Stress-Strain Behaviour of Flowable Fill

Geotech Geol Eng (2009) 27:341354
DOI 10.1007/s10706-008-9233-0
ORIGINAL PAPER
StressStrain Behaviour of Flowable Fill

M. C. Nataraja Y. Nalanda
Received: 3 July 2006 / Accepted: 17 June 2008 / Published online: 8 July 2008
Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2008
Abstract Flowable fill is a self-levelling and selfcompacting, cementitious material which is primarily
used as a backfill. It is a mixture of fine aggregates,
small amount of cement, water and a by-product
material. In this present experimental study, three
industrial by-products namely fly ash, rice husk ash and
quarry dust were used as constituent materials in
flowable fill. Mix proportions were developed for
different combination of these industrial by-products,
in addition to small amount of cement content. The
main objective of the present investigation is to study
the stressstrain behaviour of these mixes, namely
unconfined compressive strength (UCS), strain corresponding to peak stress, strain corresponding to
fracture and modulus of elasticity. In addition, several
mixes were tested for few other properties such as
flowability, density, water-absorption and volume
changes. The range of strengths, strains and moduli
of elasticity obtained for these flowable fill mixtures
represents different types of clay soils ranging from
soft clays to very stiff clays. Thus, industrial byproducts such as fly ash, rice husk ash and quarry dust
can be beneficially added in flowable fill that offers
M. C. Nataraja (&)
Sri Jayachamarajendra College of Engineering,
Mysore 570 006, Karnataka, India
e-mail: nataraja96@yahoo.com
Y. Nalanda
Karekar and Associates, Bangalore 560 054, Karnataka,
India
comparable strengths to soils used for conventional

fills and many other low-strength applications.
Keywords Flowable fill Industrial by-products
Flowability Unconfined compressive strength
Stressstrain behaviour Modulus of elasticity
1 Introduction
Flowable fill, also known as controlled low strength
material is a self-compacting, low-strength, cementitious material used primarily as backfill, void-fill and
utility bedding in place of conventional compacted
fill. It has the unique properties of a high-strength soil
and a low-strength cementitious material. As defined
by ACI Committee 229 (1999), flowable fill is a selfcompacting cementitious material that is in a flowable state at the time of placement and has a specified
compressive strength of 8.3 MPa or less at the age of
28 days. Flowable fill requires no compaction or
vibration to achieve maximum density and the
desired strength. Because of potential cost savings
related to its unique and often superior technical
properties, flowable fill can provide an economically
and technically feasible alternative to conventional
fill materials. Flowable fills are characterized by very
high workability, low density and low strength, which
allow for self-compaction. It exhibits very little
settlement and has bearing strengths greater than that
provided by native soil.
123
342
Several terms are currently used to describe

flowable fill such as flowable mortar, unshrinkable
fill, flow-crete, controlled density fill, lean-mix
backfill, lean concrete backfill, lean concrete slurry,
plastic soil-cement, soil-cement slurry and K-Krete.
Terms such as foamed concrete and cellular concrete
are typically used to refer to CLSM used in roof and
floor toppings and insulating applications. In order to
reduce the cost and to ensure low maximum
compressive strengths, by-product materials such as
fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag
(GGBFS), and waste foundry sand are usually used
in flowable fills. Non-standard materials may be used
to produce flowable fill as long as the materials have
been tested and found to satisfy the intended
application.
2 Literature Review
Significant research work has been reported in the
field of flowable fill. Interest in flowable fill has
increased significantly in recent years, in the area of
publications and for use in construction. Previous
researchers have evaluated the various engineering
properties of flowable fill such as flowability, unconfined compressive strength, density, volume changes,
stressstrain behaviour, volume stability by using
different by-product materials. Some of the waste
materials that are being used in flowable fill are fly
ash, bottom ash, blast furnace slag, foundry sand,
pulverised rubber tires, cement kiln dust, flue gas
desulfurisation materials.
Industrial by-products such as cement kiln dust,
asphalt dust, coal fly ash, coal bottom ash, foundry
sand and quarry waste were tested for the production
of CLSM. Large values of compressive strength up to
6 MPa, were obtained at later ages (90 days) when
materials that may have pozzolanic or cementing
properties were used. Increasing the cement content
reduced shrinkage and the tendency to cracking,
while increasing the fine content significantly
increased the shrinkage (Katz and Kovler 2004).
Flue gas desulfurisation (FGD) materials have low
unit weight and good shear strength characteristics
and thus hold promise for flowable fill applications.
The UCS test results showed that FGD flowable fill
gains sufficient strength for various flowable fill
applications (Butalia et al. 2001).
123
Crumb rubber from scrap tires was used to produce

