A new ecological pavement for enhancement of urban environments

JAVIER MONTALVO, PATRICIA CASAL, ADOLFO CANO & MARA PIERRES

Applied Ecology Laboratory, Department of Ecology and Animal Biology
University of Vigo
SPAIN
Abstract: Conventional pavements present numerous
functional and aesthetic deficiencies as they do not
adjust to the principles of ecological design and
sustainable architecture. An experimental ecological
pavement was designed, constructed and studied by
means of a demonstration project that examines two
construction models. This new pavement is only
made of natural materials, granite rubble and a native
bunch-grass in the joints. The design promotes a high
infiltration capacity or internal drainage and a high
resistance to pedestrian use of the grass. The
pavement constitutes a walkable and permeable
surface, with high durability, self-draining and of
high aesthetic qualities. It is suitable for different
applications because it allows for a flexible design
and integrates perfectly in the appropriate urban
public spaces.
Key-Words: Agrostis curtisii, drainage, ecological
design, granite pavement, green pavement, permeable
pavement, urban stormwater control.

1 Urban spaces for strolling and

amenity use
The history of architecture in the cities and more
specifically of the urban public spaces has always
been tied to the idea of durability and performance of
the materials. The use of natural stone, in cultures
with possession of this resource, has reflected and
solved both needs. And it has not only served this
aspect, but its historical use in many private and
public constructions, including the most emblematic
(squares, streets, temples, theatres, fountains, etc.), it
has bestowed an undeniable condition of natural,
noble and prestigious material [1, 2].
Urban public spaces express the demand of very
diverse social uses, such as strolling, resting, meeting
and walkway areas [3, 4, 5]. The purpose of these
open spaces, as well as the intensity of their use, are
two factors which determine the selection of the
material for paving or surface conditioning.

The civic life and the good functionality of the

cities depend on many cases on decisions apparently
so very unimportant such as the type of pavement to
be used on a determined public space.

2 Performance and sustainability of

pavement design
In the last years, due to the evolution experienced in
the construction sector and the appearance of new
products, the competition has increased in the market
between stone and other artificial materials (ceramics,
concrete, linoleum, etc.). This offer, increasingly
varied and growing, causes a necessary update by the
builders, architects and users. The innovation rate, on
some occasions so high, and the use of not very
correct marketing strategies, makes an adequate
assimilation of these new materials difficult, as well
as all of their features and benefits. This partial
knowledge determines great part of the construction
deficiencies of the pavement in our cities.
Frequently, the aesthetic aspect (venustas) is
among the first selection criteria, leaving to one side
the firmitas and the utilitas of the material. This is
evident in the large number of imitating materials
which aesthetic features that closely resemble the
natural ones, such as natural stone. And it also
highlights in a non-conscious manner the condition
of stone as a valuable material. Therefore, the design
of conventional pavements suffers from performance
deficiencies, which move away from the modern
principles of ecological science and sustainability and
their growing use in architecture [6-8] and land use
and urban planning [4, 5, 9-12].
It is always necessary to keep present the cultural
references of each place. Popular and traditional
architecture is a magnificent field-test of the
materials and their construction techniques. The time
factor is always an undeniable witness of the good
and bad uses. This must not be understood as a clear
invitation to the simplistic imitation of vernacular

models, but to take valuable past lessons for the

future, which demands the development of new
designs and techniques adapted to the needs of
present and future generations [8, 13, 14].

