ES3101: Advanced Structural Geology

Lecture 29: Foliations & their uses to decipher macrostructures

Reference: Chapter 12, Fossen; Chapter 11, Twiss & Moores,
Paschier & Trouw

Relationship b/w foliation (cleavage or schistosity) and folds

Axial Planar Cleavage

Fabric developed parallel to hinge surface of folds

Axial Planar Cleavage

Axial Plane Cleavage

Axial Plane Cleavage

Axial Plane Cleavage

How do we use cleavage to arrive at larger structure?!

Bedding-cleavage angle

Cleavage Bedding Relationship

Cleavage
steeper than
bedding

Bedding
steeper than
cleavage

Cleavage Bedding Relationship

Does it work?

Folding & Cleavage

A layer may respond to bending/buckling by :
1. Orthogonal flexure
2. Flexural Shear/Flexural Flow
Orthogonal Flexure

Lines perpendicular to layers before folding remain so after folding

Orthogonal thickness of the layer remains constant around the fold

Neutral Surface: Surface along which the stretch is 1; no layer parallel length
change during folding.
Orthogonal flexure characteristic of folds with low curvature in competent layers; as
curvature increases orthogonality condition can not be maintained.

Very Rare

Fanning of the Cleavage/

Cleavage refraction

Early Layer Parallel Shortening

Cleavage Perpendicular to Bedding

Fanning of the Cleavage/

Cleavage refraction

Early Layer Parallel Shortening

Cleavage Perpendicular to Bedding

Folding & Cleavage

1. Orthogonal flexure
2. Flexural Shear/Flexural Flow
Flexural Shear/Flexural Flow

Shear magnitude decreases from limb to hinge, and changes

sense across the hinge surface
Thickness of the layer measured perpendicular to the shear planes is constant.

Flexural Flow: Folding accommodated by simple shear parallel to the layer, there is
no lengthening & shortening, respectively, of the outer & inner arc of the fold.
Flexural shear folding occurs if the layer is less competent/ has strong planar mechanical
anisotropy/ strong foliation parallel to the layer.

Fanning of the Cleavage

Cleavage Refraction

(slate)
(sandstone)
(siltstone)

Cleavage refraction:
Change in orientation of cleavage as a function of lithology

Fanning of the Cleavage

(Fanning Cleavage)

Timing of Foliation development w.r.t. Folding

(Modified after Mitra and Elliot, 1980)

Transposition (transposed foliation)

Transposition (transposed foliation)

Homogeneous
composition, before
migration of quartz

Compositionally
distinct bands in the
rock

Complete
transposition of the
S1 into S2

Transposition (transposed foliation)

Isoclinal intrafolial folds

Origin of tectonic foliation

Mechanical changes

1. Flattening (plastic deformation)

2. Rotation

Crystallization

3. Growth of new grains

4. Pressure Solution & Grain Growth

dissolution
reprecipitation

Rieckes Principle

Mechanical changes
Flattening (Plastic deformation)

Original Grain Boundaries preserved

Mechanical changes
Flattening

Crystallization & Recrystallization

Growth of new grains

Crystallization & Recrystallization

Grain size reduction by plastic deformation (Mylonitic foliation)

Pressure Solution & Grain Growth

Rieckes Principle
dissolution
reprecipitation

Original grain boundaries are not preserved

ES3101: Advanced Structural Geology

Lecture 30: Lineations & their uses to decipher macrostructures

Reference: Chapter 12, Fossen; Chapter 11, Twiss & Moores,
Paschier & Trouw

Tectonic Lineation

Slickenlines
Crenulation hinges
Cleavage bedding intersection lineation
Mineral lineation
Stretched ellipsoidal markers
Boudinage

1. Slickenside lineation (slickenline)

fibrous

grooves

 Crenulation hinges

2. Fold hinges

Intersection Lineation

Intersection Lineation (Striping lineation)

Fold Orientation

Can you interpret the geometry of an upright fold, a vertical fold, a reclined fold
using intersection lineation?

Fold Orientation

Intersection lineation between folded bed & axial foliation parallels the hinge line
for cylindrical folds

4. Mineral Lineations
elongate grains

Mineral Lineations

lineation and
foliation

just a lineation

tabular grains e.g. feldspars

Other Markers

e.g. pebbles, fossils