a high quality, lightweight flowable fill because of its
low specific gravity. Reasonable flowability,
improved ductility and higher thermal insulation
were achieved using crumb rubber in flowable fill,
when compared to standard flowable fill (Pierce and
Blackwell 2003). The low strength property of
cement kiln dust (CKD) can be advantageous when
used in CLSM because most applications require
future excavatability. The flowability and setting
times within 24 h could be achieved with most
mixtures. CKD can be beneficially added to produce
a very low-strength material due to the smaller
amount of lime and silica present in CKD, that offers
comparable strengths to soils used for conventional
fills and many other low-strength applications (Pierce
et al. 2003).
Cement by-pass dust was utilised successfully in
the flowable fill mixtures. The strength of the mixes
varies quite significantly because of the considerable
difference in the amount of water added to reach the
required slump. The quantities of materials used in
each mix would also influence the strength and slump
values (Taha et al. 2004). Foundry sand is becoming
a more viable product for use in CLSM because of its
lower cost, increasing availability, and satisfactory
performance. By-product foundry sand used in
CLSM provides better properties to that of CLSM
containing crushed limestone sand (Tikalsky et al.
2000). Spent casting sand can be used as a constituent
in CLSM. Uniform size of the spent casting sand can
provide good flowability and its lower cost enhances
its economic advantage as a constituent in CLSM
(Tikalsky et al. 1998). Dingrando et al. (2004) have
made an extensive study on the use of foundry sand
in the production of CLSM. They have analysed the
flow behaviour and the un-confined compressive
strength of CLSM with foundry sand mainly depends
on the amount of bentonite present in the sand. They
have observed that foundry sand containing about 6%
of bentonite has many advantages.
Nagaraj et al. (2006) analysed the flow behaviour
of CLSM slurries. In their investigation, they considered the binary combination of cement and fly ash
as the cementing material for the analysis of flow
behaviour. They observed that the flow behaviour of
controlled low strength materials follows a pattern in
accordance with Lyse rule. According to Nmai et al.
(1997), CLSM can be classified as either regular or
343
low-density, depending on the density. Mixtures that

have a density of 800 kg/m3 or more are generally
classified as regular CLSM (Reg-CLSM) and those
with a density less than that are classified as lowdensity CLSM (LD-CLSM). Regular CLSM consist
of cement, fly ash, fine aggregate, water and/or airentraining admixtures whereas, LD-CLSM consist of
foaming agent in addition to cement, fly ash and
water.
Presently in India, large amount of industrial byproducts are generated and are being used in concrete
making and to some extent in the production of
flowable fill mixtures. Rice husk ash has not been
used in many studies. Keeping this in mind an
attempt has been made to study some of the
properties of flowable fill using fly ash, rice husk
ash and quarry dust along with sand and cement.
2.1 Objectives and Research Significance
The stressstrain behaviour of flowable fill is very
important as it represents the type of clay soils. As
flowable fill is used in applications where soil-like
materials are used, the stressstrain behaviour serves
as an indicator for flowable fill to use in those
applications. After observing the various research
works and gaining importance of flowable fill in India
and abroad, the present investigation on the stress
strain behaviour of flowable fill has been made.
The objectives of the present research are:
To study the unconfined compressive strength and

stressstrain behaviour of various flowable fill
mixes.
To investigate flow characteristics for different
flowable fill mixes.
Table 1 Properties of
cement used
To evaluate the other engineering properties of

flowable fill mixes such as density, water absorption and volume changes.
3 Materials and Mix Proportions

3.1 Materials Used
3.1.1 Cement
Cement used for the present research was 43 Grade
ordinary Portland cement. The properties of cement
that was used conforms to the requirements of IS
8112-1989 (1989) as shown in Table 1.
3.1.2 Fly Ash (FA)
Fly ash is a by-product from coal based thermal
power plants. Fly ash for the present research has
been obtained from the Raichur thermal power plant,
Karnataka. The fly ash passes completely through 90micron sieve. The specific gravity of fly ash used in
the research was 2.1. Fly ash is Class F type and is
not self cementitious. Its composition is shown in
Table 2.
3.1.3 Rice Husk Ash (RHA)
RHA is a very fine pozzolanic material and its
particle size and specific surface depend upon the
burning conditions under which it is produced. The
rice husk ash used in the present research was
obtained from the local brick industry. In brick
industry, rice husk was used as a fuel to burn the
Sl no.
Properties
Test results
IS 8112-1989 requirements
Standard consistency (%)
30
No standard value
Setting time (min)

(a) Initial setting time
138
Not less than 30
(b) Final setting time
242
Not more than 600
3.12
No standard value
3 days
24.41
23
7 days
37.45
33
28 days
44.14
43
Specific gravity
Compressive strength (MPa)
123
344
Table 2 Composition of fly ash

Compound
SiO2
Al2O3
CaO
MgO
Na2O
Fe2O3
SO3
LOI
Test value (%)
76.31
15.55
1.2
0.6
0.6
4.29
0.12
2.3
Table 3 Composition of rice husk ash

