FFFL 1-6 PDF

Conformal & Non-Conformal
Surfaces
Journal
Outer
ring
Sleeve
Figure 1.1 Conformal Surfaces. [From

Hamrock and Anderson (1983).]
Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Hamrock, Schmid & Jacobson
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Rolling
element
Inner
ring
Figure 1.2 Nonconformal Surfaces. [From

Hamrock and Anderson (1983).]
Hydrodynamic
Lubrication
wz
Minimum film thickness:

ub
(hmin)HL
hmin
Conformal surfaces
pmax ~ 5 MPa
hmin = f(wz, ub, H0, Rx, Ry) > 1 Mm
No elastic effect
Figure 1.3 Characteristics of

hydrodynamic lubrication.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
ub
wz
"1/2
Pressure Development
wz
wz
wz
wa
pa
(a)
ub
(b)
(c)
ps
Figure 1.4 Mechanisms of pressure development for hydrodynamic

lubrication. (a) Slider bearing; (b) squeeze film bearing; (c) externally
pressurized bearing.}
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication
wz
wz
ub
ub
hmin
Nonconformal surfaces
High-elastic-modulus material (e.g., steel)
pmax ~ 1 GPa
hmin = f(wz, ub, H0, Rx, Ry, E', X) > 0.1 Mm
Elastic and viscous effects both important
Figure 1.5 Characteristics

of hard elastohydrodynamic
lubrication
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
hmin
Nonconformal surfaces (e.g., nitrile rubber
pmax ~ 1 MPa
hmin = f (wz, ub, H0, Rx, Ry, E') ~ 1 Mm
Elastic effects predominate
Figure 1.6 Characteristics

of soft elastohydrodynamic
lubrication
Regimes of Lubrication
Boundary film
Bulk lubricant
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 1.5 Film conditions of lubrication regimes. (a) Fluid film lubrication
- surfaces separated by a bulk lubricant film; (b) partial lubrication - both
bulk lubricant and boundary film play a role; (c) boundary lubrication performance depends entirely on boundary film.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Friction for Various Lubrication

Conditions
10
Unlubricated
Coefficient of friction, M
Boundary
Elastohydrodynamic
10-1
10-2
Hydrodynamic
10-3
10-4

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Figure 1.8 Bar diagram

showing friction coefficient for
various lubrication conditions.
Wear Rates for Lubrication

Regimes
Seizure
Wear rate
Severe wear
Figure 1.9 Wear rates for

various lubrication regimes.
[From Beerbower (1972)].
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Unlubricated
Hydrodynamic
Elastohydrodynamic
Boundary
Relative load
Boundary Lubricants

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
40
0
Stearic
Palmitic
Lauric
80
Myristic
120
Melting point of acid
8
10
12
14
16
18
Number of carbon atoms in fatty acid chain
(a)
Coefficient of friction
0
0.4
Molecular weight of lubricant

100
200
80
70
60
0.3
0.2
300
Contact angle
Friction
50
Contact angle of methylene

iodide on monolayer
Table 1.1 Fatty acids in oil

as lubricants. [From
Dorinson and Ludema
(1985).]
Transition temperature
160
Capric
Figure 1.10 Effect of chain

length on the effectiveness of a
boundary lubricant. (a) Critical
temperature as a function of
chain length [From Bowden and
Tabor (1950)]; (b) friction
coefficient as a function of chain
length. [From Zisman (1959).]}
Pelargonic
0.017
0.034
0.051
0.085
0.169
0.254
Coecient of friction
Stearic acid, moles/1000 grams
Lauric acid, moles/1000 grams
0.126
0.078
|
|
|
.131
.085
0.141
.116
0.109
.132
.088
.145
.123
.115
.133
.091
|
.126
.120
.135
.094
|
.130
.126
|
.095
|
|
|
Temperature (C)
Speed, cm/s
40
30
20
0.1
10
0
0
28
16
24
8
12
20
4
Total number of carbon atoms in molecular chain
(b)
Langmuir-Blodgett Films
Coefficient of friction
0.5
0.4
0.3
Number
of films
1
0.2
53
0.1
10
20
30
40
Number of runs over same track

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
50
Figure 1.11 Effect of boundary

lubricant thickness on friction for
Langmuir-Blodgett films. [From
Bowden and Tabor (1950).]
Boundary Lubricant Mechanisms

Cohesion
H
HCH
H
HCH
HCH
HCH
n-Hexadecane (Cetane)
(C16H34)
Metal Oxide
Metal
Figure 1.12 Physisorption of of nhexadecane molecules to a metal surface.

[From Ku (1970).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
H CH
H CH
C
H
H
CH
H
C
H
CH H
H
C
H
CH H
H H
H
C
C
H
H
CH H
H
H
C
H
C
C
H H
H
H
H
CH
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H
H
CH H
H
C
C
H H
H
H
H
C
C
H H
H
H
C
C
H H
H
H
C
C
H
H
H
H
C
C
H
H
H
C
H H
H
H
CH
H
C
H
CH H
H
C
H
CH H
H
C
H
CH H
H
C
H
CH H
H
C
H
CH H
H
C
H
CH H
H
C
H
CH H
H
C
H
de
H
Oxi
l
a
t
Me
Metal
H CH
H CH
HCH
HCH
H CH
H CH
HCH
HCH
H CH
H CH
HCH
HCH
H CH
H CH
HCH
HCH
H CH
H CH
HCH
HCH
H CH
H CH
HCH
HCH
H CH
H CH
HCH
HCH
H
HCH
H CH
HCH
H CH
HCH
H CH
HCH
H CH
HCH
H CH
HCH
H CH
HCH
H CH
HCH
H CH
HCH
H
HCH
H CH
HCH
H CH
HCH
H CH
HCH
H CH
Iron
stearate
HCH
H CH
3 nm
HCH
H CH
HCH
H CH
HCH
H C
HCH
HCH
O
C
Adhesion
Fe O
O
C
O
Fe
e
e O
O
e
O
O
F F
O
O
O F
O
O O O Fe O Fe O
e
F
Fe
F
Fe
Fe e e
O F e O F Fe O Fe O Fe OFe O O
O O FO F
e
e
e
e
F
F
O
O F
e O
O O F e Fe
e O Fe O F O Fe O
Fe O Fe
Fe Fe O
O O
Iron oxide
Fe
Iron
C
Figure 1.12 Chemisorption of

stearic acid to an iron-containing
surface to form iron stearate.
[From Ku (1970)]
Boundary Lubrication
Mechanisms (cont.)
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
0.4
S
S
S
S
S S S S S SS S
S
S
S
SSSS
S S S S Fe S Fe S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S Fe
S Fe Fe S Fe S Fe Fe S Fe S Fe S Fe Fe S
S
Fe S
S
Fe S S Fe S Fe S
Fe
Fe
S
Fe
Fe S Fe
Fe
Fe
S
Fe
S
Fe S S Fe S
S
S
Fe S
Fe
S
S
Fe
S
Fe
S
Fe
S Fe Fe S Fe
S Fe
S Fe
Fe
Fe
S
S
S
Fe
Fe S Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Soap formed
0.2
Acid melts
Soap solidifies
100
Temperature (C)
Figure 1.14 Formation of sulfide

layers on steel, an example of
boundary lubrication through chemical
reactions involving the substrate.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Figure 1.15 Thermal activation of a

boundary lubricant during the initial
thermal cycle.
200
Stribeck Curve
1
Absence of
boundary
lubricants
Elastohydrodynamic
(non-conformal contacts only)
0.1
M
0.01
0.001
Boundary
5
Mixed
Hydrodynamic
10
Hersey number,
20
HW
p
Figure 1.16 A Stribeck curve, showing the effects of Hersey

number (hw/p) on friction coefficient.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Bearing Classification
Conformal fluid film bearings
Nature of
lubrication
Liquid
Mode of operation Hydrodynamic
Direction of load
Nature of load
Geometric form
(e.g. partial or
complete journal
bearings)
Journal
Rolling-element bearings
Gas
Squeeze Hydrostatic
Combined
Steady
Nature of
lubrication
Oil
Grease
Roller
(including
needle)
Hybrid
Mode of operation
Ball
Direction of load
Thrust
Nature of load
Steady
Thrust
Angular
contact
Radial
Dynamic
Dynamic
Geometric form
Figure 2.1 Divisions of conformal

fluid film bearings.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Geometric form
Single row
Double row
Figure 2.2 Divisions of

rolling-element bearings.
Rubbing bearings
Oil-impregnated porous metal bearings
Hydrodynamic oil film bearings
Shaft
diameter,
m (in.)
0.5 (20)
107
106
10
105
10
Typical maximum load, N
Typical maximum load, lbf
10
.25 (
10)
0.125 (5)
105
104
0.25
.5 (20
.125
(10)
.125
(5)
Approximate
solid-steel-shaft
burst limit
(5)
,05 (
2)
.05 (2)
104
,05 (
2)
.025 (1)
.025
.0125 (1/2)
.025
(1)
103
(1)
.01
.012
.006 ( /4)
102
Approximate maximum
speed, rubbing bearings
10
10
5 ( 1/
1
10-2
10-1
1
10
102
Frequency of rotation, rps
10
102
103
104
Frequency of rotation, rpm

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
25
( 1/2
.00
.006 1
( /4)
0.05 (2)
Approximate maximum
speed, rolling-element bearings
Guide to Journal
Bearings
6 (1
/4)
.025 (1)
.006 (1/4)
.0125 (1/2)
103
105
4
104 2 10
106
Figure 1.5 General guide

to journal bearing type.
Except for rolling-element
bearings, curves are drawn
for bearings with width
equal to diameter. A
medium-viscosity mineral oil
is assumed for
hydrodynamic bearings.
[From ESDU (1965).]
Table 2.1: Advantages and limitations of journal bearings [(From ESDU 1965)]
Condition
General comments
High temperature
Attention to
differential
expansions and
their effect
on fits and
clearances is
necessary
Low temperature
Attention to
differential
expansions
and starting
torques is
necessary
External
vibration
Attention to
the possibility
of fretting
damage is necessary (except
for hydrostatic
bearings)
Space requirements
Journal bearing type

Rubbing
bearings
Oilimpregnated
porous metal
bearings
Rolling-element
bearings
Hydrodynamic
fluid film bearings
Normally satisfactory depending on

material
Attention to
oxidation
resistance of
lubricant is
necessary
Up to 100 C no
limitations; from 100
to 250 C stabilized
bearings and special
lubrication procedures are probably
required
Lubricant may
impose limitations; consideration of starting torque is
necessary
Normally satisfactory except
when peak of impact load exceeds load-carrying capacity
Small radial extent
Dirt or dust
Normally
satisfactory;
sealing is
advantageous
Vacuum
Excellent

