What are yeast?

Yeast are unicellular fungi. The precise classification is a field that uses the characteristics of the
cell, ascospore and colony. Physiological characteristics are also used to identify species. One of the
more well known characteristics is the ability to ferment sugars for the production of ethanol.
Budding yeast are true fungi of the phylum Ascomycetes, class Saccharomycetes (also called
Hemiascomycetes). The true yeast is separated into one main order Saccharomycetales.
Yeast are characterized by a wide dispersion of natural habitats. Common on plant leaves and
flowers, soil and salt water. Yeast are also found on the skin surfaces and in the intestinal tracts of
warm-blooded animals, where they may live symbiotically or as parasites. The common "yeast
infection" is typically Candidiasis is caused by the yeast-like fungus Candida albicans. In addition to
being the causative agent in vaginal yeast infections Candida is also a cause of diaper rash and
thrush of the mouth and throat.
Yeast multiply as single cells that divide by budding (eg Saccharomyces) or direct division (fission,
eg. Schizosaccharomyces), or they may grow as simple irregular filaments (mycelium). In sexual
reproduction most yeast form asci, which contain up to eight haploid ascospores. These ascospores
may fuse with adjoining nuclei and multiply through vegetative division or, as with certain yeast, fuse
with other ascospores.
The awsome power of yeast genetics is partially due to the ability to quickly map a phenotype
producing gene to a region of the S. cerevisiae genome. For the past two decades S. cerevisiae has
been the model system for much of molecular genetic research because the basic cellular
mechanics of replication, recombination, cell division and metabolism are generally conserved
between yeast and larger eukaryotes, including mammals.
The most well-known and commercially significant yeast are the related species and strains of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae. These organisms have long been utilized to ferment the sugars of rice,
wheat, barley, and corn to produce alcoholic beverages and in the baking industry to expand, or
raise, dough. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is commonly used as baker's yeast and for some types of
fermentation. Yeast is often taken as a vitamin supplement because it is 50 percent protein and is a
rich source of B vitamins such as niacin, folic acid, riboflavin, and biotin.
In brewing, Saccharomyces carlsbergensis, named after the Carlsberg Brewery in Copenhagen,
where it was first isolated in pure culture by Dr. Emil Christian Hansen (1842-1909) in 1883, is used
in the production of several types of beers including lagers. S. carlsbergensis is used for bottom
fermentation. S. cerevisiae used for the production of ales and conducts top fermentation, in which
the yeast rise to the surface of the brewing vessel. In modern brewing many of the original top
fermentation strains have been modified to be bottom fermenters. Currently the S. carlsbergensis
designation is not used, the S. cerevisiae classification is used instead.
The yeast's function in baking is to ferment sugars present in the flour or added to the dough. This
fermentation gives off carbon dioxide and ethanol. The carbon dioxide is trapped within tiny bubbles
and results in the dough expanding, or rising. Sourdough bread, is not produced with baker's yeast,
rather a combination of wild yeast (often Candida milleri) and an acid-generating bacteria
(Lactobacillus sanfrancisco sp. nov). It has been reported that the ratio of wild yeast to bacteria in
San Francisco sourdough cultures is about 1:100. The C. milleri strengthens the gluten and the L.
sanfrancisco ferments the maltose. For more information about sourdough see rec.food.sourdough
FAQ.

The fermentation of wine is initiated by naturally occurring yeast present in the vineyards. Many
wineries still use natural strains, however many use modern methods of strain maintenance and
isolation. The bubbles in sparkling wines is trapped carbon dioxide, the result of yeast fermenting
sugars in the grape juice. One yeast cell can ferment approximately its own weight of glucose per
hour. Under optimal conditions S. cerevisiae can produce up to 18 percent, by volume, ethanol with
15 to 16 percent being the norm. The sulfur dioxide present in commercially produced wine is
actually added just after the grapes are crushed to kill the naturally present bacteria, mold, and
yeast.
The yeastlike fungus, Candida albicans, is commonly found in the mouth, vagina, and intestinal tract.
Candida is a normal inhabitant of humans and normally causes no ill effects. However, among
infants and individuals with other illness a variety of conditions can occur. Candidiasis of the mucous
membranes of the mouth is known as thrush. Candidiasis of the vagina is called vaginitis. Candida
also causes severe disease in persons with AIDS and chemotherapy patients.