Compound
SiO2
Al2O3
CaO
MgO
Na2O
Fe2O3
SO3
K2O
LOI
Test value (%)
81.71
8.33
0.99
1.25
1.19
3.34
0.27
2.38
1.5
3.1.4 Sand
The sand used for the present study was a natural
river sand. The sand passing through 4.75 mm sieve
was used. The sand conforms to grading zone III as
per IS 383-1970 (1970). The properties of sand such
as specific gravity and fineness modulus determined
as per IS: 2386-1963 (1982) were 2.68 and 2.54,
respectively.
100
80
Percent passing
bricks. The ash obtained from burning rice husk has

been pulverised in a flourmill to obtain finer rice husk
ash. The specific gravity of rice husk ash was found
to be 2.04. The rice husk ash passes completely
through 90-micron sieve. Rice husk ash is also not
self cementitious. Its composition is shown in
Table 3.
60
40
20
Sand
Quarry dust
0
0.1
10
Sieve size (log10 mm)
Fig. 1 Gradation of sand and quarry dust
development of the mixture. Tap water of good

quality was used for the present investigation.
3.1.5 Quarry Dust
3.2 Mix Proportions
For the present research, quarry dust obtained from

nearby quarry was used. Quarry dust consists mainly
of excess fines generated from crushing, washing, and
screening operations at quarries. The quarry dust
passing through 4.75 mm sieve was used. Quarry
dust does not conform to any of the grading zone as
specified by IS 383-1970 (1970), as the material is
deficient in certain fractions. Specific gravity and
fineness modulus of quarry dust determined as per IS:
2386-1963 (1982) were 2.63 and 2.03, respectively.
The gradation curves for sand and quarry dust are
shown in Fig. 1.
Description of the various flowable fill mixes is

presented in Table 4. In the present investigation, 32
mixtures were studied for flow characteristics and 13
different mixtures were evaluated for other engineering properties such as unconfined compressive
strength, density, water absorption and volume
changes. Eight mixtures were analysed for stress
strain behaviour. The mix proportions of various
flowable fill mixes that were evaluated for engineering properties are presented in Table 5. Table 5 also
shows the flow, watercement ratio (w/c), water
cementitious materials ratio (w/cm) of the mixes at
the time of casting the specimens. The watercement
ratio was determined for a flow of 200 mm for all the
mixtures based on the flow test. As bleeding was
observed in case of mixes CS1 and CS2, less water
cement ratio was considered which has resulted in
3.1.6 Water
The amount of water in a flowable fill mix has a
direct effect on the flowability and strength
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345
4 Experimental Procedure
Table 4 Description of various CLSM mixtures used

Mix
no.
Mix
identification
Mix
Proportion
CFS
Cement:Fly ash:Sand
1:12:50
CRS
Cement:Rice husk
ash:Sand
1:12:50
CS1
Cement:Sand
1:25
CS2
Cement:Sand
1:12.5
CQ
Cement:Quarry dust
1:12.5
CFQ
1:12:50
CRQ
Cement:Fly ash:Quarry
dust
Cement:Rice husk
ash:Quarry dust
CF1
Cement:Fly ash
1:17.5
CF2
Cement:Fly ash
1:10
10
CF3
Cement:Fly ash
1:5
11
CR1
Cement:Rice husk ash
1:17.5
12
CR2
1:10
13
CR3
1:5
The experimental program was performed to study

the various engineering properties of flowable fill
mixtures. Standard test procedures were adopted to
evaluate the engineering properties of flowable fill
such as flowability, unconfined compressive strength,
stressstrain behaviour, density, water absorption and
shrinkage.
4.1 Flowability
1:12:50
The flowability test was conducted using an openended 75 mm 9 150 mm cylinder in accordance
with ASTM D 6103 (2002). The table was cleaned
of all gritty material and was oiled. The cylindrical
mould was set upright on the centre of the table.
Fresh flowable fill mixture was filled to the top of the
plastic cylinder without tamping and the top was
strike off with flat edge to form a flat surface. The
residue from around the bottom of the mould was
cleared. The mould was lifted straight up allowing the
sample to spread on the flat surface. The diameter of
the spread was measured as the flow of fresh CLSM.
The resulting flow diameter in two perpendicular
directions was measured. A spread of 175225 mm is
considered flowable. For the present investigation, 32
different CLSM mixtures were studied for flow
characteristics.
flow values of 163 and 165 mm, respectively. The

mixtures included in this study represent a range of
materials and proportions. In these mixtures, fly ash
and rice husk ash were used as finer materials
whereas sand and quarry dust were used as coarser
materials. The percentage of cement varies from a
minimum of 1.59% for mixes CFS, CRS, CFQ and
CRQ to a maximum of about 16.67% for mixes CF3
and CR3 as observed in Table 5.
Table 5 Mix Proportions of different CLSM mixtures