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Self-acting
gas bearings
Externally
pressurized
gas bearings
Attention to oxidation
resistance of lubricant is
necessary
Excellent
Excellent
Below -30 C special lubricants are required; consideration

of starting torque is
necessary
Lubricant may
impose limitations;
consideration of
starting torque is
necessary
Lubricant
may impose
limitations
Excellent; thorough drying of

gas is necessary
May impose limitations; consult manufacturer
Satisfactory
Excellent
Bearings of many
different proportions;
small axial extent
Sealing is important
Hydrostatic
fluid film
bearings
Normally
satisfactory
Excellent
Small radial extent but total

space requirement depends on
the lubrication feed system
Small
radial
extent
Small radial
extent, but
total space
requirement
depends on
the gas feed
system
Satisfactory; filtration of lubricant is important
Sealing important
Satisfactory
Not
normally
applicable
Not applicable when

vacuum
has to be
maintained
Lubricant may impose limitations
Table 2.1: Continued

Condition
General comments

Rubbing
bearings
Simplicity
of lubrication
Oilimpregnated
porous metal
bearings
Excellent
Hydrodynamic
fluid film bearings
Hydrostatic
fluid film
bearings
Self-acting
gas bearings
Externally
pressurized
gas bearings
Excellent with selfcontained grease or

oil lubrication
Self-contained
assemblies can
be used with
certain limits of
load, speed, and
diameter; beyond
this, oil circulation
is necessary
Auxiliary
high pressure is
necessary
Excellent
Pressurized
supply of dry,
clean gas is
necessary
Availability
of standard
parts
Good to
excellent
depending on
type
Prevention
of contamination
product
and surroundings
lmproved
performance
can be obtained by
allowing a
processs
liquid to
lubricate and
cool the
bearing, but
wear debris
may impose
limitations
Normally satisfactory, but attention to sealing is necessary. except where a process liquid can be used as a lubricant
Frequent
stop-starts
Excellent
Good
Frequent
change of
rotating
direction
Running
costs

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Excellent
Good
Excellent
Generally good
Very low
Good
Not available
Excellent
Excellent
Poor
Excellent
Cost of
lubricant
supply
has to be
considered
Nil
Cost of gas
supply has to
be considered
Generally good
Depends on complexity of lubrication system
Table 2.1: Concluded

Condition
Wetness
and humidity
General comments
Attention to
possibility
of metallic
corrosion is
necessary

Rubbing
bearings
Oilimpregnated
porous metal
bearings
Rolling-element
bearings
Normally
satisfactory
depending on
material
Normally satisfactory; sealing

advantageous
Normally satisfactory, but special

attention to sealing
may be necessary
Radiation
Satisfactory
Low starting torque
Not normally
recommended
Hydrodynamic
fluid film bearings
Hydrostatic
fluid film
bearings
Satisfactory

Satisfactory
Good
Self-acting
gas bearings
Satisfactory
Externally
pressurized
gas bearings
Satisfactory
Excellent
Excellent
Satisfactory
Excellent
Excellent
Good
Excellent
Low running torque

Accuracy of
radial location
Poor
Life
Good
Finite but predictable
Combination
of axial and
loadcarrying
capacity
A thrust force must be provided

to carry the axial loads
Most types capable of

dual duty
Silent running
Good for
steady
loading
Usually satisfactory;
consult manufacturer
Excellent

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Theoretically infinite but affected by

filtration and number of stops and
starts
Theoretically Theoretically Theoretically

infinite
infinite but
infinite
affected by
filtration
and number of stops
and starts
A thrust face must be provided to carry the axial loads
Excellent
Excellent
except for
possible
pump noise
Excellent
Excellent
except for
possible
compressor
noise
Table 2.2: Advantages and limitations of thrust bearings. [From ESDU (1967).]
Condition
General comments
High temperature
Attention to
differential
expansions and
their effect
upon axial
clearance is
necessary
Low temperature
Attention to
differential
expansions
and starting
torques is
necessary
External
vibration
Attention to
the possibility
of fretting
damage is necessary (except
for hydrostatic
bearings)
Space requirements
Thrust bearing type

Rubbing
bearings
Oilimpregnated
porous metal
bearings
Hydrodynamic
fluid film bearings
Normally
satisfactory
depending on
material
Attention
to oxidation
resistance
of lubricant
necessary
Up to 100 C no
limitations; from 100
to 250 C stabilized
bearings and special
lubrication procedures are probably
required
Attention to oxidation resistance of lubricant is necessary
Lubricant may
impose limitations; consideration of starting torque is
necessary
Below -30 C special lubricants are required; consideration

of starting torque is
necessary
Lubricant may
impose limitations;
consideration of
starting torque is
necessary
Lubricant
may impose limitations
Excellent; thorough drying of gas is necessary
May impose limitations; consult manufacturer
Satisfactory
Excellent
Normally
satisfactory
Excellent
Bearings of many different proportions are

available
Small radial extent but total

space requirement depends on
the lubrication feed system
Small
radial
extent
Small radial
total space
requirement
depends on
gas feed
system
Sealing is important
Satisfactory; filtration of lubricant is important
Sealing important
Satisfactory
Not normally
applicable
Not applicable when

vacuum
has to be
maintained
Normally satisfactory except

when peak of impact load exceeds load carrying capacity
Small radial extent
Dirt or dust
Normally satisfactory; sealing advantageous
Vacuum
Excellent

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Hydrostatic
fluid film
bearings
Self-acting
gas bearings
Externally
pressurized
gas bearings
Excellent
Table 2.2: Continued.

Condition
Wetness
and humidity
General comments
Attention to
possibility
of metallic
corrosion is
necessary
Thrust bearing type

Rubbing
bearings
Oilimpregnated
porous metal
bearings
Normally
satisfactory
depending on
material
Normally satisfactory; sealing

advantageous
Normally satisfactory, but special

attention to sealing
is perhaps necessary
Radiation
Satisfactory
Low starting torque
Not normally
recommended
Hydrodynamic
fluid film bearings
Hydrostatic
fluid film
bearings
Self-acting
gas bearings
Satisfactory

Satisfactory
Good
Satisfactory
Low running torque
Excellent
Excellent
Satisfactory
Satisfactory
Accuracy of
radial location
Good
Life
Finite but can be estimated
Externally
pressurized
gas bearings
Excellent
Theoretically infinite but affected by

filtration and number of stops and
starts
Excellent
Excellent
Good
Excellent
Theoretically Theoretically Theoretically

infinite
infinite but
infinite
affected by
number of
stops and
starts
Combination
of axial and
loadcarrying
capacity
A journal bearing surface

must be provided to carry the
radial loads
Some types capable

of dual duty
A journal bearing surface must be provided to carry the

radial loads
Silent running
Good for
steady
loading
Usually satisfactory;
consult manufacturer
Excellent
Excellent,
except for
possible
pump noise
Excellent
Excellent,
except for
possible
compressor
noise
Excellent with selfcontained grease lubrication; with large

sizes or high speeds,
oil lubrication might
be necessary
Self-contained
assemblies can
be used with
certain limits of
load, speed, and
diameter; beyond
this, oil circulation
is necessary
Auxiliary
high pressure is
necessary
Excellent
Pressurized
supply of dry,
clean gas is
necessary
Simplicity
of lubrication
Excellent
Excellent

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Table 2.2: Concluded.

Condition
General
comments
Thrust bearing type
Rubbing
bearings
Oilimpregnated
porous metal
bearings
Availability of standard parts
Good to
excellent
depending on
type
Prevention of contamination of product and surroundings
Performance
can be improved by
allowing a
process liquid
to lubricate
and cool the
bearing, but
wear debris
may impose
limitations
Tolerance to manufacturing and assembly inaccuracies

Type of
Frequent
motion
start-stops
Hydrodynamic
fluid film bearings
Excellent
Satisfactory
Excellent
Unidirectional

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Good
Externally
pressurized
gas bearings
Poor
Poor
Satisfactory
Good
Excellent
Excellent
Poor
Satisfactory
Excellent
Suitable
Suitable
Oscillatory
Running costs
Self-acting
gas bearings
Normally satisfactory, but attention to sealing is necessary, except

where a process liquid can be used as a lubricant
Good
Bidirectional
Hydrostatic
fluid film
bearings
Some types are

suitable
Suitable
Unsuitable
Very low
Depends on complexity of lubrication system
Some types
are suitable
Suitable
Unsuitable
Cost of
lubricant
supply
has to be
considered
Nil
Cost of gas
supply has to
be considered
Guide to
Thrust
Bearings
107
Diameter,
m (in.)
0.5 (20)
106
.25 (10)
105
.125 (5)
5
104
103
102
Typical maximum load, N
10
.05 (2)
.025 (1)
104
.0125 (1/2)
103
0.006 (1/4)
.125 (5)
.05 (2)
.025 (1)
.0125 (1/2)
.006 (1/4)
102
10
10
Approximate maximum
speed, rubbing bearings
1
1
10-2
10-1

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Approximate bursting
speed, steel disks
106
Typical maximum load, lbf
Figure 2.4 General guide

to thrust bearing type.
Except for rolling-element
bearings, curves are drawn
for typical ratios of inside
diameter to outside
diameter. A mediumviscosity mineral oil is
assumed for hydrodynamic
bearings. [From ESDU
(1967).]
Rubbing bearings
Oil-impregnated porous metal bearings
Hydrodynamic oil film bearings
Approximate maximum
speed, rolling-element
bearings
1
10
102
Frequency of rotation, rps
10
102
103
104
Frequency of rotation, rpm
103
105
4
104 2 s 10
106
Surface Profiles
=
Actual surface profile
Error of form
Waviness
Roughness
Figure 3.1 Geometric characteristics of solid surfaces [From Halling (1976).]