History of yeast

Yeasts can be considered mans oldest industrial microorganism. Its likely that man used yeast before the
development of a written language. Hieroglyphics suggest that that ancient Egyptians were using yeast and the
process of fermentation to produce alcoholic beverages and to leaven bread over 5,000 years ago. The biochemical
process of fermentation that is responsible for these actions was not understood and undoubtedly looked upon by
early man as a mysterious and even magical phenomenon.

It is believed that these early fermentation systems for alcohol production

and bread making were formed by natural microbial contaminants of flour,
other milled grains and from fruit or other juices containing sugar. Such
microbial flora would have included wild yeasts and lactic acid bacteria
that are found associated with cultivated grains and fruits. Leaven,
referred to in the Bible, was a soft dough-like medium. A small portion of
this dough was used to start or leaven each new bread dough. Over the
course of time, the use of these starter cultures helped to select for
improved yeasts by saving a good batch of wine, beer or dough for
inoculating the next batch. For hundreds of years, it was traditional for
bakers to obtain the yeast to leaven their bread as by-products of brewing
and wine making. As a result, these early bakers have also contributed to
the selection of these important industrial microorganisms.

It was not until the invention of the microscope

followed by the pioneering scientific work of Louis
Pasteur in the late 1860s that yeast was identified as a living organism and the agent
responsible for alcoholic fermentation and dough leavening. Shortly following these discoveries,
it became possible to isolate yeast in pure culture form. With this new found knowledge that
yeast was a living organism and the ability to isolate yeast strains in pure culture form, the stage
was setfor commercial production of bakers yeast that began around the turn of the 20th
century. Since that time, bakers, scientists and yeast manufacturers have been working to find
and produce pure strains of yeast that meet the exacting and specialized needs of the baking
industry.

What is Yeast?

Yeasts are single-celled fungi. As fungi, they are related to the other fungi that people are more familiar with. These
include edible mushrooms available at the supermarket, common bakers yeast used to leaven bread, molds that
ripen blue cheese and the molds that produce antibiotics for medical and veterinary use. Many consider edible yeast
and fungi to be as natural as fruits and vegetables.

Yeast Cells
Over 600 different species of yeast are known and they are widely distributed in nature. They are found in association
with other microorganisms as part of the normal inhabitants of soil, vegetation, marine and other aqueous
environments. Some yeast species are also natural inhabitants of man and animals. While some species are highly
specialized and found only in certain habitats at certain times of the year, other species are generalists and can be
isolated from many different sources.
Bakers yeast is used to leaven bread throughout the world and it is the type of yeast that people are most familiar
with. Bakers yeast is produced from the genus and species of yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The scientific
name of the genus of bakers yeast, Saccharomyces, refers to saccharo meaning sugar and myces meaning
fungus. The species name, cerevisiae, is derived from the name Ceres, the Roman goddess of agriculture. Bakers
yeast products are made from strains of this yeast selected for their special qualities relating to the needs of the
baking industry.

The typical yeast cell is approximately equal in size to a human red blood cell and is spherical to ellipsoidal in shape.
Because of its small size, it takes about 30 billion yeast cells to make up to one gram of compressed bakers yeast.
Yeast reproduce vegetatively by budding, a process during which a new bud grows from the side of the existing cell
wall. This bud eventually breaks away from the mother cell to form a separate daughter cell. Each yeast cell, on
average, undergoes this budding process 12 to 15 times before it is no longer capable of reproducing. During
commercial production, yeast is grown under carefully controlled conditions on a sugar containing media typically
composed of beet and cane molasses. Under ideal growth conditions a yeast cell reproduces every two to three
hours.
Yeast is the essential ingredient in many bakery products. It is responsible for leavening the dough and imparting a
delicious yeast fermentation flavor to the product. It is used in rather small amounts in most bakery products, but
having good yeast and using the yeast properly often makes the difference between success and something less
than success in a bakery operation.