Mix
CFS
CRS
CS1
CS2
CQ
CFQ
CRQ
CF1
CF2
CF3
CR1
CR2
CR3
Cement (Kg/m3)
30
30
75
144
60
30
30
102
159
276
72
118
195
Fly ash (Kg/m3)
360
360
360
1,785
1,590
1,380
Rice husk ash (Kg/m3)

Sand (Kg/m3)
1,500
360
1,500
1,875
1,800
1,260
1,180
975
Quarry dust (Kg/m3)
1,500
1,500
1,500
Water (Kg/m )
495
900
563
576
180
390
870
714
636
621
1,368
1,328
1,170
w/c
16.5
30.0
7.5
4.0
3.0
13.0
29.0
7.0
4.0
2.3
19.0
11.3
6.0
w/cm
1.3
2.3
1.0
2.2
0.4
0.4
0.4
1.0
1.0
1.0
Flow (mm)
195
210
163
165
205
208
203
215
205
202
210
200
204
Cement (%)
1.59
1.59
3.85
7.41
3.85
1.59
1.59
5.41
9.09
16.67
5.41
9.09
16.67
Fly ash (%)
19.05
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
19.05
19.05
94.59
90.91
83.33
0.00
0.00
0.00
Rice husk ash (%)
0.00
19.05
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
94.59
90.91
83.33
Sand (%)
79.37
79.37
96.15
92.59
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Quarry dust (%)
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
96.15
79.37
79.37
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
123
346
4.2 Unconfined Compressive Strength and

StressStrain Behaviour
The most important hardened property of flowable fill
is its strength, measured as unconfined compressive
strength. As flowable fill is primarily used as backfill
or structural fill, compressive strength tests only serve
as indicators of the bearing capacity of the materials.
Strength development in flowable fill mixtures is
directly related to the components of the mix. The
cubes of size 50 mm 9 50 mm 9 50 mm and cylinders of 75 mm 9 150 mm were cast and tested for
unconfined compressive strength. Before casting
cylinders for testing, the plastic cylindrical moulds
were cut lengthwise from top to bottom, exactly into
two halves. The two halves were kept against one
another and tied throughout with rubber band to take
care of any expansion while filling the mix into the
moulds. The specimens were cast taking into consideration that the flow to be approximately 200 mm.
Therefore, to achieve 200 mm flow, watercement
ratio for a particular type of mix was taken from flow
test results. The fresh mixture was placed into the
moulds and finished smoothly. Because of the selfcompacting nature of flowable fill, the cubes and
cylinders were not rodded or vibrated. However, they
were tapped lightly with a metal rod to remove
entrapped air. Eighteen cubes (using Mould Three
Gang) and ten cylinders were cast for compressive
strength tests. Six cube specimens and three cylinder
specimens from each flowable fill mix were tested for
7, 28 and 60-days strengths. Loading was applied to
the specimens through a loading frame consisting of
high sensitivity proving ring of 10 kN capacity at an
uniform strain rate until failure. Stressstrain behaviour was also recorded during the testing. 7, 28 and
60-days stressstrain behaviour was determined for
mixes CF2, CF3, CR1, CR2 and CR3. However, for
some mixtures (CQ, CFQ and CRQ), only 60-days
stressstrain behaviour was recorded.
4.3 Density
Densities of the mixes were calculated at the time of
testing for unconfined compressive strength. In
addition, densities of the mixes in saturated dry
condition were found. Three cube and three cylinder
specimens were weighed and the dimensions of the
specimens were found out accurately. Then, the
123
average dry density was calculated in kg/m3. The

specimens were kept in water for 24 h and the
weights of the specimens were taken in saturated
surface dry condition. Then, the saturated surface dry
density was calculated in kg/m3.
4.4 Water Absorption
Water absorption test for each mix was conducted at
the age of 28 days. Three cubical specimens from each
mix were weighed and kept in water for 30 min. The
specimens were taken out from the water and again
weighed. Then, the specimens were kept dried for
about 48 h. Again, weights of the specimens were
taken and the specimens were kept in water for 24 h.
After 24 h, the specimens were taken out from water
and were weighed. Then the average percentage water
absorption for 30 min and 24 h were calculated.
4.5 Volume Changes
The volume changes were measured at 24 h after
mixing. 25 mm 9 25 mm 9 250 mm shrinkage bars
were used for testing the volume changes. The water
cement ratio for a flow of about 200 mm was considered from the flow test results and the fresh mix was
prepared. The mix was then poured into the shrinkage
bar. Three shrinkage bars were cast for each mix. Initial
length of the specimen was noted and change in length
was measured using slide callipers after 24 h. If any
cracks were noticed for a particular mix, crack widths
were also measured. Then the average change in length
was calculated. The average shrinkage of the mix was
expressed as a percentage.
5 Experimental Results and Discussion

