Department of Chemistry

CHEM 1010
Chapter Review: Measurement
and Calculations in Chemistry

Instructor: Emily M.W. Tsang

E-mail: chetsang@ust.hk
Department of Chemistry, HKUST

Outline:
R.1 Scientific Measurement:
Quantitative Observations (vs. Qualitative Observations).

Uncertainty in Measurements: Accuracy vs. Precision

Significant Figures (Rules in Counting Sig. Figs.)

R.2 Calculation:
Significant Figures in Calculations

Dimensional Analysis

R.3 Classification of Matter:

States of Matter
Pure Substances vs. Mixtures

Physical Changes vs. Chemical Changes

R.4 Reading Assignment and Suggested End-of-Chapter Exercises

R.1: Scientific Measurements

quantitative observation
A scientific measurement is a ______________________.

Nature of Scientific Measurements:

A quantitative observation must contain two parts.

___________
a number
___________
a scale (or unit)
Examples
20 grams (g)
6.63 1034 jouleseconds (j . s)

In contrast, a qualitative observation does not involve a number

nor units.
Examples: the reaction releases gas, the substance has a fruity
odor.

R.1: Scientific Measurements

Fundamental SI Units
(SI abbreviated from French: Le Systme international d'units)

Physical Quantity
Mass
Length
Time
Temperature
Electric current
Amount of substance

Name of Unit

Abbreviation

kilogram
meter
second

kg
m
s

kelvin
ampere
mole

K
A
mol

R.1: Scientific Measurements

Prefixes are used in the SI system to change the size
of the unit.

Example: 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 gram = 103 g

5

R.1: Scientific Measurements

Prefixes are used in the SI system to change the size
of the unit.

Example: 1 picosecond (ps) = 0.001 nanosecond (ns) = 0.000000000001 s = 10-12 s

6

R.1: Scientific Measurements

Uncertainty in Measurements:

A measurement always has some degree of uncertainty.

uncertain digit
A digit that must be estimated is called the _______________.
In any measurements, we always record all the certain digits
the first uncertain digit
plus __________________________.

The number of significant figures in a measurement is equal to

the number of certain digits plus one:
no. of significant figures = no. of certain digits + 1
degree of certainty
Thus, the number of significant figures indicates ___________
___________ in our measurement.

Examples:
For 5.8, this number has 2 significant figures, and the uncertain digit is 8.
For 5.85, this number has 3 significant figures, and the uncertain digit is 5.
7

R.1: Scientific Measurements

Uncertainty in Measurements:
Example: Measurement of volume using a Buret

The volume is read at the bottom of

the liquid curve (or meniscus).
Meniscus of the liquid occurs at
about 20.15 mL.
Certain digits: 20.15
Uncertain digit: 20.15
No. of significant figures: ____
4

R.1: Scientific Measurements

Types of Error:
Random Error
________________

Occurs when a measurement has an equal

probability of being high or low.
i.e., when estimating the value of the last digit of a
graduated cylinder.

Systematic Error
________________

Error occurs in the same direction each time (i.e., it is

either always high or always low).
i.e., a balance having a defect causing it to always
over-estimate by 1.00 gram.
9

R.1: Scientific Measurements

Random Error vs. Systematic Error
Example: Dart
- assume the true value is the center (i.e. bull's-eye)

Large
________
random errors
(poor techniques)

Small
_______
random error
Large
_______
systematic error

Small
_______
random error
Small
_______
systematic error
10

R.1: Scientific Measurements

Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy
_______________
:

Agreement of a measured value with the true value.

Precision
________________
:

Degree of agreement among several repeated

measurements of the same quantity (i.e., the
reproducibility of a measurement).

11

R.1: Scientific Measurements

Accuracy vs. Precision
Example: Dart
- assume the true value is the center (i.e. bull's-eye)

Large random errors

(poor techniques)
Bad
______
precision
Bad
______
accuracy

Small random error

Large systematic error
Good
______
precision
Bad
______
accuracy

Small random error

No systematic error
Good
______
precision
12
Good
______ accuracy

R.1: Scientific Measurements

Accuracy and Precision
Precision

Good precision means small random error BUT

large systematic error
may still have _______________________.
Only if systematic error is absent, then we can
assume that high precision is an indication of
accuracy.
Accuracy

High accuracy means small random error and small

systematic error.
13

R.1: Scientific Measurements

Rules for Counting Significant Figures
Nonzero integers
Rule #1: ______________
always count as significant
figures.

3456 has 4 sig figs (significant figures).

34.56 has 4 sig figs
3.456 has 4 sig figs

14

R.1: Scientific Measurements

Rules for Counting Significant Figures
Rule #2: Counting Zeros (Three classes of zeros)
i.