FUNCTION OF YEAST

In the production of baked goods, yeast is a key ingredient and serves three primary functions:
Production of carbon dioxide:
Carbon dioxide is generated by the yeast as a result of the breakdown of fermentable sugars in
the dough. The evolution of carbon dioxide causes expansion of the dough as it is trapped within
the protein matrix of the dough.
Causes dough maturation:
This is accomplished by the chemical reaction of yeast produced alcohols and acids on protein of
the flour and by the physical stretching of the protein by carbon dioxide gas. This results in the
light, airy physical structure associated with yeast leavened products.
Development of fermentation flavor:
Yeast imparts the characteristic flavor of bread and other yeast leavened products. During dough
fermentation, yeast produce many secondary metabolites such as ketones, higher alcohols,
organic acids, aldehydes and esters. Some of these, alcohols for example, escape during baking.
Others react with each other and with other compounds found in the dough to form new and more
complex flavor compounds. These reactions occur primarily in the crust and the resultant flavor
diffuses into the crumb of the baked bread.

Yeasts can grow in the presence or absence of air. Anaerobic growth, growth in the absence of
oxygen, is quite slow and inefficient. For instance, in bread dough, yeast grow very little.
Instead, the sugar that can sustain either fermentation or growth is used mainly to produce
alcohol and carbon dioxide. Only a small portion of the sugar is used for cell maintenance and
growth. In contrast, under aerobic conditions, in the presence of a sufficient quantity of dissolved
oxygen, yeast grow by using most of the available sugar for growth and producing only
negligible quantities of alcohol.
This means that the baker who is interested in the leavening action of carbon dioxide works
under conditions that minimize the presence of dissolved oxygen. On the other hand, a yeast
manufacturer that wants to produce more yeast cell mass, works under aerobic conditions by
bubbling air through the solution in which
the yeast is grown.
The problem posed to the yeast
manufacturer, however, is not as simple as
just adding air during the fermentation
process. If the concentration of sugar in
the fermentation growth media is greater
than a very small amount, the yeast will
produce some alcohol even if the supply
of oxygen is adequate or even in abundance. This problem can be solved by adding the sugar
solution slowly to the yeast throughout the fermentation process. The rate of addition of the
sugar solution must be such that the yeast uses the sugar fast enough so that the sugar
concentration at any one time is practically zero. This type of fermentation is referred to as a fedbatch fermentation.

The bakers yeast production process flow chart attached below can be divided into four basic
steps. In order these steps are, molasses and other raw material preparation, culture or seed yeast
preparation, fermentation and harvesting and filtration and packaging. The process outlined in
the flow chart takes approximately five days from start to finish.