5.1 Flowability
Flowability test was conducted using an open-ended
75 mm 9 150 mm cylinder in accordance with
ASTM D 6103 2002. For each sample, starting from
the flow of about 175 mm, flow test was conducted.
The watercement ratio was gradually increased to get
higher flows up to a range of about 275 mm. For this
flow range i.e., from 175 to 275 mm, watercement
ratio for different mixes was tabulated. Graphs of
flowability v/s water/cement ratio for different mixes
347
C:F =1:5
C:F =1:10
C:F =1:15
C:F =1:20
C:F =1:22.5
C:F =1:25
C:F =1:17.5
Flow (mm)
300
250
200
150
1
11
13
w/c
Fig. 2 Flow versus watercement ratio for Cement and Fly

ash mixes
were plotted. The effect of watercement ratio on the

flowability for different flowable fill mixes is studied.
The flowability increased consistently with an
increasing watercement ratio, regardless of the type

of the mix. All combinations do possess the required
flow as per requirements. The typical variation of flow
in presented in Fig. 2. From Fig. 2, it can be observed
that for the mixes containing fly ash, desired flow could
be achieved with less watercement ratio compared to
mixes containing rice husk ash. Also the mixes
containing quarry dust, desired flow could be achieved
with less watercement ratio compared to mixes
containing sand. Variation of flow is more or less of
the same pattern as shown in Fig. 2 even for other
combinations of ingredients.
5.2 Unconfined Compressive Strength
The specimens were tested for 7-, 28- and 60-days
compressive strengths. These results for cubes and
cylinders are presented in Table 6. Figure 3 shows
the photograph of cylindrical moulds used for casting
Table 6 Mean unconfined compressive strength and co-efficient of variation for different CLSM mixes
Mix identification Specimen type 7 days compressive strength
Mean (KPa)
CFS
CRS
CS1
CS2
CQ
CFQ
CRQ
CF1
C.O.V
28 days compressive strength
60 days compressive strength
Mean (KPa)
Mean (KPa)
C.O.V
C.O.V
Cube
47.49
0.20
73.33
0.35
90.00
0.36
Cylinder
30.40
0.22
52.61
0.21
65.93
0.22
Cube
50.00
0.22
76.67
0.33
98.40
0.28
Cylinder
34.37
0.24
56.31
0.20
74.39
0.32
Cube
43.87
0.20
63.33
0.17
76.67
0.15
Cylinder
30.50
0.20
51.37
0.27
61.33
0.09
Cube
206.67
0.25
273.43
0.17
301.84
0.11
Cylinder
154.10
0.24
269.70
0.12
289.96
0.20
Cube
986.67
0.12
1,210.00
0.07
1,231.53
0.05
Cylinder
867.80
0.08
933.00
0.05
963.33
0.03
Cube
Cylinder
361.17
190.90
0.12
0.08
380.00
213.33
0.10
0.07
392.84
220.20
0.13
0.12
Cube
56.67
0.25
69.72
0.12
79.52
0.12
Cylinder
41.90
0.33
53.12
0.13
56.27
0.14
Cube
560.00
0.17
616.67
0.12
607
0.12
Cylinder
365.00
0.20
404.37
0.12
424.00
0.10
0.05
CF2
Cube
1,506.67
0.13
1,629.27
0.15
1,691.57
CF3
Cube
4,011.33
0.04
4,233.53
0.06
4,315.99
0.05
CR1
Cube
194.83
0.06
223.09
0.08
233.53
0.04
Cylinder
160.18
0.07
176.11
0.13
180.11
0.14
Cube
303.33
0.04
328.77
0.07
339.20
0.08
Cylinder
260.59
0.11
281.35
0.05
287.29
0.08
Cube
493.33
0.06
525.12
0.07
548.60
0.07
Cylinder
449.06
0.05
487.10
0.06
498.80
0.04
CR2
CR3
123
348
Fig. 3 Photograph of cylindrical moulds used for casting the

specimens
the specimens. Photograph of testing of a cylindrical

and cubical specimen in unconfined compression can
be seen in Fig. 4a and b. Figure 5a and b shows the
photograph of the specimens failed in unconfined
compression. The results indicate that the quantity of
materials used in the mix would influence the
strength. In addition, the strength of the mixes varies
quite significantly because of the considerable difference in the amount of water added to reach a
desired flow of about 200 mm. It can be observed that
the strength of CLSM increases as the age increases.
However, the strength increase is only marginal. The
60-days strength is slightly more than its 28-days
strength. This is due to reduced pozzolanic activity of
the cementitious materials. The same trend was
observed in all the mixes as seen from Figs. 6 and 7.
Fig. 4 (a, b) Photograph of unconfined compressive strength testing for a cylindrical and cubical specimen
Fig. 5 (a, b) Photograph of flowable fill specimens failed in unconfined compression
123
(a)
7 days
1400
349
28 days
(b)
60 days
7 days
4500
28 days
60 days
4000
1200
3500
1000
UCS (kPa)
UCS (kPa)
3000
800
600
2500
2000
1500
400
1000
200
0
500
CFS CRS
CS1
CS2
CQ
CFQ CRQ
CF1
CF2
CF3
CR1
CR2
CR3
Fig. 6 (a, b) UCS of different mixes for cubical specimens
7 days
28 days
60 days
(b) 600
1000
500
800
400
UCS (kPa)
UCS (kPa)
(a) 1200
600
200
200
100
CFS
CRS
CS1
CS2
CQ
CFQ CRQ
28 days
60 days
300
400
7 days
CF1
CR1
CR2
CR3
Fig. 7 (a, b) UCS of different mixes for cylindrical specimens
The 28-days unconfined compressive strength of

