Nyquist Criterion
Eye Diagram
Convenient way to observe the effect of ISI and channel noise on an
oscilloscope.
Eye Diagram
For PAM signals,we can display the received signal
y(t) on the vertical input with the horizontal sweep
rate set at 1/T. The resulting oscilloscope display is
called an eye pattern because of its resemblance to the
human eye
Eye Diagram
Oscilloscope presentations of a signal with multiple sweeps (triggered by a
clock signal!), each is slightly larger than symbol interval.
Quality of a received signal may be estimated.
Normal operating conditions (no ISI, no noise) -> eye is open.
Large ISI or noise -> eye is closed.
Timing error allowed width of the eye,
called eye opening (preferred sampling
time at the largest vertical eye opening).
Sensitivity to timing error -> slope of the
open eye evaluated at the zero crossing
point.
Noise margin -> the height of the eye
opening.
In the above case, the symbol time is 1 second. The symbol rate
hence is also equal to 1.
The frequency response of the square pulse is in the shape of a sinc
function (sin x/x).
It has a maximum amplitude of ATs and it crosses the zero
amplitude at integer multiples of Rs.
The lowpass bandwidth which is defined as the distance from origin
to the first zero crossing, is equal to the symbol rate or, 1 Hz. The
bandpass case is twice that.
The first part is the sinc pulse. The second part is a cosine correction
applied to the sinc pulse to make it behave better.
The sinc pulse insures that the function transitions at integer multiples of
symbol rate which makes it easy to extract timing information of the signal.
The cosine part works to reduce the excursion in between the sampling
instants.
The bandwidth is now adjustable. It can be any where from 1/2 Rs to Rs. It
is greater than the Nyquist bandwidth by a factor (1+ ).
For = 0, the above equation reduces to the sinc pulse, and for = 1, the
equation becomes that of a pure square pulse