Leading zero
_______________
are zeros that precede all the nonzero digits.
These do not count as significant figures.
i.e., 0.048 has 2 sig figs.

ii.

zeros between nonzero digits

Captive zeros are _________________________.
These always
count as significant figures.
16.07 has 4 sig figs.
20015 has 5 sig figs.

iii.

Trailing zeros are zeros at the right end of the number. They
are significant only if the number contains a decimal point.
9.300 has 4 sig figs.
150. has 3 sig figs.
0.00150 has 3 sig figs.
15

R.1: Scientific Measurements

Rules for Counting Significant Figures
infinite number
Rule#3. Exact numbers have an ________________
of
significant figures.
Examples:

1 inch = 2.54 cm, exactly

1 kg = 2.2 pounds, exactly
9 pencils (obtained by counting)
C = 2 r, the 2 is an exact number
Vsphere = r3, the 3 and the 4 are exact numbers

Important Note: Exact numbers never limit the number of

significant figures in a calculation.
16

R.1: Exponential (or Scientific) Notation:

Ambiguity in Counting Significant Figures:
For a number with trailing zeros but no decimal point,
the zeros may or may not be significant.
Example:
150 may have 2 or 3 sig figs
20000 may have 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 sig figs
350500 may have 4, 5 or 6 sig figs

How to avoid ambiguities in counting significant figures?

Exponential (or Scientific) Notation
=> Use of _________________________________

Example:

The number 350500 can be written

in different ways, depending on the
number of significant figures desired:

3.505 x 105 (4 sig figs)

3.5050 x 105 (5 sig figs)
3.50500 x 105 (6 sig figs)

Important Note: For numbers written in scientific notations, the number of significant
figures is simply equal to the number of digits (including all zero and non-zero digits). .17

R.2: Calculations
Significant Figures in Calculations
Rule #1: For multiplication or division, the result should have
the same number of significant figures as the number
least number of significant figures
with the ______________________________
(i.e.,
the least precise number).
Example:

1.342 5.5 = 7.381

4 s.f.

2 s.f.

7.4
2 s.f.

Least s.f.

18

R.2: Calculations
Significant Figures in Calculations
Rule #2: For addition or subtraction, the result should have
decimal places
the same number of _____________
as the number
least number of decimal places
with the ___________________________.
Examples:

23.445
7.83
31.275

6.071 x 10-5
8.2 x 10-6

3 decimal places

2 decimal places (least)

Corrected

31.28

2 decimal places

0.00006071 8 decimal places

0.0000082 7 decimal places (least)
0.00005251 corrected 0.0000525 7 decimal places
19
or 5.25 x 10-5

R.2: Calculations
Significant Figures in Calculations
Rule #2. For mixed operations, carry as many digits as
possible throughout the entire calculation, and then
round at the final result.
Example:
2 s.f.

3 s.f.

Useful Tips:
Do not round in the
intermediate steps, but write the
extra digits as superscripts, and
then round the result at the end.

(rounded to 1 dec. places)

20

R.2: Calculations
Significant Figures in Calculations

Exercise:
You have water in each graduated
cylinder shown. You then add both
samples to a beaker (assume that all of
the water is transferred).
Q1. How would you write the number
describing the total volume?

Q2. Which cylinder limits the accuracy of the

total volume?

2.8 mL

0.28 mL
21

R.2: Calculations
Dimensional Analysis (or Unit Conversion)

Use when converting from one unit to another unit.

Find the conversion relationship.
Derive the appropriate unit factor (i.e., to cancel the
unwanted units).
REMEMBER: The desired unit is placed at the numerator, the
unwanted unit is placed at the denominator.

Multiply the quantity to be converted by the unit factor.

Example: A chocolate bar is 4.50 inches long. What is the length in centimeter?
Step 1. Find the conversion relationship: 2.54 cm = 1 in
Step 2. Derive the unit factor: 2.54 cm or
1 in ?
1 in
2.54 cm
Step 3. Multiply by the unit factor: 4.50 in 2.54 cm = 11.4 cm
1 in

22

R.2: Calculations
Dimensional Analysis (or Unit Conversion)
Example: An iron sample has a mass of 4.50 lb.
What is its mass in grams?
Step 1: Find the conversion relationship(s):
1 kg = 2.205 lb
1 kg = 1000 g

Step 2: Derive the unit factor(s):

1 kg
&
2.205 lb

1000 g
1 kg

(to convert from lb to kg to g)

Step 3: Multiply by the unit factor(s):

4.50 lbs

1 kg
2.2046 lbs

1000 g
1 kg

= 2.04 103 g
23

R.2: Calculations
Temperature
Three scales for measuring temperature:

Fahrenheit (oF) scale

Celsius (oC) scale
Used in physical sciences
Kelvin (K) scale

24

R.2: Calculations
The Three Major Temperature Scales:

Carefully Note:
Zero points
Size of the degree unit
Conversion relationships

25

R.2: Calculations
Conversion Between Celsius (oC) and Kelvin (K) Scales

TC = TK 273.15
TK = TC + 273.15

Boiling
point of
water

The zero points are different

____________.
At TC = 0 oC, TK = 273.15 K
At TK = 0 K, TC = 273.15 K

Freezing
point of
water

The sizes of 1 degree unit are the

same
___________.

