Sections of wall and foundation shall

be checked against structural failure.

Example 4
Design of a Gravity Wall

Solution of Example 4
Using a globe Factor of Safety approach

Design based on a single global factor of safety

1.5m

Determine the stability

of the concrete gravity
wall shown in the
figure.

Sand
=30o

2.5m

t=18kN/m3

0.5m

t=25kN/m3
= 2/3

a) Check for Sliding

b) Check for Overturning

c) Check for Bearing Capacity using Hansens theory

10

Bearing Capacity Equation

Hansens Bearing Capacity Factors

Terzaghis equation:

Hansens equation:
For 0:
qu = cNcscdcicgcbc + qoNqsqdqiqgqbq + 0.5BNsdigb

For = 0:
qu = 5.14 cu (1 + sc + dc - ic bc - gc) + qo

Factors

Shape Factors

sc, sc , sq , s

Depth Factors

dc , dc , dq , d

Inclination Factors

ic , ic , iq , i

Ground Factors

gc, gc , gq , g

Base Factors

bc, bc , bq , b
63

64

c) Check for Bearing Capacity using Hansens theory

11

Example 5
Design of a Gravity Wall
A concrete cantilever wall is shown in the following figure.
Determine the value of B to reach a minimum global factor of
safety of 2 for overturning stability of the wall.
Groundwater table is 5m
below the base of the wall.
The effect of passive force
due to soil should be
included in your calculations.
(NOTE: no need to determine
the factor of safety for sliding
stability or bearing capacity
strength.)

Solution of Example 5

12

Resisting Moments

4
2
1
3

Australian Standard

AS 4678-2002 Earth Retaining Structures

specifies a limit state design approach for
earth retaining walls.
All

loads are increased by appropriate load

factors.
Load

factors:

1.5 for live loads, minimum live load of 5 kPa.

1.0 for hydrostatic pressures.
1.25 to soil unit weight of disturbing forces
0.8 to soil unit weight of resisting forces

Australian Standard

Australian Standard

AS 4678-2002 Earth Retaining Structures

All strength properties are reduced by
appropriate strength reduction factors.

Factors vary depending upon the uncertainty

associated with soil parameters

Load factors:

Based mainly on AS 1170:

Load factor

Strength

Stability

Serviceability

Dead load of wall and contained soil

1.25

0.8

Dead load of earth pressure behind

wall

1.25

1.25

Dead load of fill in front of wall

0.8

0.8

Factors are different for c and , refer to

Water pressures on either side of wall

tables in the handout.

Live load on top of wall and contained

soil

1.5

0.7 or 0.4*

Live load on backfill behind wall

1.5

1.5

0.7 or 0.4*

Live load on fill in front of wall

* 0.7 for long term case and 0.4 for short term case

13

Australian Standard

Australian Standard

Strength reduction factors:

Cohesion, c, and friction angle, , are reduced by a

material strength factor, , so that the design cohesion, c*,
and the design friction angle, *, are:
c* = uc c
* = tan-1( u tan() )
Strength reduction factor

Fill class I
(98%)

Fill class II
(95%)

Uncontrolled
fill

Serviceability

Insitu soil

Drained parameters, c,
Strength

0.95

0.90

0.75

0.85

uc

0.90

0.75

0.50

0.70

1.0

0.95

0.90

1.00

uc

1.0

0.85

0.65

0.85

Design action effects need to be calculated for all possible

modes of failure (S*).
The design resistance effects (R*) is calculated for all
possible modes of failure by further reducing the resistance
effects by a structural classification factor, n.
n varies from 0.9 to 1.1
The design action effects must be less than the design
resistance effects:

n R* S*

Undrained parameters, cu
Strength

0.6

0.5

0.3

0.5

Serviceability

uc

0.9

0.8

0.5

0.75

Australian Standard

Structural classification factor

The Australian standard AS4678 takes into account the

consequence of failure of the retaining wall in design.

Strength analysis
G = Dead load (DL) factor

Consequence of failure

G = 1.25

Where failure would result in significant damage or

loss of life

0.9

Failure results in moderate damage and loss of

services

1.0

Failure results in minimal damage and loss of access

1.1

G = 1.25
Q=0

G = 0.8

Australian Standard
Stability analysis

Q=0

Q = 1.5

Australian Standard

Serviceability analysis

G = Dead load (DL) factor

G = Dead load (DL) factor

Q = Live load (LL) factor

Q = Live load (LL) factor

G = 0.8
Q=0

Q = 0.4

Q = 0.7

G = 1.0
G = 1.25

G = 0.8

Q = 1.5

Q = Live load (LL) factor

Structure
Type

Q = 1.5

G = 1.0
Q=0

G = 1.0

14

Example 6
Design of a Cantilever Wall
1.6m

Design based on
Australian Standard
AS 4678:
Structure type: 2
Uncontrolled Fill

0.4

1.5m

Minimum
Surcharge
5 kPa

Sand

4.4m

= 35o
t = 18 kN/m3

0.6m

t = 25 kN/m3

0.4m

Retaining Walls

Check for Overturning

(Structure Type: 2)

S* = 35 + 173 - 1.4
S* 207 kN.m

pmr

Gravity Forces

1 x 388 > 207 kN.m pmr

Check for Sliding

(Structure Type: 2)

The mass of soil above the

toe (front of the wall) is
ignored.
i.e. 3.7 kN.m pmr

15

Check for Bearing Capacity

Zone

Force (kN)

Arm (m)

0.4 x 4.6 x 31.25 = 57.5

0.05

Moment (kN.m)
-2.9

0.4 x 3.5 x 31.25 = 43.8

1.5 x 4.6 x 22.5 = 155.2

-155.2

7.5 x (1.5 + 0.4) = 14.2

0.8

-11.4

5
0.2 x 1.6 x 14.4 = 4.6
0.95
+4.4
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Total:
V = 277.9 kN pmr
-160.3 kN.m pmr
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Moments due to active force

due to Passive force

M = -160.3 + (35 + 173) - 1.4 = 46.3 kN.m pmr

THANK YOU
&

V = 277.9 kN pmr , H = (104 + 14) 7 = 111 kN pmr

e = M / V = 46.3 / 277.9 = 0.17 m
B = B 2e = 3.5 0.34 = 3.16 m

GOOD LUCK

Complete the solution for the bearing

capacity similar to the previous example.

16