Stylus
Stylus
Profile
Stylus
traverse
(a)
Surface
Profile
Surface
(b)
Figure 3.2 Difficulty in interpreting

profilometer traces. (a) Surface profile;
(b) surface asperity.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Figure 3.3 Error due to stylus radius.
Compressed Surface Profile

(a)
1:1
X
Y
C
Air
Metal
(b)
Air
A'
B' C'
D'
Metal
25 : 1
X'
Y'
Figure 1.5 True (a) and compressed (b) profile. [From Thomas (1982).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Atomic Force Microscope

Mirrored
prism
AFM signal
(A+B) - (C+D)
A
FFM signal
(A+C) - (B+D)
Diode laser
& lens
450 Mm
40 Mm
Mirror
B
D
Split-diode
photodetector
Contact AFM cantilevers

Length = 450 Mm
Width = 40 Mm
Thickness = 1-3 Mm
Resonant frequency = 6-20 kHz
Spring constant = 0.02-0.66 N/m
Cantilever
& substrate
Sample
z
x
Tapping mode AFM cantilevers

Length = 125 Mm
Width = 30 Mm
Thickness = 3-5 Mm
Resonant frequency = 250-400 kHz
Spring constant = 17-64 N/m
125 Mm
30 Mm
y
xyz PZT
tube scanner
Material: Etched single-crystal n-type silicon;

resistivity = 0.01-0.02 ohm/cm
Tip shape: 10 nm radius of curvature, 35 interior angle
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.5 Schematic illustration of an atomic force microscope. (a)

Principle of operation for an AFM. (b) Typical cantilevers for use in an
atomic force microscope. [Source: Digital Instruments Corp.]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Devices for Surface Measurement

Device
Stylus instrument
Resolution
Lateral
Lowest
Highest
(a)
(a)
Vertical
Lowest
Highest
0.5 m
0.25 nm
Optical light
2.5 m
0.1 m
(b)
(b)
microscope
Transmission
2.5 nm
0.5 nm
(c)
(c)
electron
microscope
Scanning
5 m
10 nm
(d)
(d)
electron
microscope
a Not easily dened.
b Not applicable.
c Approximately the same as the lateral resolution.
d Not available.
Vertical measurement
range or depth of eld
At lowest
At highest
resolution
resolution
500 m
0.25 m
42 m
0.04 m
400 nm
80 nm
1 mm
2 m
Measurable
area
Depends on traverse length; typically a few millimeters

Depends on magnication
Table 3.1 Summary of typical specifications of devices used for surface

topography measurement. [From Sherrington and Smith (1988)].
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Reference Lines
(a)
Mean or M System: Areas above

and below the horizontal line are
equal.
(b)
Ten-point average: Use five

highest peaks and five lowest
valleys
Least Squares: Similar to M
System, but line can be inclined.
(c)
Figure 3.6 Comparison of three types of

reference line: (a) M system; (b) ten-point
average; (c) least squares.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Roughness Issues
Roughness measures:
1 N
Ra = |zi
N i=1
Rq =
Figure 3.7 Geometric profiles having same

values of arithmetic average. [From Halling
(1976).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
1 N 2
zi
N i=1
"1/2
Rt = max(z) min(z)
Typical Roughness
Arithmetic average Ra
m
in.
Processes
Sand casting; hot rolling
Sawing
Planing and shaping
Forging
Drilling
Milling
Boring; turning
Broaching; reaming; cold rolling; drawing
Die casting
Grinding, coarse
Grinding, ne
Honing
Polishing
Lapping
Components
Gears
Plain bearings - journal (runner)
Plain bearings - bearing (pad)
Rolling bearings - rolling elements
Rolling bearings - tracks

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
12.5-25
3.2-25
.8-25
3.2-12.5
1.6-6.3
.8-6.3
.4-6.3
.8-3.2
.8-1.6
.4-1.6
.1-.4
.1-.8
.05-.4
.025-.4
500-1000
128-1000
32-1000
128-500
64-250
32-250
16-250
32-128
32-64
16-64
4-16
4-32
2-16
1-16
0.25-10
.12-.5
.25-1.2
.025-.12
.1-.3
10-400
5-20
10-50
1-5
4-12
Table 3.2 Typical arithmetic

averages for various
processes and components.
Bearing Area Curve

tp(100)
Ln*
L1*
L2*
Figure 3.8 Surface profile

showing bearing length.
[From Persson (1992).]

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
tp(100)
Figure 3.9 Abbot curves for two different

profiles. [From Persson (1992).]
All-Ordinate Distribution
Gaussian distribution:
(z z)2
=
exp
1/2
2 2
(2)
1
Number
of points
Z1 Z2
Zi
Sample
interval
Roughness measures:
All-ordinate
distribution
histogram
Figure 3.10 Method of deriving allordinate distribution. [From Halling (1975).]

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Ra =
Rq =
!Z
|z|dz
z2dz
"1/2
Skewness and Kurtosis

Kurtosis,
B
>3
Skewness:
1
= 3
Rq
z3dz
<3
Kurtosis:
= 1
R4q
z4dz
Figure 3.11 Illustration of three different

kurtosis values. [From Halling (1975).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Autocorrelation Parameter
Y(z)
Autocorrelation:
Nk
1
k = 2
zizi+k
Rq (N k) i=1
Y(z)
Surface
Rk
Rk
k$
Autocorrelation function
(a)

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Surface
k$
Autocorrelation function
(b)
Figure 3.12 Two different surfaces and resulting

autocorrelation functions. (a) Periodicity profile;
(b) decay profile. [From Halling (1975).]
Friction vs. Film Parameter

Boundary
Partial
Elastohydrodynamic
Film parameter:
hmin
=!
"1/2
R2q,a + R2q,b
Hydrodynamic
Friction coefficients:
HL
0
10
15
Film parameter, ,
20
Figure 3.13 Variation of friction coefficient

with film parameter. [From Hamrock and
Dowson (1981).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
1/h
2
(1/h)
1/h
1
EHL
constant h
Paraffins
Number of
Name
Formula
carbon
atoms
1
Methane
CH4
2
Ethane
C2 H 6
3
Propane
C3 H 8
4
Butane
C4 H10
5
Pentane
C5 H12
6
Hexane
C6 H14
7
Heptane
C7 H16
8
Octane
C8 H18
9
Nonane
C9 H20
10
Decane
C10 H22
a Normal temperature and pressure
Boiling
point,
C
-161.5
-88.3
-44.5
-.5
36.2
69
98.4
125.8
150.6
174
Specic
gravity
|
|
|
|
0.626
.660
.684
.704
.718
.730
Table 4.2 Homologous series of

hydrocarbons. [From Hess (1981).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Physical
state at
NTPa
Gas
Gas
Gas
Gas
Liquid
Liquid
Liquid
Liquid
Liquid
Liquid
Table 4.1 Straight-chain paraffins

[From Pugh (1970)].
Name
Alkane or paran
Olen or alkene
Acetylene or alkyne
Cycloparan or naphthene
Aromatic
Formula
Cn H2n+2
Cn H2n
Cn H2n2
Cn H2n
Cn H2n6
Sample of familiar member

Methane (CH4 )
Ethylene (C2 H4 )
Acetylene (C2 H2 )
Cyclopentane (C5 H10 )
Benzene (C6 H6 )
Petroleum Products
Petroleum
product
Natural gas
Gasoline
Naptha (benzine)
Kerosine
Fuel oil
Lubricating oil
Wax
Asphalt
Boiling Point
range, C
< 32
40-200
50-200
175-275
200-300
> 300
> 300
Residue
Number of carbon
atoms present
1-4
4-12
7-12
12-15
15-18
16-20
20-34
Large
Table 4.3 Petroleum products with boiling point

range and number of carbon atoms present.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Table 4.4: Formulas for straight-chain hydrocarbons and fatty acids. [From Pugh (1970)]
Number of
carbon atoms
in molecule
1
2
3
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Hydrocarbon
Formula
HCH3 or CH4
H(CH2 ) CH3 or C2 H6
CH3 (CH2 ) CH3
CH3 (CH2 )2 CH3
CH3 (CH2 )4 CH3
CH3 (CH2 )6 CH3
CH3 (CH2 )8 CH3
CH3 (CH2 )10 CH3
CH3 (CH2 )12 CH3
CH3 (CH2 )14 CH3
CH3 (CH2 )16 CH3
CH3 (CH2 )18 CH3
Name
Formula
Fatty acid
Chemical name
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Hexane
Octane
Decane
Dodecane
Tetradecane
Hexadecane
Octadecane
Eicosane
HCO2 H
CH3 CO2 H
CH3 CH2 CO2 H
CH3 (CH2 )2 CO2 H
CH3 (CH2 )4 CO2 H
CH3 (CH2 )6 CO2 H
CH3 (CH2 )8 CO2 H
CH3 (CH2 )10 CO2 H
CH3 (CH2 )12 CO2 H
CH3 (CH2 )14 CO2 H
CH3 (CH2 )16 CO2 H
CH3 (CH2 )18 CO2 H
Methanoic
ethanoic
Propanoic
Butanoic
Hexanoic
Octanoic
Decanoic
Dodecanoic
Tetradecanoic
Hexadecanoic
Octadecanoic
Eicosanoic
Common
name
Formic
Acetic
Propionic
Butyric
Caprioc
Caprylic
Capric
Lauric
Myristic
Palmitic
Stearic
Arachidic
Table 4.5: Formulas for some unsaturated fatty acids. [Pugh (1970)]
Number of
carbon atoms
in molecule
16
18
18
18
18
20
Common name
Palmitoleic
Oleic
Ricinoleic
Linoleic
Linolenic
Arachidonic
Chemical name
Formula
Hexadec-9-enoic
Octadec-9-enoic
12-Hydroxyoctadec-9-enoic
Octadeca-9:12-dienoic
Octadeca-9:12:15-trienoic
Eicosa-5:8:11:14-tetraenoic
CH3 (CH2 )5 CH : CH (CH2 )7 CO2 H

CH3 (CH2 )7 CH : CH (CH2 )7 CO2 H
CH3 (CH2 )5 CH(OH)CH2 CH : CH (CH2 )7 CO2 H
CH3 (CH2 )4 (CH : CHCH2 )2 (CH2 )6 CO2 H
CH3 CH2 (CH : CHCH2 )3 (CH2 )6 CO2 H
CH3 (CH2 )4 (CH : CHCH2 )4 (CH2 )2 CO2 H

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Lubricant
Formulas
Synthetic Lubricants
Table 4.6: Comparative rating of synthetic lubricants. [From Hatton (1973).]
Class
Viscositytemperature
relationship
G
E
Liquid
range
Petroleum oils
Superrefined
hydrocarbons
Synthetic
hydrocarbons
Organic esters
Polyglycols
Polyphenyl esters
Phosphate esters,
alkyl
Phosphate esters,
aryl
Silicate esters and
polysiloxanes
Silicones
Silanes
Halogenated
polyaryls
Fluorocarbons
Perfluoropolyglycols
a Ratings: E = excellent, G
Propertya
Oxidative
Hydrostability
lytic
stability
F
E
F
E
Thermal
stability
G
G
Lowtemperature
properties
G
G
Fire
resistance
L
L
Lubricating
ability
G
G
Bulk
modulus
Volatility
Radiation
resistance
Density
A
A
A
L
H
H
L
L
G
G
P
G
E
G
G
G
G
G
P
G
F
F
E
F
F
F
G
G
F
G
E
F
L
L
L
H
G
G
G
G
A
H
H
H
A
A
A
A
A
H
H
L
A
H
H
H
E
G
G
E
G
G
E
G
F
G
G
G
G
F
G
G
E
E
L
L
H
P
F
G
L
A
H
L
H
H
L
L
L
A
L
H
F
G
F
G
G
F
F
G
G
G
G
G
= good, F = fair, P = poor, H = high, L = low, A = average.
H
H
P
G
L
L
A
A
L
L
H
H