all the mixes except mix CF3 were below 2 MPa
(2,000 KPa) i.e., they fall below the maximum
strength criterion for excavatability (ACI 229,
1999). Mix CF3 falls under the category of nonexcavatable fill, as its 28-days unconfined compressive strength was more than 2 MPa. From Table 6 it
can be observed that the 28-days cube strength of the
mixtures CFS, CRS, CS1, CS2 and CR1 and 28 day
cylinder strength of all the mixtures except mixes CQ
and CR3 was less than 300 kPa, which would allow
for manual excavation. In addition, the 28-days cube
strength and 28-days cylinder strength of mix CQ was
more than 700 kPa but less than 1,400 kPa, which
allow for excavation with mechanical equipment
such as backhoes (ACI 229, 1999). The 28-days cube
strength of mixtures containing quarry dust i.e., CQ,
CFQ and CRQ were 1,210, 380 and 69.72 kPa,

respectively. These values are representative of
medium and very stiff clays as investigated by
previous researchers. Also, the 28-days cylinder
strength of flowable fill mixes containing quarry dust
(CQ, CFQ and CRQ) comes under the category of
medium and very stiff clays.
The high strength obtained by the mixes containing fly ash can be clearly seen from Figs. 6 and 7,
resulting probably from the pozzolanic activity of the
material. The 28-days cube strength of mixtures
containing fly ash i.e., CF1, CF2 and CF3 were
617 kPa, 1,629 kPa and 4,234 MPa, respectively.
These values are representative of medium, very stiff
and hard clays as investigated by previous researchers. The consistency of hard clays with compressive
strengths greater than 422 kPa can also be achieved
123
350
5.3 StressStrain Behaviour

Axial stressstrain behaviour was recorded for both
cubes and cylinders during the unconfined compression test at the age of 60 days for mixes CQ, CFQ and
CRQ and at the age of 28 days for mixes CF2, CF3,
CR1, CR2 and CR3. However, the stressstrain
curves were plotted for cubes only. From Fig. 8, it
can be observed that for mixes CQ, CFQ and CRQ,
the strain corresponding to peak stress is about 0.02
to 0.03 and are well within the usual values for the
soft to medium clays (Duncan and Buchignani,
1973). From these curves it can be further observed
that the stress in case of CLSM can be sustained to
nearly 0.035 or 3.5% strain before fracture (strain
corresponding to fracture) in case of mixes CFQ and
CRQ. However, for mix CQ this strain is up to 0.045
or 4.5% before fracture. This represents an increase in
ductility of the mix CQ compared to other two mixes.
From Figs. 9 and 10, it can be observed that the strain
corresponding to peak stress was about 0.04 to 0.06
for CF mixes and 0.02 to 0.04 for CR mixes. These
values are well within the limits for soft to medium
clays (Duncan and Buchignani, 1973). It can be
further observed from these Figs. 9 and 10 that the
123
CQ
1400
CFQ
CRQ
1200
Stress (kPa)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
Strain
Fig. 8 Stressstrain curves for mixes CQ, CFQ and CRQ at

60-days
stress in case of mixes CF2 and CF3 can be sustained

to nearly 0.052 or 5.2% and 0.075 or 7.5% strain,
respectively before fracture. For mixes CR1, CR2 and
CR3 this stress was sustained to 2.8, 3.6 and 4.8%
strain, respectively before fracture. These strain
values represent an increase in ductility compared
to standard flowable fill, which is about 2.5% strain
before fracture (Pierce and Blackwell 2003).
Modulus of elasticity, E was calculated as the
tangent to the stressstrain curve at 50% of maximum
stress. Modulus of elasticity increases as the strength
increases. The moduli of elasticity for different
mixtures were calculated and are shown in Tables 7
and 8. For a given mixture, the differences in
measured E form cube to cube are similar to the
differences in measured compressive strength. Average stressstrain values are considered for plotting
these curves. The ratio of Eavg/UCSavg was also
4500
CF2
CF3
4000
3500
Stress (kPa)
with C:F ratio of 1:5 (mix CF3). The 28-days cube

strength of mixtures containing rice husk ash i.e.,
CR1, CR2 and CR3 were 223, 329 and 525 kPa,
respectively representing a range of medium to very
stiff clays. This suggests that CLSM mixtures containing quarry dust, fly ash and rice husk ash can be
used in applications where conventional clay fill is
normally used, thus eliminating the compaction
requirement. These different mixtures can be specified for different applications with a varying range of
required strength.
Cube compressive strength of the specimen was
more than its corresponding cylinder compressive
strength as expected regardless of the type of the mix.
The mean unconfined compressive strength and the
co-efficient of variation of the different mixes based
on six specimens were calculated and tabulated as
shown in Table 6. The relation between the cube
compressive strength and cylinder compressive
strength has not been derived. This ratio appears to
depend on the type of mix and the amount of
ingredients. As such, no constant ratio exists between
these two strengths.
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
Strain
Fig. 9 Stressstrain curves for mixes CF2 and CF3 at 28-days