26

R.2: Calculations
Conversion Between Celsius (oC) and Fahrenheit (F)
Scales

The zero points are different

____________.
At TC = 0 oC, TF = 32 oF
At TF = 0 oF, TC = -17.8 oC

The sizes of 1 degree unit are different

________.
unit factor: 5oC or 9oF
9oF
5 oC
27

R.2: Calculations

Exercise:
At what temperature does C = F?

28

R.2: Calculations

Solution

Use one of the conversion equations such as:

5C
TC
TF
32 F
9F

Since C equals F, they both should be the

same value (designated as variable x).

Substitute in the value of x for both TC and TF.

Solve for x.
5C
x
x
32 F
9F
x = 40
So, Tc = TF = 40

29

R.2: Calculations
Density
of a substance per unit volume
Defined as the mass
_______________________________________.

Density =

mass
volume

(at a given T and P!) Why?

Unit of density = unit of mass / unit of volume (e.g., g/cm3 or g/mL)

Density is temperature- and
pressure-dependent
because of ___________
changes
in volume under different conditions
____________________
___________________.
In general, the trend in
density is:
solid
gas
liquid < _____
_____
< _____

(exceptions, e.g. H2O).

30

R.3: Classification of Matter

Matter

Anything occupying space and having mass.

Matter exists in three states.
Solid
Liquid
Gas

31

R.3: Classification of Matter

Example: The Three States of Water

In general, for a given

matter, the density is:
solid > liquid > gas
(exceptions exist!)
For water, density of
solid (ice) < liquid (water)
(an exception)

In general, for a given

matter, intermolecular
distance is:
Solid
Liquid > _____
Gas > _____
_____
Solid (Ice)
Fixed volume
Fixed shape

Liquid (Water)

Gas (Steam)

Fixed volume
No fixed shape

No fixed volume
No fixed shape

(assumes the shape of the

container)

(assumes the volume and

shape of the container)

In general, for a given

matter, intermolecular
interaction is:
Gas
Solid > _____
Liquid > _____
_____
32

R.3: Classification of Matter

Matter can exist as pure substances or mixtures
one type of molecules
Pure substances: consist of _________

(or free atoms)

______________________,
and have
constant composition.

Mixtures: consist of more than one type of

Distilled water

Cylinder of He gas

molecules (or free atoms), and have variable

composition.
Mixtures can be separated into pure
physical methods
substances by __________________
(i.e.,
evaporation, distillation, filtration,
chromatography).

Tea

Brass (metal alloy

of Cu and
33Zn)

R.3: Classification of Matter

Pure substances can be classified as elements and compounds.
are substances composed of one type
Elements: ______________________

of atoms
_______________________.
Elements
cannot be decomposed into simpler
substances by chemical or physical
processes.
e.g., diamond, helium gas, gold, etc.

Fullerene
Bulky ball (C60)

Compounds: are composed of more

than one type of atoms. Compounds can
be further broken down into elements by
chemical processes
_______________________.
e.g., water, salt, ethanol, CO2, etc.
Acetone (CH3COCH3)34

R.3: Classification of Matter

Mixtures can be further classified as homogeneous or
heterogeneous mixtures.
uniform
Homogeneous Mixtures: have ________

composition
_____________________
throughout a given
sample (with visibly indistinguishable parts).
e.g., salt solution, air, wine, alloys, etc.

Heterogeneous Mixtures: have nonuniform composition throughout a sample,

and contain more than one phase (with visibly
distinguishable parts).
e.g., sand in water, orange juice, wood, etc.

35

R.3: Classification of Matter

Change of a substance: physical and chemical changes.
Physical change: a change that converts
one physical state to another
a substance from _________________
_________________, without changing
its chemical composition.
i.e., boiling or freezing water

H2O(s)

H2O(l)

Chemical change: a change in which a given

substance becomes a new substance or
different chemical composition
substances with______________________
____________________.
i.e., electrolysis of H2O into H2 and O2 gases.
H2O(l)

H2(g) + O
362(g)

R.3: Classification of Matter

Physical
methods

37

R.4 Reading Assignment and Suggested Exercises

Reading assignment:
Review Measurement and Calculations in Chemistry. pp.1-29

Suggested End-of-Chapter Questions

(Answers are given at the back of textbook):
13, 15, 17, 23, 25, 27, 31.
41,
47, 53
61, 62, 63, 65, 69

38