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
F
G
Poly-Alpha-Olefin (PAO)
BF3ROH
(S) Star C18
1-hexene
BF3ROH
Figure 1.5 Poly-alphaolefin (PAO) structures. The

star orientation displays
superior lubrication
properties. [From Kioupis
and Maginn (1999).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
1-hexene
+
+
1-hexene
(HB) Highly Branched C18
n-C18
(L) Linear C18
Greases
Thickener
Type
Thickener
Content,
mass-%
Dropping
Point
C
Soap Thickeners
Lithium 12 HS
8-10
180-190
Lithium complex
12-20
> 250
Calcium, hydrated
7-12
80-100
Calcium, 12 HS
7-12
140-150
(anhydrous)
Calcium complex
15-30
> 250
Sodium
8-10
150-170
Sodium complex
10-20
> 250
Aluminum
8-10
90
Aluminum
10-20
> 250
complex
Barium
7-17
180
Barium complex
10-20
> 250
Non-soap Thickeners
Claysb
7-12
|
Silica,
7-12
|
b
methylated
Polyureac
7-12
> 230
a Cost: 1 = low; 5 = high.
b Sensitive to pressure and thermal separation.
c Often in combination with soap complex.
Mechanical
Stability
Maximum
Temperature
C
Relative
Costa
Good
Good
Poor to good
Fair to good
120
150
< 70
110
2
3-4
1
2-3
Poor to good
Poor to fair
Fair to good
Poor
Good
150
110-120
150
< 70
150
3-4
1
3
1
3
Poor to good
Fair to good
120
120
2-3
3
Good
150
Fair to good
Good
Table 4.7 Typical characteristics of lubricating greases.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
103
SAE 70
SAE 10
10-4
Fluid
Viscosities
LB 550 X
LB 100 X
Polypropylene glycol
derivatives
DC 500 A
Polymethyl siloxanes
(silicones)
102
10-5
Residuum
(specific
gravity, 0.968)
Fluorolube light grease
100
Di(n-butyl) sebacate
Absolute viscosity, H, lbf s/in.2
Absolute viscosity, H, cP
101
DC 200 E
Crude oil
(specific
gravity, 0.855)
10-6
Halocarbons
Fluorolube FCD-331
Kerosene
Mercury
Gasoline
(specific
gravity,
0.748)
10-7
Navy
Symbol
2135
Water
plus 23%
NaCl
Octane
Gasoline
(specific
gravity, 0.680)
Water
10-1
10-8
Hydrogen
3000 psi
Super-heated steam
(14.7 psig)
1000 psi
Air
Saturated steam
10-2
10-9
-50
-50
100
Temperature, tm, C
100
200
Temperature, tm, F

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
200
400
300
600
400 500
800 1000
Figure 4.2 Absolute

viscosities of a number of
fluids for a wide range of
temperatures.
Viscosity of
Gases
1.0 x 10-8
Ne
.9
Ar
Absolute viscosity, H, reyn
.8
O2
He
.7
Air
CO2
N2
.6
600
500
.5
1500
1000
800
400
200
100
14.7 psi
.4
.3
CH4
SO2
H2O
H2
.2
.1
-400
400
800
1200
Temperature F

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
1600
2000
Figure 4.3 Viscosity of

common gases as a
function of temperature.
[From Cameron (1976).]
Viscosity of Gases
Temperature
F
R
-280
180
-100
360
80
540
260
720
440
900
620
1080
800
1260
980
1440
1160
1620
1340
1800
1520
1980
1700
2160
2600
3060
Boiling temperature, R
Gas constant,
in.2 /(s2 R)
105
Air
Ar
1.07
1.97
2.68
3.29
3.84
4.34
4.80
5.24
5.64
6.05
6.44
6.80
8.55
CO2
H2 O
He
Absolute viscosity 109 ,
1.27
0.74
|
1.45
2.41
1.49
|
2.27
3.32
2.20
|
2.96
4.10
2.84
2.08
3.56
4.80
3.41
2.59
4.11
5.44
3.93
3.12
4.62
6.04
4.41
3.64
5.11
6.59
4.86
4.17
5.56
7.11
5.29
4.69
6.00
7.60
5.70
5.20
6.43
8.09
6.09
5.70
6.84
8.55
6.45
6.19
7.23
11.82
8.14
8.41
9.05
Kr
N2
Ne
, lbfs/in.2 (reyn)
|
1.05
2.12
2.50
1.91
3.48
3.67
2.57
4.56
4.69
3.15
5.50
5.61
3.66
6.35
6.46
4.14
7.16
7.23
4.57
7.91
7.95
4.99
8.64
8.65
5.39
9.31
9.30
5.75
9.96
9.92
6.13
10.60
10.52
6.49
11.19
13.26
8.14
14.00
Xe
|
2.24
3.35
4.38
5.29
6.15
6.93
7.67
8.36
9.03
9.66
10.26
13.00
147.2
67.2
7.9
219.2
139
48.7
298.4
2.47
1.79
1.63
39.8
17.9
0.85
2.55
3.54
0.55
Table 4.8 Viscosity of various gases at 14.7 psia. [From Svehla (1962).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Properties of Liquids & Gases

Liquid or gas
Force
density
,
lbf s2 /in.4
Carbon tetrachloride
Glycerine
Olive oil
Lubricating oil
Water
1.48 104
1.18 104
8.49 105
8.02 105
9.33 105
Air
Helium
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
1.15 107
1.61 108
8.08 109
1.12 107
Absolute
viscosity,
,
lbf s/in.2
(reyn)
Liquids
1.41 107
1.21 104
1.22 105
4.44 105
1.46 107
Gases
2.62 109
2.85 109
1.31 109
2.56 109
Kinematic
viscosity,
k ,
in.2 /s
Specic
heat,
Cp ,
in./ F
Thermal
conductivity,
Kf ,
lbf/s F
9.52 104
1.06
1.44 101
5.54
1.56 103
1.87 103
5.4 103
4.4 103
4.7 103
9.32 103
2.4 102
3.54 102
2.10 102
1.83 102
7.50 102
2.28 102
1.77 101
1.62 101
2.28 102
2.24 103
1.17 103
3.20 104
2.32 103
3.22 103
2.4 102
2.29 102
3.11 103
Table 4.9 Some properties of common liquids and gases at 68F and 14.7
psia. [From Gross (1980).]

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Emulsions
Typically 5% oil, 95%
water.
Water
Hydrophilic end
Oil phase includes

additives including
emulsifier.
Oil
Lipophilic end
Emulsifier
Figure 4.4 An oil-in-water emulsion stabilized

by an emulsifier.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Emulsifier stabilizes
emulsion and
determines particle
size.
Outstanding cooling
properties and
reasonable lubrication
effectiveness.
Newtonian Fluids
=
s
(a)
Shear stress, T
Absolute
viscosity, H
u1
Shear strain rate, s
u2
h2
Stationary plane
(b)
Figure 4.5 Properties of a Newtonian

fluid. (a) Effect of viscosity on shear
strain rate; (b) effect of shear stress on
shear strain rate.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
h1
Figure 4.6 Physical illustration of

Newton's postulate, where f = friction
force, N; A = area, m2; u=velocity, m/s;
h = film thickness, m.
Viscosity Conversion Factors

To convert
from |
cP
kgfs/m2
Ns/m2
lbfs/in.2
To |
cP
1
9.807 103
103
6.9 106
kgfs/m2
Ns/m2
Multiply by |
1.02 104
103
1
9.807
1.02 101
1
7.03 102
6.9 103
Table 4.10 Viscosity conversion factors.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
lbfs/in.2
1.45 107
1.422 103
1.45 104
1
Kinematic Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity:
Temperature
tm ,
C
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
150
absolute viscosity
N s/m2
2
k =
= =
=
m
/s
2
4
density
N s /m
Paranic base oil

Kinematic
Absolute
Viscosity
viscosity,
viscosity,
dierence,
k ,
,
,
mm2 /s
mPas
percent
287
253
13.4
78.4
68
15.3
30.2
25.8
17.1
14.7
12.33
19.2
8.33
6.91
20.5
5.3
4.32
22.7
3.65
2.93
24.6
2.33
1.83
27.3
Napthenic base oil

Kinematic
absolute
Viscosity
viscosity,
viscosity,
dierence,
k ,
,
,
mm2 /s
mPas
percent
1330
1245
6.8
218
201.0
8.5
60.5
55.0
10.0
23.6
21.2
11.3
11.6
16.2
13.7
6.66
5.80
14.8
4.27
3.66
16.7
2.53
2.12
19.3
Table 4.10 Divergence between kinematic and

absolute viscosity data with increasing temperature.
[From Klaman (1984).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Viscosity Grades
ISO/ASTM
viscosity
10,000
400
200
Kinematic viscosity at 40 C, cS
Saybolt universal viscosity (SUV) at 100 F, sec
600
1000
1000
8A
600
680
460
320
220
50
150
40
100
100
30
60
68
46
400
200
40
32
100
20
140
20 W
10 W
22
15
60
SAE
gear
oils
250
1500
4000
1000
SAE
crankcase
oils
2000
6000
2000
AGMA
grades
10
10

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
90
85 W
80 W
20
75 W
Figure 1.5 Viscosity grade

comparisons. [From Litt (1986).]
Viscosity-Pressure Effects
Fluid
Advanced ester
Formulated advanced ester
Polyalkyl aromatic
Synthetic paranic oil (lot 3)
plus antiwear additive
plus antiwear additive
C-ether
Superrened naphthenic mineral oil
Synthetic hydrocarbon (traction uid)
Fluorinated polyether
Temperature, tm , C
38
99
149
38
99
149
Absolute viscosity
Kinematic viscosity
at p = 0,
at p=0,
0 ,
k 105 ,
cP
m2 /s
25.3
4.75
2.06
2.58
0.51
0.23
27.6
4.96
2.15
2.82
.53
.24
25.5
4.08
1.80
3.0
.50
.23
414
34.3
10.9
49.3
4.26
1.4
375
34.7
10.1
44.7
4.04
1.3
370
32.0
9.93
44.2
4.0
1.29
375
34.7
10.1
44.7
4.04
1.3
29.5
68.1
34.3
181
4.67
6.86
3.53
20.2
2.20
2.74
1.62
6.68
2.5
7.8
3.72
9.66
.41
.82
.40
1.15
.20
.33
.19
.4
Table 4.12 Absolute and kinematic viscosities of fluids at atmospheric

pressure and three temperatures. [From Jones et al. (1975).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
1018
Roelands & Barus

Equations
1016
3
14
Absolute viscosity, H, cP
10
1012
1010
1
8
10
2
106
1
104
102
Roelands formula
Barus formula
100
10-2
Barus Law:
0.5
1.0
Pressure, p, GPa
1.5
Figure 4.8 Comparison of absolute viscosity

obtained from Barus' and Roelands' formulas for a
wide range of pressure. Results are shown for three
different lubricants at 38C; oil 1 --- synthetic
paraffinic oil (lot 3); oil 2 --- superrefined napthenic
mineral oil; oil 3 --- synthetic hydrocarbon (traction
fluid).
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
ln = p
0
Roelands (isothermal):
! "1(1+p/c p)Z1
=
=
0
0
Fluid Designations
Fluid
Advanced ester
Manufacturer
Shell Oil Co.
Shell Oil Co.
Polyalkyl aromatic
Synthetic paranic oil (lot 2) plus
antiwear additive
antiwear additive
C-ether Superrened naphthenic
mineral oil
Synthetic hydrocarbon
(taction uid)
Continental Oil Co.