CR1
CR2
351
range of soft to medium clay. Thus the range of

CLSM mixtures considered in the present study
behaves in a similar manner to a wide range of clay
soils.
CR3
600
500
Stress (kPa)
400
5.4 Density
300
calculated for the mixes and the results are shown in

Tables 7 and 8. The reason for this calculation is to
show that the stressstrain behaviour of CLSM
mixtures investigated in the present study is similar
to clay soils in unconfined compression. Eavg/UCSavg
was less than 100 for all the mixes that were studied.
Experimental studies by Duncan and Buchignani
(1973) suggest that there are approximate lower and
upper bounds for Eavg/UCSavg of clays, where 50
represents very soft clay and 250 represents hard
clay. From the results, it can be observed that the
CLSM mixes used in the present study represents a
The density or unit weight of flowable fill mixtures is

dependent primarily on the unit weight of the filler or
aggregate material. Density of cubes and cylinders
were calculated and the average density considering
three cubes and three cylinders was calculated. In
addition, density of the mixes in saturated surface dry
condition was found. Table 9 shows the density and
saturated surface dry density of each mixes. It can be
observed from Table 9 that the average dry density of
all the mixtures was within 8991,832 kg/m3,
whereas the saturated surface dry density was within
1,3652,088 kg/m3. These values compare well with
the normal density of regular CLSM mixtures
specified as per ACI Committee 229 report. The
CLSM mixtures considered in the present study can
be classified as regular CLSM as the density of all the
mixes was more than 800 kg/m3 (Nmai et al. 1997).
The dry density of the mixes containing quarry dust
was more when compared to mixes containing sand.
However, the mixtures containing rice husk ash has a
low density than other mixtures due to its low specific
gravity (2.04).
Table 7 Average 28 day unconfined compressive strength and

modulus of elasticity for each mixture
Table 9 Dry density and saturated surface dry density of

different CLSM mixes
200
100
0
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
Strain
Fig. 10 Stressstrain curves for mixes CR1, CR2 and CR3 at

28-days
Mix
UCSavg (kPa)
CF2
1,629.27
47,727
CF3
4,233.53
114,286
CR1
223.09
Eavg (kPa)
12,143
Eavg/UCSavg (kPa)
Mix no. Mix identification Dry density Saturated surface

dry density (kg/m3)
(kg/m3)
29.29
27
CFS
1,777
1,988
54.43
CRS
1,330
1,612
CS1
1,623
2,088
CR2
328.77
12,857
39.11
CR3
525.12
15,625
29.76
CS2
1,791
2,082
CQ
1,832
2,067
CFQ
1,812
2,024
7
8
CRQ
CF1
1,340
1,328
1,598
1,682
CF2
1,360
1,685
Table 8 Average 60 days unconfined compressive strength

and modulus of elasticity for each mixture
Mix
UCSavg (kPa)
Eavg (kPa)
Eavg/UCSavg (kPa)
10
CF3
1,395
1,697
CQ
1,231.53
48,750
39.58
11
CR1
899
1,389
CFQ
392.84
25,000
63.64
12
CR2
932
1,372
CRQ
79.52
4,230.77
53.20
13
CR3
966
1,365
123
352

60
Water absorption after 30 min (%)

Water absorption after 24 hours (%)
40
30
20
10
crack width
2.5
Shrinkage (%)
Water absorption (%)
50
length change
1.5
0.5
CFS CRS CS1 CS2 CQ CFQ CRQ CF1 CF2 CF3 CR1 CR2 CR2
CF1
CF2
CF3
CR1
CR2
CR3
CFS
CRS
CFQ
CRQ
Fig. 11 Water absorption of different flowable fill mixes
Fig. 12 Shrinkage of different mixes during the first 24 h
5.5 Water Absorption
the largest shrinkage since the water dried out from

the bulk of the material rather than from the surface.
In all the mixes, increasing the cement content
reduced shrinkage and the tendency to cracking.
As the watercement ratio increases, shrinkage
increases as can be seen from Fig. 13. Less water
cement ratio was required for CF mixes to achieve a
desired flow of 200 mm and hence less shrinkage was
observed when compared to CR mixes. From Fig. 13
it can be noticed that a linear trend satisfies the
relationship between shrinkage and watercement
ratio in case of both CF and CR mixes.
Very small amount of shrinkage was observed in
case of mix CF1 (0.18%) after 28 days. However,
shrinkage was not observed for other mixes after
28 days. When the specimens were kept in water for
24 h, swelling was not observed for the mixes
containing fly ash (CF1, CF2 and CF3). Shrinkage
was not observed after 28 days but a large amount of
5.6 Volume Changes