The basic carbon and energy source for yeast growth

are sugars. Starch can not be used because yeast does
not contain the appropriate enzymes to hydrolyze this
substrate to fermentable sugars. Beet and cane
molasses are commonly used as raw material because
the sugars present in molasses, a mixture of sucrose,
fructose and glucose, are readily fermentable. In
addition to sugar, yeast also require certain minerals,
vitamins and salts for growth. Some of these can be
added to the blend of beet and cane molasses prior to
flash sterilization while others are fed separately to the
fermentation. Alternatively, a separate nutrient feed
tank can be used to mix and deliver some of the
necessary vitamins and minerals. Required nitrogen is
supplied in the form of ammonia and phosphate is
supplied in the form of phosphoric acid. Each of these
nutrients is fed separately to the fermentation to permit better pH control of the process. The
sterilized molasses, commonly referred to as mash or wort, is stored in a separate stainless steel
tank. The mash stored in this tank is then used to feed sugar and other nutrients to the appropriate
fermentation vessels.
Bakers yeast production starts with a pure culture tube or frozen vial of the appropriate yeast
strain. This yeast serves as the inoculum for the pre-pure culture tank, a small pressure vessel
where seed is grown in medium under strict sterile conditions. Following growth, the contents of
this vessel are transferred to a larger pure culture fermentor where propagation is carried out with
some aeration, again under sterile conditions. These early stages are conducted as set-batch
fermentations. In a set-batch fermentation all the growth media and nutrients are introduced to
the tank prior to inoculation.
From the pure culture vessel, the grown cells are transferred to a series of progressively larger
seed and semi-seed fermentors. These later stages are conducted as fed-batch fermentations.
During a fed-batch fermentation, molasses, phosphoric acid, ammonia and minerals are fed to the
yeast at a controlled rate. This rate is designed to feed just enough sugar and nutrients to the
yeast to maximize multiplication and prevent the production of alcohol. In addition, these fedbatch fermentations are not completely sterile. It is not economical to use pressurized tanks to
guarantee sterility of the large volumes of air required in these fermentors or to achieve sterile
conditions during all the transfers through the many pipes, pumps and centrifuges. Extensive
cleaning of the equipment, steaming of pipes and tanks and filtering of the air is practiced to
insure as aseptic conditions as possible.

At the end of the semi-seed fermentation, the contents of the vessel are pumped to a series of
separators that separate the yeast from the spent molasses. The yeast is then washed with cold
water and pumped to a semi-seed yeast storage tank where the yeast cream is held at 34 degrees
Fahrenheit until it is used to inoculate the commercial fermentation tanks. These commercial
fermentors are the final step in the fermentation process and are often referred to as the final or
trade fermentation.
Commercial fermentations are carried out in large fermentors with working volumes up to
50,000 gallons. To start the commercial fermentation, a volume of water, referred to as set water,
is pumped into the fermentor. Next, in a process referred to as pitching, semi-seed yeast from the
storage tank is transferred into the fermentor. Following addition of the seed yeast, aeration,
cooling and nutrient additions are started to begin the 15-20 hour fermentation. At the start of the
fermentation, the liquid seed yeast and additional water may occupy only about one-third to onehalf of the fermentor volume. Constant additions of nutrients during the course of fermentation
bring the fermentor to its final volume. The rate of nutrient addition increases throughout the
fermentation because more nutrients have to be supplied to support growth of the increasing cell
population. The number of yeast cells increase about five- to
eight-fold during this fermentation.
Air is provided to the fermentor through a series of perforated
tubes located at the bottom of the vessel. The rate of airflow is
about one volume of air per fermentor volume per minute. A
large amount of heat is generated during yeast growth and
cooling is accomplished by internal cooling coils or by
pumping the fermentation liquid, also known as broth, through
an external heat exchanger. The addition of nutrients and
regulation of pH, temperature and airflow are carefully
monitored and controlled by computer systems during the entire production process. Throughout
the fermentation, the temperature is kept at approximately 86 degrees Fahrenheit and the pH in
the range of 4.5-5.5.
At the end of fermentation, the fermentor broth is separated by nozzle-type centrifuges,
washed with water and re-centrifuged to yield a yeast cream with a solids concentration
of approximately 18%. The yeast cream is cooled to about 45 degrees Fahrenheit and
stored in a separate, refrigerated stainless steel cream tank. Cream yeast can be
loaded directly into tanker trucks and delivered to customers equipped with an
appropriate cream yeast handling system. Alternatively, the yeast cream can be
pumped to a plate and frame filter press and dewatered to a cake-like consistency with
a 30-32% yeast solids content. This press cake yeast is crumbled into pieces and
packed into 50-pound bags that are stacked on a pallet. The yeast heats up during the
pressing and packaging operations and the bags of crumbled yeast must be cooled in a
refrigerator for a period of time with adequate ventilation and placement of pallets to

permit free access to the cooling air. Palletized bags of crumbled yeast are then
distributed to customers in refrigerated trucks.

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