Mobil Oil Co.
Mobil Oil Co.
Mobil Oil Co.
Designation
Aeroshell turbine oil 555
(base oil)
Aeroshell turbine oil 555
(WRGL - 358)
DN-600
XRM 109-F3
XRM 109-F4
XRM 177-F2
Mobil Oil Co.
XRM 177-F4
Humble Oil and

Rening Co.
Monsanto Co.
FN 2961
DuPont Co.
PR 143 AB (lot 10)
MCS-460
Table 4.13 Fluids with manufacturer and manufacturers

designation. [From Jones et al. (1975).]

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Pressure-Viscosity Coefficients
Fluid
Advanced ester
Polyalkyl aromatic
antiwear additive
antiwear additive
C-ether
Superrened naphthenic mineral oil
Synthetic hydrocarbon ( traction uid)
Temperature, tm , C
38
99
149
Pressure-viscosity coecient,
,
m2 /N
1.28 108
0.987 108
0.851 108
1.37 108
1.00 108
.874 108
1.58 108
1.25 108
1.01 108
1.77 108
1.51 108
1.09 108
1.99 108
1.51 108
1.29 108
1.81 108
1.37 108
1.13 108
1.96 108
1.80
2.51
3.12
4.17
108
108
108
108
1.55 108
.980
1.54
1.71
3.24
108
108
108
108
Table 4.14 Pressure-viscosity coefficients for fluids at

three temperatures. [From Jones et al. (1975).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
1.25 108
.795
1.27
.939
3.02
108
108
108
108
Piezo-viscous and Thermoviscous Behavior

Temperature, oF
10
54
3
50
100
150
200
250
1 x 10-3
5 x 10-4
2
1
.5
.3
1 x 10-4
.4
5 x 10-5
.1
1 x 10-5
.06
.04
.03
5 x 10-6
.02
SAE 70
.01
1 x 10-6
60
Figure 4.9 Absolute viscosities

of SAE lubricating oils at
atmospheric pressure.
50
.005
.004
40
30
.003
20
10

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
.002
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Temperature, oC
90
100 110 120 130 140
5 x 10-7
Absolute viscosity, H, lbf s/in.2
Absolute viscosity, H, N-s/m2
.2
Thermal
Properties of
Liquids
Table 4.16 Typical thermal

properties of some liquids.
[From Winer and Cheng
(1980).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Tempature,
tm
C
Density
,
kg/m3
Specic
Kinematic
Thermal
Thermal
heat,
viscosity
conductivity
diusivity,
Cp ,
k = /,
Kf ,
t = Kf / Cp ,
kJ/kg C
m2 /s
W/m C
m2 /s
Glycerin C3 H5 (OH)3
0
1276
2.261
0.00831
0.282
0.983 107
10
1270
2.319
.00300
.284
.965 107
20
1264
2.386
.00118
.286
.947 107
30
1258
2.445
.00050
.286
.929 107
40
1252
2.512
.00022
.286
.914 107
Ethylene glycol C2 H4 (OH)2
0
1130
2.294
57.53 106
0.242
0.934 107
20
1116
2.382
19.18 106
.249
.939 107
40
1101
2.474
8.69 106
.256
.939 107
6
60
1087
2.562
4.75 10
.260
.932 107
80
1077
2.650
2.98 106
.261
.921 107
a
Engine oil (unused)
0
899
1.796
0.00428
0.147
0.911 107
20
888
1.880
.00090
.145
.872 107
40
876
1.964
.00024
.144
.834 107
60
864
2.047
.839 104
.140
.800 107
80
852
2.131
.375104
.138
.769 107
4
100
840
2.219
.203 10
.137
.738 107
120
828
2.307
.124 104
.135
.710 107
4
140
816
2.395
.080 10
.133
.686 107
160
805
2.483
.056 104
.132
.663 107
Mercury (Hg)
0
13,628
0.1403
0.1240 106
8.20
42.99 107
20
13,579
.1394
.1140 106
8.69
46.06 107
50
13,505
.1386
.1040 106
9.40
50.22 107
6
100
13,384
.1373
.0928 10
10.51
57.16 107
150
13,264
.1365
.0853 106
11.49
63.54 107
6
200
13,144
.1570
.0802 10
12.34
69.08 107
Diester
30
910
1.93
|
0.151
0.860 107
Phosphate ester
30
1060
1.76
|
0.125
0.670 107
Polyglycol
30
1000
1.97
|
0.125
0.670 107
Polyphenylether
30
1180
1.80
|
0.132
0.621 107
Dimethyl silicone
30
970
1.42
|
0.142
1.03 107
Chloro uorocarbon
30
1900
1.22
|
0.069
0.298 107
30
1870
0.96
|
0.093
0.518 107
a The viscosity values should only be used if no other information on the particular
lubricant is available. The thermal properties (, Cp , Kf , t ) should be
representative of most mineral oils.
Absolute viscosity, H
Viscosity-Shear Rate Effects

la
Shear stress, T
n
ta
m
ha
g
Bin
Newtonian
Ps
eu
do
pla
s ti
Ps
t
as
l
op
d
u
ic
ian
n
o
wt
nt
e
a
t
N
la
Di
(b)
(a)
Figure 4.10 Characteristics of different fluids as a function of

shear rate. (a) Viscosity; (b) shear stress.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Saybolt universal viscosity, SUV, s
Viscosity Index
Viscosity
index
0
100
V I% =
H
38
100
Temperature, C
210
100
Temperature, F
Figure 4.11 Graphical explanation of viscosity

index where L = low VI oil, x = unknown oil,
and H=high VI oil.)
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
"
L x
L H 100
Viscosity Index
Data
Table 4.17 Viscosity-index data to be

used in Eq. (4.18). [From: An
abridgement from ASTM D567,
``Standard Method for Calculating
Viscosity Index''.]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
SUV
at 100 C
x

40
41
42
43
44
45
SUV at 38 C

H
93
109
124
140
157
173

L
107
137
167
197
228
261
SUV
at 100 C
x

|
81
82
83
84
85
46
47
48
49
50
189
205
222
238
255
291
325
356
389
422
51
52
53
54
55
272
288
305
322
339
56
57
58
59
60
SUV at 38 C

H
|
810
829
849
868
888

L
|
1674
1721
1769
1817
1865
SUV
at 100 C
x

|
121
122
123
124
125
86
87
88
89
90
907
927
947
966
986
1914
1964
2014
2064
2115
456
491
525
561
596
91
92
93
94
95
1006
1026
1046
1066
1087
356
374
391
408
426
632
669
706
743
781
96
97
98
99
100
61
62
63
64
65
443
461
478
496
514
819
857
897
936
976
66
67
68
69
70
532
550
568
586
604
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
SUV at 38 C

H
|
1643
1665
1688
1710
1733

L
|
3902
3966
4031
4097
4163
126
127
128
129
130
1756
1779
1802
1825
1848
4229
4296
4364
4430
4498
2166
2217
2270
2322
2375
131
132
133
134
135
1871
1894
1918
1941
1965
4567
4636
4705
4775
4845
1107
1128
1148
1168
1189
2428
2481
2536
2591
2646
136
137
138
139
140
1988
2012
2036
2060
2084
4915
4986
5058
5130
5202
101
102
103
104
105
1210
1231
1252
1273
1294
2701
2757
2814
2870
2928
141
142
143
144
145
2108
2132
2156
2180
2205
5275
5348
5422
5496
5570
1016
1057
1098
1140
1182
106
107
108
109
110
1315
1337
1358
1379
1401
2985
3043
3102
3161
3220
146
147
148
149
150
2229
2254
2278
2303
2328
5645
5721
5796
5873
5949
623
641
660
678
697
1225
1268
1311
1355
1399
111
112
113
114
115
1422
1444
1466
1488
1510
3280
3340
3400
3462
3524
151
152
153
154
155
2353
2378
2403
2428
2453
6026
6104
6182
6260
6339
716
734
753
772
791
1444
1489
1534
1580
1627
116
117
118
119
120
1532
1554
1576
1598
1620
3585
3648
3711
3774
3838
156
157
158
159
160
2478
2503
2529
2554
2580
6418
6498
6578
6659
6740
VI Improver Molecules
Ethylene-propylene copolymer
( CH2
CH2 )n (CH2
CH )
Ethylene-propylene-diene terpolymer
( CH2
CH2 )n (CH2
CH ) (CH2
CH )
CH3
CH2
CH3
CH3
Hydrogenated diene-styrene copolymer

( CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2 )n (CH2
CH )
CH3
CH
CH2 )n (CH2
CH3
CH )
CH
CH3
C )x
C
or
CH2
CH
Polymethacrylate copolymer
( CH2
( CH2
( CH2
O
CH3
C )y
C
( CH2
O
C )z
C
(CH2)3
(CH2)11
(CH2)17
CH3
CH3
CH3
Figure 4.12 Summary of common viscosity index improver molecules.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Properties of Base Fluids

Base uid
Naphthenic distillate
Naphthenic ranate
Polypropylene glycol 1
Ditridecyl adipate
Poly alpha olen
Kinematic viscosity
at 40 C, k ,
mm2 /s
26
23
175
80
26
450
Average
molecular
weight
300
320
2000
2000
520
500
TAble 4.18 Base fluids tested, with corresponding kinematic viscosity

and average molecular weight. [From Hamrock et al. (1987).]