The volume changes were measured at 24 h after
mixing (during setting). Figure 12 represents the sum
of the length changes as measured using slide calipers
(the bottom part of the bar) and the crack width
(upper part). The reduction in length in case of rice
husk ash mixes was almost double to that of fly ash
mixes. Wider cracks were observed in case of mixes
containing rice husk ash. The RHA mixes exhibited
123
RHA mixes
FA mixes
Linear (FA mixes)

Linear (RHA mixes)
2.5
Shrinkage (%)
Water absorption test for each mix was conducted.

Tests were conducted by keeping the specimens in
water for 30 min and 24 h, respectively. Percentage
water absorption of the mixes after 30 min ranges
from minimum of 10.67%, in case of CFQ mix; to
maximum of about 50.58% in case of CR1 mix.
Percentage water absorption of the mixes after 24 h
ranges from minimum of 11.68%, in case of CFQ
mix; to maximum of about 54.52% in case of CR1
mix. The water absorption in case of mixes containing rice husk ash was more compared to all other
mixes. This could be due to high porosity of the mix.
Percentage water absorption decreases as the cement
content increases. This can be observed in case of
cement and fly ash mixes, cement and rice husk ash
mixes and cement and sand mixes. It can be observed
from Fig. 11 that the percentage water absorption
after 30 min was approximately the same as that was
observed after 24 h. This shows that flowable fill
materials absorb maximum water with minimum
time.
y = 0.0781x + 1.1852
R2 = 0.9861
1.5
1
y = 0.1x + 0.14
R2 = 1
0.5
0
0
10
15
20
w/c
Fig. 13 Variation of shrinkage with respect to watercement

ratio
swelling was observed in case of mixes CR1, CR2

and CR3. Relatively large volume changes accompanied by very low strength led to disintegration of
the mixes containing rice husk ash (CR1, CR2 and
CR3). Neither 28-days shrinkage, nor swelling were
observed in case of mixes CFS, CRS, CFQ and CRQ.
6 Conclusions
Following conclusions can be drawn based on the
results obtained from the experimental investigation:
The wide range of strength and modulus of

elasticity obtained with flowable fill mixtures
evaluated in the present study is similar to those
of clay soils. The stressstrain curves of these
mixes represent a range of behaviour from soft
clay to hard clay. By varying the amount of byproduct materials and water, it is possible to
create a self consolidating material with wide
range of hardened and fluid state properties for
field applications, provided the volume stability
meets normal requirements for CLSM. Thus,
when a soil like material applications are called
for, flowable fill containing industrial by-products
such as fly ash, rice husk ash and quarry dust can
be effectively used at reduced costs, as the
ingredients are cheaper and readily available.
From the stressstrain behaviour of the flowable
fill mixes evaluated in the present study, it can be
concluded that the flowable fill mixes represents a
range of soft to medium clays. In addition,
increase in ductility was observed for all the
mixes when compared to standard flowable fill.
In addition following observations were made

regarding the other properties of flowable fill:
Cube strength was more compared to cylinder

strength regardless of the type of the materials
used in the mix. As the age progresses, the
strength gets increased. The strength of the mixes
containing fly ash (CF1, CF2 and CF3) was more
when compared to the mixes containing rice husk
ash (CR1, CR2 and CR3). This may be due to
high pozzolanic activity of the fly ash. The
strength obtained in case of mixes containing
quarry dust (CQ, CFQ) was more when compared
to mixes containing sand (CS, CFS). However,
353
the strength obtained in case of mix CRS was

more than mix CRQ.
Increasing the cement content reduced the shrinkage and the tendency to cracking. The CR mixes
(CR1, CR2 and CR3) exhibited the largest
shrinkage since the water dried out from the bulk
of the material rather than from the surface.
Increasing watercement ratio increases shrinkage in case of both CF (CF1, CF2 and CF3) and
CR mixes. CR mixes which exhibited large
amount of early volume change and large amount
of swelling can be utilised for applications where
shrinkage and swelling are not of much important.
References
ACI Committee 229 (1999) Controlled low-strength materials
(CLSM) (ACI 229R-99). American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills
ASTM D 6103-97 (2002) Standard test method for flow consistency of controlled low strength material (CLSM).
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Butalia TS, Wolfe WE, Lee JW (2001) Evaluation of a dry
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Dingrando JS, Edil TB, Benson CH (2004) Beneficial reuse of
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IS 8112-1989 (1989) Specification for 43 grade ordinary
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Geotech Geol Eng (2009) 27:341354