2.1 Main functional and aesthetic deficiencies

Many of the artificial materials present today on the
market are born with the pretension of acquiring the
aesthetic look of natural stone, imitating its tones,
finishes, and aspects. This gives place to a large
range or commercial varieties. The innovation efforts
are mostly focused on the aesthetic mimicry than on
the development of its own mechanical capacities
and other features. One example of this is the high
tech gres porcelain stoneware, which is one of the
products that have experienced more development in
the last years. Even possessing its own unique and
appreciable aesthetic features many of these
pavement pieces designs are orientated to reproduce
the visual qualities of natural stone [15].
However, the artificial character of these materials
is associated to certain noticeable deficiencies.
Aesthetically, they will never be able to reach, and
much less exceed, the imitated objects. Unique visual
features of each stone variety, such as their tone or
veining, are impossible to imitate. Likewise, other
valuable sensory features of the materials exist such
as their quality of sound and touch [16]. Artificial
materials have fewer aptitudes for transmitting
sensations through textures, colours or density. In
respect to the natural materials, this last aesthetic
feature makes them at the same time more difficult to
integrate into a determined landscape or to be used
on the transitions areas between green urban spaces
and other open spaces [9].
Functionally, the artificial materials are not very
flexible in their use, limited to the forms and
application methods offered by the industry. As they
are outputs from an industrial process they require
the standardization that facilitates its use and working
method. Currently, for example, the commercial
slabs of porcelain stoneware present standard
dimensions of 33x33 cm and 45x45 cm, even though
larger formats are being developed. Likewise, they
also present a higher vulnerability to chemical attacks
and presence of stains (efflorescence) than the natural
stone pavements. The deterioration of an artificial
material may lead to the degradation of the total
piece, while a natural material has the property of
aging with time [2].

Erroneous decisions, as a result from the

ignorance of the mechanical characteristics of the
materials are what causes many of the functional
deficiencies in the pavements. The use of certain
pavement for a traffic of people which it can not
sustain, will lead it to ruin, in a short time period
from that pavement was placed. Pieces breaking can
occur by incorrect slab sitting on top of the bedding
sand, an inadequate thickness or even the growth of
plants between the joints that causes a first movement
of the pieces.
Another of the main functional features valued in
materials for paving is their low permeability. This,
that at first is considered a virtue of any pavement,
can degenerate in deficiency if, for example, it is not
associated to a good drainage system. When this is
defective, such as in continuous pavements those
without individual pieces or others made of artificial
materials, puddles and water infiltrations occur that
make difficult or impossible to use the spaces and
can even severely degrade the materials and the
pavement structure [17].

2.2 Ecological design and sustainability

The ecological design is also key to sustainable
architecture. The basic idea is, to the contrary of
conventional formal innovation, imitate the
functional qualities of the materials and ecological
processes characteristic of natural systems in the
construction of artificial systems [18, 19]. The
organization of a system (i.e., its components and
interactions) is the essence in which its functionality
resides. An ecological design of a pavement
contributes to the ecological, social and economic
sustainability because (a) it optimizes its construction
and function, (b) makes possible its conservation and
maintenance, and (c) facilitates its renovation,
transformation or adaptation.
The simplicity of construction is a technical
criterium that promotes an easy combination of
materials and construction elements and promotes its
economical viability. The natural character of the
materials of a pavement implies less environmental
impacts in the production and transformation
processes of their constituent materials, quality which
is accentuated if they are abundant and originate
locally, are residues or sub-products, or are
renewable resources. The presence of plant
components, such as in mixed pavements with
ornamental inserts, must be guided by low
maintenance goals. The construction method must be

(a)

(b)

Figure 1 (a). Air image of the ecological pavement. The narrow joint and wide joint models studied are in the left and
right ends, respectively. (b) Close look at the pavement.

flexible and consume the minimal resources possible,

as it not requires, for example, the use of cement
mortars. Also, their materials must be susceptible to
reutilization on site or in other locations.
The main expression of performance success of a
pavement is its durability. The stone presents high
resistance and the grass a renovation and auto-repair
ability. An ecological pavement must be made up of
pieces easy to disassemble, susceptible to an easy and
economic substitution, and compatible with
complementary installations and other architectonic
and gardening elements. This is to say, it must be
easily adaptable to innovations in the uses or needs of
the space in which it is located without undermining
its general appearance and performance. An
ecological pavement must be permeable and selfdraining to preserve the natural volume and direction
of water flows [9, 17], and to avoid the need of

building accessory infrastructures to evacuate

stormwater 'source control or on-site retention
[20] and the eventual energy consumption
associated to them. Likewise, it must be resistant to
the pedestrian use without showing a relevant
deterioration. All these features promote a long life
use of a pavement.
It is also very important for its use in some public
amenity applications that an ecological pavement is
comfortable to stroll on and favours contact with
nature as it occurs for example when walking on
grass. The thermal comfort due to the refreshing
effect associated to the existence of more moistened
spaces results from the liberation of energy in the
form of latent heat of vaporization; it is an especially
desirable microclimate effect of a rational design. An
ecological pavement is healthier if its naturalness is
explicit and promotes urban biodiversity; its multi-

sensory aesthetic quality contributes to physical and

psychological wellbeing, and if it defines an open
ground for the purpose of sociability and integration
within the landscape [4, 9, 21].