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
.18
Kinematic
viscosity
at 40 C,
(mm)2/s
Fluid
.16
Compressibility
Naphthenic distillate
Ditridecyl adipate
.14
26
175
26
.12
.10
.08
Relative volume, -dvr/dp, GPa-1
.06
.04
.02
.18
Naphthenic raffinate
23
Polypropylene glycol 2 80
Poly alpha olefin
450
.16
.14
.12
Figure 4.13 Effect of pressure on relative

volume for six base fluids. Constant
temperature of 20C assumed. [From
Hamrock et al. (1987).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
.10
.08
.06
.04
.02
.4
.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
Pressure, GPa
2.4
2.8
Compressibility
.6
Data from Dowson-Higginson formula (eq. (4-20))
Naphthenic distillate (eqs. (4-21) and (4-22))
Poly alpha olefin (eqs. (4-21) and (4-22))
Dimensionless density, R - 1
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1
.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Pressure, GPa
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Figure 4.14 Effect of pressure on density. [From Hamrock et

al. (1987).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Limiting Shear Stress

1.4
Perfectly plastic
Newtonian
(linear viscous)
Dimensionless shear stress, A = T/TL
1.2
Viscoplastic
1.0
3A = sinh-1 (3B)
(assume TL = 3TE)
.8
A = 1 - e-B
.6
A = tanh B
.4
.2
2
3
Dimensionless shear strain rate, B = Hs/TL
Figure 4.15 Comparison of rheological models for isothermal

conditions.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Non-Newtonian Rheology
1.2
F
1.0
1.0
0.8
B
H
0.6
A:
B:
C:
D:
E:
G:
H:
I:
0.4
0.2
Linear (n = 1)
Circular (n = 2)
General (n = 4)
General (n = 10)
Viscoplastic
Eyring ( tL = tL/3)
Bair and Winer
Gecim and Winer
1.0
2.0
3.0
Dimensionless shear strain rate (H/TL) !u/!z

(a)
4.0
5.0
0.8
C
I
0.6
A
B
H
0.4
0.2
0
0
F
E
D
C
I
Dimensionless effective viscosity,He / H
Dimensionless shear stress T/TL
0.5
1.0
Dimensionless shear stress T/TL

(b)
Figure 4.16 Non-Newtonian rheological models represented by (a)

effect of shear strain rate on dimensionless shear stress and (b) effect of
dimensionless shear stress on dimensionless effective viscosity. [From
Myllerup et al. (1993).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
1.5
Effective Viscosity
Fluid model
Newtonian
Eyring (1936)
(sinh model)
Bair and Winer (1979)
(ln model)
Gecim and Winer (1980)
(tanh1 model)
Iivonen and Hamrock (1989)
(straight-line model)
Elsharkawy and Hamrock (1991)
(general model)
Lee and Hamrock (1990a)
(circular model)
Shear strain rate s

E

sinh

E
L
ln (1 )1

L
tanh1

i
L h
1
(1 ) 1

[1 (
)n ]1/n

i1/2
h
2
1 (
)

Dimensionless eective
viscosity e /
1

E sinh ( /E )

ln (1 )

tanh1
1
[1 (
) n ] 1 /n
(1 )1/2
Figure 4.16 Non-Newtonian rheological models represented by (a)

effect of shear strain rate on dimensionless shear stress and (b) effect of
dimensionless shear stress on dimensionless effective viscosity. [From
Myllerup et al. (1993).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Conformal Bearing Materials

Table 5.1: Properties and characteristics of various conformal bearing metals [From Clauser (1948)]
Bearing metal
Brinell hardness number

Room
149 C (300 F)
temperature
Load-carrying capacity
MPa
psi
Tin-base babbitt
20-30
6-12
5.5-10.4
Lead-base babbitt
15-20
6-12
5.5-8.3
Alkali-hardened lead
22-26
11-17
8.3-10.4
Cadmium base
30-40
15
10.4-13.8
Copper lead
20-30
20-23
10.4-17.2
Tin bronze
60-80
60-70
> 27.6
Lead bronze
40-70
40-60
20.7-31.1
Phosphor bronze
75-100
65-100
>27.6
Aluminum alloy
45-50
40-45
>27.6
Silver (overplated)
25
25
>27.6
Copper-nickel matrix
10
7
13.8
Trimetal and plated
(b)
(b)
>27.6
Grid type
(b)
(b)
>27.6
Thin babbitt overlay,
0.051-0.178 mm
(0.002-0.007 in.
(b)
(b)
13.8
Conventional babbitt
overlays, 0.51 mm
(0.0020 in.)
(b)
(b)
10.4
a This is an arbitrary scale with 1 being the highest rating.
b Approximately the same as the babbitts.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
800-1500
800-1200
1200-1500
1500-2000
1500-2500
> 4000
3000-4500
> 4000
> 4000
> 4000
2000
> 4000
> 4000
Maximum
operating
temperature
C
F
149
300
149
300
260
500
260
500
177
350
260+
500+
232-260
450-500
260+
500+
107-149
225-300
260+
500+
177
350
107-149
225-300
107-149
225-300
Fatigue
strengtha
Antiseizure
propertya
Conformability
and
embeddability a
3
3
3
3
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
3
3
3
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2000
149
300
1500
149
300
White Metal Bearing Alloys

Table 5.2: Composition and physical properties of white metal bearing alloysa [From ASTM B23-83.
Reprinted by permission of the American Society for Testing and Materials.]
Antimony
Lead
Copper
Arsenic
Specific
Tin
Antimony
Lead
Copper
20 C (68 F)
100 C (212 F)
Specified nominal composition of alloys,
gravityc
Composition of alloys tested,
Yield pointd
percent
percent
MPa
psi
MPa
psi
1
91.0
4.5
4.5
7.34
90.9
4.52
None
4.56
30.3
4400
18.3
2650
2
89.0
7.5
3.5
7.39
89.2
7.4
0.03
3.1
42.0
6100
20.6
3000
3
84.0
8.0
8.0
7.46
83.4
8.2
.03
8.3
45.5
6600
21.7
3150
7
10.0
15.0
Remainder
.45
9.73
10.0
14.5
75.0
.11
24.5
3550
11.0
1600
8
5.0
15.0
Remainder
.45
10.04
5.2
14.9
79.4
.14
23.4
3400
12.1
1750
15
1.0
16.0
Remainder
1.0
10.05
Alloy
20 C (68 F)
100 C (212 F)
20 C (68 F)
100 C (212 F)
20 C
100 C
Melting
Temperature
Proper
b
f
number
Johnsons apparent elastic
Ultimate strength in compression
(68 F)
(212 F)
point
of complete
pouring
limite
Brinell harnessg
liquefaction
temperature
C
F
C
F
C
F
MPa
psi
MPa
psi
MPa
psi
MPa
psi
MPa
psi
1
16.9
2450
7.2
1050
88.6
12,850
47.9
6950
8.0
17.0
223
433
371
700
441
825
2
23.1
3350
7.6
1100
102.7
14,900
60.0
8700
12.0
24.5
241
466
354
669
424
795
3
36.9
5350
9.0
1300
121.3
17,600
68.3
9900
14.5
27.0
240
464
422
792
491
915
7
17.2
2500
9.3
1350
107.9
15,650
42.4
6150
10.5
22.5
240
464
268
514
338
620
8
18.3
2650
8.3
1200
107.6
15,600
42.4
6150
9.5
20.0
237
459
272
522
341
645
15
13.0
21.0
248
479
281
538
350
662
a Compression test specimens were cylinders 1.5 in. (38 mm) in length and 0.5 in. (13 mm) in diameter, machined from chill castings 2 in. (51 mm) in length and
0.75 in (19 mm) in diameter. The Brinell tests were made on the bottom of parallel machined specimens cast in a mold 2 in. (51 mm) in diameter and 0.0625 in.
(16 mm) deep at room temperature
b Data not available on alloys 11 and 13.
c The specific gravity multiplied by 0.0361 equals the mass density in pounds per cubic inch.
d The values for yield point were taken from stress-strain curves at a deformation of 0.125 percent of gage length.
e Johnsons apparent elastic limit is taken as the unit stress at the point where the slope of the tangent to the curve is two-thirds its slope at the origin.
f The ultimate strength values were taken as the unit load necessary to produce a deformation of 25 percent of the specimen length.
g These values are the average Brinell number of three impressions on each alloy, using a 10-mm (0.39-in) ball and a 500-kg (1102.3 lb) load applied for 30 s.
Alloy
numberb
Tin

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Alloys in General Use

Table 5.3: Chemical composition of alloys in more general use. [From ASTM B23-83. Reprinted by permission of the American Society for Testing and Materials.]
Alloy numbera,b
Element
Tin base
1
Lead base
3
11
7
8
Chemical composition, percent
86.0-89.0
9.3-10.7
4.5-5.5
6.0-7.5
14.0-16.0
14.0-16.0
.50
Remainderc
Remainder
5.0-6.5
.50
.50
.08
.10
.10
.10
.30-.60
.30-.60
.08
.10
.10
.005
.005
.005
.005
.005
.005
.05
.05
.05
99.80
13
15
Tin
90.0-92.0
88.0-90.0
83.0-85.0
5.5-6.5
0.8-1.2
Antimony
4.0-5.0
7.0-8.0
7.5-8.5
9.5-10.5
14.5-17.5
Lead
.35
.35
.35
Remainder
Remainder
Copper
4.0-5.0
3.0-4.0
7.5-8.5
.50
.6
Iron
.08
.08
.08
.10
.10
Arsenic
.10
.10
.10
.25
.8-1.4
Bismuth
.08
.08
.08
.10
.10
Zinc
.005
.005
.005
.005
.005
Aluminum
.005
.005
.005
.005
.005
Cadmium
.05
.05
.05
.05
.05
Total named
99.80
99.80
99.80
elements,
minimum
a
All values not given as ranges are maximum values unless shown otherwise.
b
Alloy 9 was discontinued in 1946 and 4,5,6,10,11,12,16, and 19 were discontinued in 1959. A new number 11,
similar to SAE grade 11, was added in 1966.
c
To be determined by difference.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Bronze & Copper Bearing Alloys

Table 5.4: Typical bronze and copper alloy bearing materials [From Booser (1966)]
Designation
Material
Cu
SAE 480
AMS 4840
SAE 67
SAE 40
SAE 660
SAE 64
SAE 62
SAE 620
SAE 63
ASTM B14852-9c
Copper lead
High-lead tin bronze
Semiplastic bronze
Leaded red brass
Bronze
Phosphor bronze
Gunmetal
Navy G
Leaded gunmetal
Aluminum bronze
65
70
78
85
83
80
88
88
88
85

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Sn
Pb Zn
Fe
Nominal composition,
percent
5
6
5
7
10
10
8
10
35
25
16
5
7
10
5
3
2
4
Al
11
Brinell
hardness
number
BNH
25
48
55
60
60
63
65
68
70
195
Tensile
strength
MPa
ksi
55.2
172.5
207.0
241.5
241.5
241.5
310.5
276.0
276.0
621.0
8
25
30
35
35
35
45
40
45
90
Maximum
operating
temperature
C
F
177
350
204+
400+
232
450
232
450
232+
450+
232+
450+
260+
500+
260
500
260
500
260+
500+
Maximum
load
MPa
ksi
13.8
20.7+
20.7+
24.2
27.6
27.6
27.6
27.6+
27.6+
31.1+
2
3+
3+
3.5
4
4
4
4+
4+
4.5+
Non-Metallic Bearing Materials

Material
Load-carrying
Maximum
capacity
temperature
C
F
MPa
psi
Carbon graphite
4.1
600
399
750
Phenolics
41.4
6000
93
200
Nylon
6.9
1000
93
200
PTFE (Te on)
3.4
500
260
500
Reinforced PTFE
17.2
2500
260
500
PTFE fabric
414.0
60,000
260
500
Polycarbonate (Lexan)
6.9
1000
104
220
Acetal resin (Delrin)
6.9
1000
82
180
Rubber
.34
50
66
150
Wood
13.8
2000
66
150
a P = load (psi); V = surface speed (ft/min).
Maximum
speed
m/s
ft/min
12.7
2500
12.7
2500
5.1
1000
.51
100
5.1
1000
.25
50
5.1
1000
5.1
1000
7.6
1500
10.2
2000
P V limita
15 103
15103
3103
1103
10103
25103
3103
3103
15103
15103
Table 5.5 Limits of application of

nonmetallic bearing materials. [Revised
from O'Connor et al. (1968)].
(a)
Figure 5.1 Phenolic laminate bearings. (a)

Tubular bearing; (b) circumferentially laminated
bearing; (c) axially laminated bearing; (d) stave
bearing; (e) molded bearing. [From Kaufman
(1980).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
(b)
(c)
Phenolic
staves
(d)
(e)
Phenolic
liner
Phenolic Bearing Applications

Table 5.6: Typical applications of laminated phenolic bearings [From Kaufman (1980)].
Bearing
application
Roll neck
Typea
(e)
(d)
76-660
3-26
248
60
Water
0.001/mm
diameter
over 127 mm
0.001/in.
diameter
over 5 in.
(a), (d)
76-660
3-26
93-248
3-8
55-60
Grease or
water
(c)
13-76
.5-3
248
60
Water
0.001/mm
diameter
over 127 mm
.127
0.001/in.
diameter
over 5 in.
.005
(a),(b),(c)
13-102
.5-4
93-248
3-8
60
Pumped
liquid
.127
.005
(d)
102-610
4-24
248
60
Water
.127
.005
(a),(e)
381-1219
15-49
202-466
6.5-15
55-60
.381-.762
.015-0.30
Longer life, higher load-carrying

capacity, lower friction, lower
lubricant cost
Aircraft,
landing gear
(a)
51-381
2-12
93
60
Water or
emulsion
of water
and grease
Oil
Railway,
bolster cup
Molded cone
202
6.5
53
Grease
0.001/mm
diameter
over 127 mm
0.001/in.
diameter
over 5 in.
Lighter weight, satisfactory

dimensional stability and loadcarrying capacity
Longer life, lower noise and
vibration transmission
Ship, stern
tube
Rudder, pintle
Small craft,
stern tube
Centrifugal
pump
Water wheel,
turbine, guide
bearing
Ball mill

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Fabric weight
g/m
oz/yd
466-1552
15-50
Resin
Lubricant
40-60
Water or
emulsion
Diametral clearanceb
mm
in.
0-13
0-0.5
Size range
mm
in.
76-762
3-30
Principal reasons for using laminated phenolic bearing material

Longer life, power savings due to
lower friction, lower-cost water lubrication, greater cleanliness of
operation, better holding of gage
due to less water.
Longer life, greater ease of
handling and installing, higher
load-carrying capacity particularly with impact loads, lower
friction, greater corrosion and decay resistance, lower journal wear,
greater local availability
Longer life, better lubrication with

pumped liquid (water, gasoline,
chemical solutions, etc.)
Longer life, lower friction, no decay, less journal wear
Bearing Surfaces
Bearing material
Backing material
Lining
material
(a)
Graphite filling
(b)
Bronze
Carbon-graphite filler
(c)
(d)
Figure 5.2 Different forms of bearing surfaces. (a) Solid bearing; (b)
lined bearing; (c) filled bearing; (d) shrink-fit bearing.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Bearing Steels
Table 5.7: Typical compositions of selected bearing steels [From Bamberger et al. (1980)]
C
P
(max)
S
(max)
Mn
SAE 52100a
1.00
0.025
MHTb
1.03
.025
AISI M-1
.80
.030
AISI M-2a
.83
.030
AISI M-10
.85
.030
AISI M-50a
.80
.030
T-1 (18-4-1)a
.70
.030
T15
1.52
.010
440Ca
1.03
.018
AMS 5749
1.15
.012
Vasco Matrix II
.53
.014
CRB-7
1.10
.016
AISI 9310c
.10
.006
CBS 600c
.19
.007
CBS 1000Mc
.14
.018
Vasco X-2c
.14
.011
a Balance, iron.
b Also contains 1.36% Al.
c Carburizing grades.
0.025
.025
.030
.030
.030
.030
.030
.004
.014
.004
.013
.003
.001
.014
.019
.011
0.35
.35
.30
.30
.25
.30
.30
.26
.48
.50
.12
.43
.54
.61
.48
.24
Si
Cr
Alloying element, wt %
0.30
1.45
.35
1.50
.30
4.00
1.00 1.50
.30
3.85
1.90 6.15
.30
4.00
2.00
.25
4.00
1.00
.25
4.00
1.00 18.0
.25
4.70
4.90 12.5
.41
17.30
.14
.30
14.50
1.20
.21
4.13
1.08 1.40
.31
14.00
1.03
.28
1.18
1.05
1.50
.43
1.12
.94
4.76
.45
1.40
Mo
Co
Cb
Ni
8.00
5.00
8.00
4.25
.20
.50
4.00
4.80
2.02
.11
.94
4.77
1.40
5.10
7.81
.03
0.32
0.10
3.15
.18
2.94
.10
Figure 5.3 Hot hardness of CBS 1000, CBS

1000M, Vasco X-2, and high-speed tool steels.
[From Anderson and Zaretsky (1975).]
2
Decrease in hardness, Rc, points
Designation
6
CBS 1000
8
Vasco X-2
10
CBS 1000M
12
14
300

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
High-speed
tool steels
400
200
500
600
700
Material temperature, K
400
600
800
Material temperature, F
800
1000
900
Density
Density,
kg/m3
lbm/in3
Metals:
Aluminum and its alloysa
2.7 103
0.097
Aluminum tin
3.1 103
.11
3
Babbitt, lead-based white metal
10.110
.36
3
Babbitt, tin-based white metal
7.4 10
.27
Brasses
8.6 103
.31
3
Bronze, aluminum
7.5 10
.27
3
Bronze, leaded
8.9 10
.32
Bronze, phosphor (cast)b
8.7 103
.31
3
Bronze, porous
6.4 10
.23
3
Copper
8.9 10
.32
Copper lead
9.5 103
.34
3
Iron, cast
7.4 10
.27
3
Iron, porous
6.1 10
.22
3
Iron, wrought
7.8 10
.28
Magnesium alloys
1.8 103
.065
Steelsc
7.8 103
.28
3
Zinc alloys
6.7 10
.24
Polymers:
Acetal (polyformaldehyde)
1.4 103
.051
3
Nylons (polyamides)
1.14 10
.041
Polyethylene, high quality
.95103
.034
3
Phenol, formaldehyde
1.3 10
.047
d
3
Rubber, natural
1.0 10
.036
Rubber, silicone
1.8 103
.065
Ceramics:
Alumina (Al2 O3 )
3.9 103
.14
Graphite, high strength
1.7 103
.061
Silicon carbide (SiC)
2.9 103
.10
3
Silicon nitride (Si3 N4 )
3.210
.12
a Structural alloys.
b Bar stock typically 8.8 103 kg/m3 (0.30 lbm/in.3 )
c Excluding \refractory" steels.
d \Mechanical" rubber
Table 5.8 Densities of various metals,

polymers, and ceramics at room temperature
(20C; 68F) [From ESDU (1984).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
104
Metals
Polymers
Ceramics
Lead
Copper
Steels
Cast iron
Zinc alloys
Sintered iron
Density, R, kg/m3
Material
Alumina
Silicon nitride
Silicon carbide
Aluminum-tin
Aluminum
Magnesium
Silicone rubber
Graphite
Acetal
Phenol formaldehyde
Nylon
103
Natural rubber
Polyethylene
8 x 102
Figure 5.4 Illustration of density for

various metals, polymers, and ceramics
at room temperature (20C; 68F). [From
ESDU (1984).]
Elastic Modulus
Metals
1012
1011
Polymers
Ceramics
Carbides
Alumina
Steels
Cast iron
Brass, bronze
Aluminum
Zinc alloys
Magnesium alloys
Babbits
Graphite
Modulus of elasticity, E, Pa
1010
Phenol formaldehyde
Acetal
Nylon
109
Polyethylene
108
107
Natural rubber
106
Figure 5.5 Modulus of elasticity for

various metals, polymers, and
ceramics at room temperature (20
C; 68F) [From ESDU (1984).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Table 5.9: Modulus of elasticity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at
room temperature (20 C; 68 F) [From ESDU (1984).]
Material
Modulus of elasticity, E
GPa
Mlbf/in.2
Metals:
Aluminum
62
9.0
Aluminum alloysa
70
10.2
Aluminum tin
63
9.1
29
4.2
52
7.5
Brasses
100
14.5
Bronze, aluminum
117
17.0
Bronze, leaded
97
14.1
Bronze, phosphor
110
16.0
Bronze, porous
60
8.7
Copper
124
18.0
Iron, gray cast
109
15.8
Iron, malleable cast
170
24.7
Iron, spheroidal graphite b
159
23.1
Iron, porous
80
11.6
Iron, wrought
170
24.7
Magnesium alloys
41
5.9
Steel, low alloys
196
28.4
Steel, medium and high alloys
200
29.0
c
Steel, stainless
193
28.0
Steel, high speed
212
30.7
Zinc alloysd
50
7.3
Polymers:
2.7
.39
Nylons (polyamides)
1.9
.28
Polyethylene, high density
.9
.13
Phenol formaldehydee
7.0
1.02
Rubber, naturalf
.004
.0006
Ceramics:
Alumina (Al2 O3 )
390
56.6
Graphite
27
3.9
Cemented carbides
450
65.3
450
65.3
314
45.5
b For bearings.
c Precipitation-hardened alloys up to 211 GPa (30 lbf/in.2 ).
d Some alloys up to 96 GPa (14 lbf/in.2 ).
e Filled.
f 25-Percent-carbon-black \mechanical" rubber.
Material
Metals:
Aluminum and its alloys
Aluminum tin
Brasses
Bronze
Bronze, porous
Copper
Iron, cast
Iron, porous
Iron, wrought
Magnesium alloys
Steels
Zinc alloysd
Polymers:
Nylons (polyamides)
Rubber
Ceramics:
Alumina (Al2 O3 )
Cemented carbides
Poissons
ratio,
0.33
.33
.33
.22
.33
.26
.20
.30
.33
.30
.27