3 PANATUR Demonstration Project:

design and construction of an
innovative pavement
PANATUR Demonstration Project (Design and
construction of mixed natural pavements, economical
and of high aesthetic value) obtained the support of
the Innovation & Industry Department of the
Galician Regional Government. The company
Ecoservicios y Bioconstruccin Atlas, S.L. and the
Applied Ecology Laboratory of the University of
Vigo combined efforts to design an innovative
pavement conception and to test through real models
its performance advantages.
The design, construction on a real scale and
experimental study of the pavement took place
between 2002 and 2004. It was built in the Monte dos
Pozos, Vigo (NW of Spain). It was made up of two
types of elements, irregular shape slabs or pieces of
granite with average thickness of 10 cm, and a native
bunch-grass species placed on the spaces between the
slabs (joints). The pavement was constituted by
various experimental models, which were designed
and constructed on a single surface of 220 m2. The
design parameters were the slab dimension (average
diameter: 50 and 100 cm) and the width of the joints:
narrow (3 cm) and wide (15 cm). The joints are
spaces with a drainage function whose construction
details favour plant establishment, which contribute
to its function and accentuate the slab shape and
pavement spatial pattern (Fig. 1). The slope of the
pavement surface was considered as an experimental
factor that may control pavement performance. Two
pavement slopes were considered: typical (2%) and
relatively high (8%).
The type of stone used for the slabs was a subproduct of the granite industry. It comes from rubbles,
residual pieces from trimming large granite blocks
(Rosa Porrio variety). It presents a flat anti-slipping
surface thanks to a rubbed type machined finish (matt
and without polishing). The slabs, which were
obtained by rubble breaking on site with a minimum
energy cost, were sat on a granite sand setting bed.
The joint filler (JF) was a mixture of sand and
topsoil made up of adequate types (grain size

distribution and organic matter content) and

proportions to increase joint permeability evaluated
by hydraulic conductivity tests. JF also presented
high resistance to compression, fertility and water
retention capacity. These two last features were
adequate for plant establishment and growth.
The plant used was Agrostis curtisii, which is a
perennial bunch-grass with fine leaves of ornamental
value, frugal and with a deep root system that favours
water infiltration. It was planted by root balls in the
joints with a protective fine gravel cover that
contributes to the pavement infiltration capacity
through JF.

3.1 Field-tests of real models

The experimental tests were limited to two models
made up of large pieces: narrow joint and wide joint.
The influence of the slope factor was also considered
for demonstration of the performance of both models
in different site conditions.

3.1.1 Drainage capacity

The potential capacity of control stormwater runoff
of an ecological pavement is related to the drainage
hole area (joint space). This drainage area covered
30% of the pavement surface in the wide joint model
and 10% in the narrow joint model. In both models
the volume of the joints can greatly contribute to
internal drainage of stormwater from average rainfall
intensity.
To estimate the real capacity of the pavement to
evacuate water from intense storms, the relative
resistance to water erosion (Re) that oppose the joint
filling material to water runoff was measured. A high
Re value indicates a low runoff and therefore a high
infiltration capacity or internal drainage. The erosion
manifests in a border of the material washed away
around the joints of the peripheral pavement slabs
(peripheral drainage areas). The maximum longitude
of these borders is proportionate to runoff flow and
the transport rate of sediments in suspension. Re was
estimated from measurements of longitude of the
small particles border (JF topsoil components) and
gravel border in the peripheral drainage areas.
After intense rainfalls, the first after the
construction of the pavement, small sediment
deposits were observed. The extent of the fines
deposits never exceeded 10 cm (and was less than 7
cm in the rest of he cases). This suggests that the

Pavement slope
Typical
High

(a)
100

Resistance to
water erosin (%)

runoff was relatively scarce and is an indicator of a

scarce load of materials in the effluent water and,
therefore, a high internal drainage.
Figure 2a synthesizes the relevance and
interdependence of the design factor (joint type) and
the slope on the Re of the small particles. Pavement
slope is without doubt the most relevant factor,
pointing out its effect was dependent on the joint type
and independent from other factors. In the narrow
joint model the resistance in high slope was notably
inferior around 20%-30% than the typical slope. In
the wide joint model the differences were less or non
existent.
The results relative to the Re of the gravel were
sensibly coincidental. Only the slope determined Re
differences, even though its relative magnitude also
depends on the design (joint type). In the wide joint
model there were no significant Re differences, which
points out another remarkable fact of the thicker and
cover material of the joints: it presented a higher Re
than the fine component of the JF. This suggests a
probable reinforced or synergic effect of the cover
material over the hydraulic conductivity of the
subjacent JF. The cover material would facilitate the
infiltration, minimizing the initial JF hydrophobia
possible after moistening due to its richness in lime,
which will limit the detachment and transport of the
subjacent fine materials.
Therefore, the infiltration capacity was somewhat
less in a narrow joint model on a high slope than with
a lower one. We must not forget that these
differences were small and relative, and that in reality
expressed and extraordinary drainage capacity on
both pavement models just after its construction,
phase in which the infiltration capacity of an
ecological pavement was not optimal. On the long
term the infiltration capacity will be even higher,
both due to the increase of the drainage effect of the
root system and the joint protection effect of the
shoot biomass.
The moisture of the bedding sand materials,
beneath the granite slabs, presents a seasonal
variation according to the precipitation regime. A
single measurement in summer (beginning of August)
was around 10%. No significant differences in design
(joint type) or slope effect were registered.
This moisture was not significantly different to
the surface sand outside of the pavement. However, it
indicates two relevant qualities of the pavement
sponge effect. On one hand, the capacity of water
storage did not seem to depend on the differential

(b)

ab

100

ab

80

ab

ab

a
b

80
60

60

40

40

Wide joint

Narrow joint

Wide joint

Narrow joint

Figure 2. Influence of the pavement slope, typical (2%)

and high (8%) o n the resistance to water erosion of (a)
the joint filler material and (b) the fine gravel cover, in
two pavement models.

heating of the granite slabs according to their

thickness under scarce rainfall conditions. On the
other, this soil moisture may be partly available for
the consumption of grass in the joints.
The ecological pavement behaved as a permeable
surface, able to act as an effective stormwater drain,
which demonstrates one of its most outstanding and
innovative qualities. The joints constituted effective
internal drainage linear surfaces, and, at the same
time, may function as drainage ducts for the runoff,
which eventually concentrates forming ephemeral
water-flows whose circulation is restricted
exclusively to certain intermittent, intense storm
episodes, which are relatively frequent in SW Galicia.

3.1.2 Resistance to pedestrian use

The most vulnerable part to the intensity and
frequency of pedestrian use of an ecological
pavement is the grass surface. The effect of pavement
use was studied by an experimental stepping regime.
The effect of the stepping regime on the JF and the
plants were examined, and also were compared to
control (not stepped on).
Resistance of the JF material. Figure 3a shows
that the design was the most important factor which
determines the resistance to compaction (Rc) of the JF.
In general, the narrow joint model presented a
significantly higher Rc than the wide joint model. In
the narrow joint model, the smaller space between
slabs impedes the direct compression by the foot on
the JF surface and therefore no direct mechanical
effect was possible. In the wide joint model, the total
or partial support of the foot surface was possible and
therefore it lacks of that structural resistance. In any
case, the resistance was very high in this model as

Intensity
Low High
Frequency

Control

Low
High

Narrow joint

Resistance to
compactation (%)

150
ab
bc

a
a

a
abc

bcd
cde

100

cd

50

(b)

8
6
4

Joint depth (cm)

Wide joint

(a)