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Poissons Ratio
.40
.35
.50
.28
.19
.19
.26
Table 5.10 Poisson's ratio for various metals,

polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20
C; 68F) [From ESDU (1984).]}
Thermal Expansion Coefficient

2 x 10-4
Table 5.11: Linear thermal expansion coecient for various metals, polymers
and ceramics applied over temperature range 20 to 200 (68 to 392 ) [From
ESDU (1984)]
Metals:
Aluminum
23
Aluminum alloysa
24
Aluminum tin
24
20
23
Brasses
19
Bronzes
18
Copper
18
Copper lead
18
Iron, cast
11
Iron, porous
12
Iron, wrought
12
Magnesium alloys
27
Steel, alloyb
11
Steel, stainless
17
Steel, high speed
11
Zinc alloys
27
Polymers:
Thermoplasticsc
60-100
Thermosetsd
10-80
90
Nylons (polyamides)
100
126
25-40
Rubber, naturalf
80-120
Rubber, nitrileg
34
Rubber, silicone
57
Ceramics:
Alumina (Al2 O3 )h
5.0
4.5
4.3
3.2
b Cast alloys can be up to 15m/m K.
c Typical bearing materials.
d 25m/mK to 80m/mK when reinforced.
e Mineral lled.
f Fillers can reduce coecients.
g Varies with composition.
h 0 to 200 C.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
12.8
13.3
13.3
11
13
10.6
10.0
10.0
10.0
6.1
6.7
6.7
15
6.1
9.5
6.1
15
35-56
6-44
50
56
70
14-22
44-67
62
103
2.8
.8-2.2
2.4
1.8
Polymers
10-4
Linear thermal expansion

coecient, a

m/mK
in./in. F
Ceramics
Polyethylene
Silicone rubber
Natural rubber
Acetal, nylon
Nitrile rubber
Linear thermal expansion coefficient, a, 1/K
Material
Metals
Zinc
Magnesium
Aluminum
Brass, copper
Most bronzes
Phenol formaldehyde
Babbits
Steel
10-5
Leaded bronze
Cast irons
Sintered iron
Alumina
Silicon carbide
Silicon nitride
Graphite
10-6
Figure 5.6 Illustration of thermal

expansion coefficient for various metals,
polymers, and ceramics applied over
temperature range 20 to 200C (68 to
392F). [From ESDU (1984).]
Thermal Conductivity
Table 5.12: Thermal conductivity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics
Thermal conductivity
W/m K
Btu/ft hr F
Metals:
Aluminum
209
Aluminum alloys, castinga
146
b
Aluminum alloys, silicon
170
Aluminum alloys, wroughtc
151
Aluminum tin
180
24
56
Brassesa
120
Bronze, aluminuma
50
Bronze, leaded
47
d
Bronze, phosphor (cast)
50
Bronze, porous
30
Coppere
170
Copper lead
30
Iron, gray cast
50
Iron, spheroidal graphite
30
Iron, porous
28
Iron, wrought
70
Magnesium alloys
110
Steel, low alloyc
35
Steel, medium alloy
30
Steel, stainlessf
15
Zinc alloys
110
Polymers:
.24
Nylons (polyamides)
.25
.5
Rubber, natural
1.6
Ceramics:
Alumina (Al2 O3 )g
25
125
15
a At 100 C.
b At 100 C ( 150 W/m K at 25 C.)
c 20 to 100 C.
d Bar stock typically 69 W/m K.
e Typically 22 W/m K at 200 C.
f Typically 12 W/m K at 400 C.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
120
84
98
87
100
14
32
69
29
27
29
17
98
17
29
17
16
40
64
20
17
8.7
64
102
Metals
Polymers
Ceramics
Aluminum
Copper
Brass
Magnesium alloys
Graphite
Cast iron
Bronze
Steel
Alumina
Thermal conductivity, Kf, W/m K
Material
3 x 102
Stainless steel
10
Silicon carbide
Natural rubber
1
.14
.14
.29
.92
Polyethylene
Acetal, nylon
14
72
8.6
10-1
Figure 5.7 Illustration of thermal

conductivity for various metals,
polymers, and ceramics. [From
ESDU (1984).]
Specific Heat Capacity

2.0
Metals
Table 5.13: Specic heat capacity for various metals, polymers and ceramics at
room temperature (20 ; 68 F) [From ESDU (1984).]
Polymers
Natural rubber
Ceramics
1.8
Specic heat capacity, Cp

kJ/kg K
Btu/lb F
Metals:
Aluminum and its alloys
0.9
0.22
Aluminum tin
.96
.23
.15
.036
.21
.05
Brasses
.39
.093
Bronzes,
.38
.091
a
Copper
.38
.091
Copper lead
.32
.076
Iron, cast
.42
.10
Iron, porous
.46
.11
Iron, wrought
.46
.11
Magnesium alloys
1.0
.24
b
Steels
.45
.11
Zinc alloys
.4
.096
Polymers:
Thermoplastics
1.4
.33
Rubber, natural
2.0
.48
Ceramics:
Graphite
.8
.2
Cemented carbides
.7
.17
a Aluminum bronzes up to 0.48 kJ/kg K (0.12 Btu/lb F).
b Rising to 0.55 kJ/kg K (0.13 Btu/lb F) at 200 C (392 F).
1.6
Specific heat capacity, Cp, kJ/kg K
Material
Thermoplastics
1.4
1.2
1.0
Magnesium
Aluminum
Graphite
.8
Carbides, alumina
.6
.4
Steel
Cast iron
Copper
.2

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Figure 5.8 Illustration of specific

heat capacity for various metals,
polymers, and ceramics at room
temperature (20C; 68F). [From
ESDU (1984).]
Concentric Journal Bearing

2Pr
ua
ua
Na
ua
h=c
Figure 6.1 Concentric Journal Bearing.
Figure 6.2 Developed journal and

bearing surfaces for a concentric
journal bearing.
Petrovs Equation:
420r3bNa 20r3b
tq = f r =
=
c
c
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Navier-Stokes Equation
z
Txz
Tyz
Sy
Txy
Tyx
Figure 6.3 Stresses on two

surfaces of a fluid element.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Sx
Cartesian Coordinates:
"
! 2
2
2
Du
p
0 a
u u u
= Xa + 0
+ 2+ 2 +
2
Dt
x
x
y
z
3 x
"
! 2
2
2
Dv
p
0 a
v v v
= Ya + 0
+ 2+ 2 +
2
Dt
y
x
y
z
3 y
"
! 2
2
2
Dw
p
0 a
w w w
= Za + 0
+ 2+ 2 +
2
Dt
z
x
y
z
3 z
Rw +
1 !(Rw)
dz
2 !z
Elemental
volume
Rw
Ru -
1 !(Ru)
dx
2 !x
Ru
dz
Continuity
Equation
Ru +
1 !(Ru)
dx
2 !x
ua
dx
z
1 !(Rw)
Rw dz
2 !z
h
x
At rest
Figure 6.4 Velocities and densities for mass

flow balance through a flux volume element in
two dimensions.
Continuity Equation:

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Figure 6.5 Flow between parallel

flat plates.
u v w
+ +
=0
x y z
Couette & Poiseuille Flow

ua = 0
ua
h
z
(a)
h
z
At rest
(b)
At rest
Figure 6.6 (a) Couette and (b) Poiseuille velocity profiles.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Velocity Profiles
u = ua
h
z
u=0
dp
>0
dx
dp
>0
dx
( )
( )
( )
( dudz ) z = h
du
<0
dz z = 0
du
>0
dz z = h
dp
<0
dx
du
=0
dz z = 0
>0
dp
<0
dx
( )
du
>0
dz z = 0
( dudz ) z = h
<0
Figure 6.7 Some interesting velocity profiles.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
( )
du
>0
dz z = 0
( )
du
=0
dz z = h
Flow Examples
z
r
vz
Figure 6.8 Flow in a circular pipe.
gh
0
q! =
30
a4 d p
q=
80 dz
Figure 6.9 Flow down a vertical

plane.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Viscosimeters
tq c
0 =
2ro2ri!a
ht
k,0 = = Bt
Aq
pa
3tq
0 =
2R3
0.1 cm
(0.04 in.)
W, rad/sec
10 cm
(4.00 in.)
ht
R
dr
12 cm
(4.75 in.)
pi
r
Cone
A
lt
240 rpm
p=0
2a
Figure 6.10 Important

features of a capillary
viscometer.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Figure 6.10 Rotational

circular viscometer.
Figure 6.10 Cone-and-plane

viscometer.

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Conformal & Non-Conformal

Figure 1.1 Conformal Surfaces. [From

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Figure 1.2 Nonconformal Surfaces. [From

Minimum film thickness:

Figure 1.3 Characteristics of

Figure 1.4 Mechanisms of pressure development for hydrodynamic

Figure 1.5 Characteristics

Figure 1.6 Characteristics

Friction for Various Lubrication

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Figure 1.8 Bar diagram

Wear Rates for Lubrication

Figure 1.9 Wear rates for

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Melting point of acid

Molecular weight of lubricant

Contact angle of methylene

Table 1.1 Fatty acids in oil

Figure 1.10 Effect of chain

Number of runs over same track

Figure 1.11 Effect of boundary

Boundary Lubricant Mechanisms

Figure 1.12 Physisorption of of nhexadecane molecules to a metal surface.

Figure 1.12 Chemisorption of

Figure 1.14 Formation of sulfide

Figure 1.15 Thermal activation of a

Figure 1.16 A Stribeck curve, showing the effects of Hersey

Mode of operation Hydrodynamic

Figure 2.1 Divisions of conformal

Figure 2.2 Divisions of

Typical maximum load, N

Typical maximum load, lbf

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Figure 1.5 General guide

Journal bearing type

Normally satisfactory depending on

Small radial extent

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Below -30 C special lubricants are required; consideration

Excellent; thorough drying of

May impose limitations; consult manufacturer

Small radial extent but total

Satisfactory; filtration of lubricant is important

Not applicable when

Lubricant may impose limitations

Table 2.1: Continued

Journal bearing type

Excellent with selfcontained grease or

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Depends on complexity of lubrication system

Table 2.1: Concluded

Journal bearing type

Normally satisfactory; sealing

Normally satisfactory, but special

Low starting torque

Lubricant may impose limitations

Low running torque

Finite but predictable

A thrust force must be provided

Most types capable of

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Theoretically infinite but affected by