Plant height (cm)

well, which reflects that stepping produces very

scarce compacting: in no case Rc was inferior to 75%
of the control one. This means that the act of stepping
did not compact the JF and did not alter too much the
initial joint depth (which was 3 cm), as it did not
cause, even in the worst cases, a deeper descent than
0.5 cm (relative to the control or not stepped joints).
Besides the design, stepping intensity was the
only other somewhat relevant factor: it tended to
produce more noticeable effects the more it was
accentuated. However, there were no independent
effect of stepping frequency nor did these vary
depending on stepping intensity. Curiously, a light
extension of JF has been detected probably due to
slab sitting and lateral pushing in the narrow joint
model, which determined a light reduction in the
original joint depth. This effect was independent to
the stepping regime and can represent an elevation of
0.5-1 cm over the surface level. This is beneficial for
the internal drainage if it helps in maintaining its
porosity, factor to which contributes the activity or
worms and the extensive root system of the grass
(within three months from being planted the length of
the roots exceeds 15 cm and reached the lower part of
the thickest slabs), both in this model as well as in the
wide joint one.
JF bulk density changes were not detected in any
of the pavement models. Therefore, the minor
resistance that was observed in some cases of the
wide joint model probably resulted from a lighter
compacting of the bedding sand whose resistance to
the compression was probably less than the JF one.
Resistance of the grass. Figure 3b shows
interesting effect of the stepping regime regarding the
average height of the plants (measurement from the
base of the clump to the top shoot). The most
relevant factor was the design (joint type), with the
most resistant being the narrow joint model than the
wide joint model. In the first, the grass recovered
from the deformation of distal leaf portions if it
happened due to its flexibility. In the wide joint
model the grass suffered from flattening due to
compression. In this case we can appreciate a
deterioration of its visual quality (partial
decolouration, distal necrosis of leaf), even though
there was no noteworthy short-term plant mortality.
We must point out that a higher stepping intensity
produced a lower height (of almost 2 cm less) than
the control. While stepping intensity did not
significantly reduce the height of the grass in the

8
ab

ab ab

ab ab

6
c

Figure 3. Effects of the stepping regime on (a) the joint

filler material and (b) the plant height, in two pavement
models. The mean values of treatments and control
(without stepping) are indicated. Different letters or
groups of letters express statistical significant
differences. The vertical bar shows the standard error.
Also indicated is the joint depth from pavement surface
(the dashed line shows the immediate depth after
construction).

narrow joint model, in the wide joint model the effect

was accentuated with a higher intensity.
It is very interesting to state that no effect of
stepping frequency on grass height was recorded, nor
independently nor related to stepping intensity. This
absence of effects demonstrates, independently to the
design, a high overall resistance to moderate use of
the grass surface of the pavement. In any case, the
grass surface of the narrow joint model presented a
much higher resistance to use than the wide joint one.
A very light trend to reduce JF moisture due to
stepping in comparison to control was recorded,
which is coherent with the slight compaction
observed, but it was not statistically significant.
Pavement design (joint type) and stepping regime did
not influence the JF moisture, which was 7-11%.

4 Conclusion and applications

1. The designed ecological pavement constitutes a
walkable surface, resistant, permeable, selfdraining and of high aesthetic qualities. It is
innovative because it is based on an ecological

design that uses natural materials and granite

rubbles.
2. It presents a high infiltration capacity of rainfall
by the joints between slabs and if necessary, of a
surface drainage of runoff. Both properties are
useful for its use in rain conditions and in the
conservation of the granite properties, the
moisture below the slabs and the self-maintenance
of the grass surface.
3. The narrow joint model presents a significantly
superior structural resistance to moderate
pedestrian use than the wide joint model.
4. It is suitable for different applications since its
irregular flexible design integrates perfectly in the
appropriate urban public spaces and can be
adapted depending on the usage needs. The
industrial standardization of a larger variety of
slab formats is possible.

5. The ecological character of the pavement makes it,

from the economical point of view, a very
attractive alternative since it makes use of a
prestigious and infra-utilized material with low
market value and leads to low maintenance costs.
Acknowledgements
The project funding was by the Galician Plan of Research,
Technological Development and Innovation of the Galician
Regional Government (PGIDT02CCP01E) to the company
Ecoservicios y Bioconstruccin Atlas, S.L. The architect
Fernando Martnez Sarandeses performed an essential role in the
technical construction project and in the work management. The
Galician Granite Association and the company Granisa supplied
the stone and provided their technical assistance. The Comunidad
de Montes de Valladares (Vigo) facilitated the location.

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