Landscape Design: Ten Important Things to Consider1

Gail Hansen de Chapman2

When designing a residential landscape, the most important step is to put a plan on paper. Developing a master plan
will save you time and money and is more likely to result in a successful design. A master plan is developed through
the 'design process': a step-by-step method that considers the environmental conditions, your desires, and the
elements and principles of design. The goal is to organize the natural and man-made features in your yard into an
aesthetic, functional, and environmentally sustainable landscape.

The Design Process

The five steps of the design process include: 1) conducting a site inventory and analysis, 2) determining your needs,
3) creating functional diagrams, 4) developing conceptual design plans, and 5) drawing a final design plan. The first
three steps establish the aesthetic, functional, and horticultural requirements for the design. The last two steps then
apply those requirements to the creation of the final landscape plan.
The process begins with a site inventory and analysis of soil, drainage, climate conditions, and existing vegetation.
This is a critical step for both plant selection and placement and locating family activities and functions. It's important
because the same climate conditions that affect the plants--temperature, humidity, rain, wind, and sunlight--also affect
you, the user. The next step is to make a list of your needs and desires--this helps you determine how your yard and
landscape will be used. The site and user analyses will also help you establish a theme for the form and style of your
design. The functional diagram is then used to locate the activity spaces on the site and from this diagram a
conceptual plan is developed. The last step is a final design that includes all the hardscape and planting details that
are necessary for installation. Throughout the design process there are ten important things to consider:
1.

Understand your site for plant selection and activity location

2.

Remember the user by considering what you want and need

3.

Use a form and/or style theme to help determine shapes and organize spaces

4.

Create and link spaces by designating activity areas and linking with elements

5.

Consider the function of plants for both the environment and the user

6.

Structure the plantings by using massing and layering techniques

7.

Highlight important points such as transition areas and focal points

8.

Pay attention to detail in the materials, the colors, and the surface textures

9.

Take time into account for the growth and maintenance of plants

10. Protect your resources by using sustainable design practices

Understand Your Site

A thorough inventory and analysis of the site is important to determine the environmental conditions for plant growth
and the best use of the site. Issues of concern include the soil type, topography, and regional climate. The type of soil
determines the nutrients and moisture available to the plants. It is always best to use plants that will thrive in the
existing soil. Although soil can be amended, amendment is often costly and most times ineffective. Existing
vegetation can provide clues to the soil type. Where plants grow well, note the soil conditions and use plants with
similar growing requirements. Pay particular attention to areas where plants are not doing well and adjust when

choosing new plants. Topography and drainage should also be noted and all drainage problems corrected in the
proposed design. A good design will move water away from the house and re-route it to other areas of the yard.
Climate concerns begin with temperature: plants must be able to survive the average high and, most importantly, the
average low temperatures for the region. Use the USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map (www.usna.usda.gov/Hardzone/)
as a starting point to choose plants appropriate for your zone, but remember microclimates within your yard can offer
alternatives. Sun/shade patterns, the amount and length of exposure to sun or shade (Figure 1), create microclimates
(sometimes called microhabitats). Recording site conditions and existing vegetation on a base map will reveal the
location of microclimates in the yard. Plants usually fall into one or two of four microclimate categories-full sun, partial
shade, shade, and deep shade. It is important to remember that sun/shade patterns change with the seasons and
over time as trees get larger.

Figure 1.
Sun and Shade Patterns.

Credits: Gail Hansen

It is essential to note all the existing conditions on an accurate base map when doing the site inventory (Figure 2).
Utilities such as power lines, septic tanks, underground utilities and roof overhangs determine plant location. Use a
surveyor's plat of your property for the boundaries and location of your home. Measure and note on the survey other
structures and hardscape such as patios, driveways, or sidewalks. It is very important to hire a surveyor if you do not
have a plat; guessing the location of boundaries can be a costly mistake.

Figure 2.
Site Inventory.

Credits: Gail Hansen

Remember the User

The users are typically you, your family, the family pets, and visitors, and each have their own needs. There are five
things to consider: 1) how do you currently use the yard, 2) how do you want to use the yard, 3) aesthetically, how do
you want it to look, 4) what is your maintenance style, hands-off or hands-on, and, 5) what is your budget.

Figure 3.
Current use areas.

Credits: Gail Hansen

Figure 4.
Proposed use areas.

Credits: Gail Hansen

It is very important to consider how you currently use the yard. For example-which entry is used by whom, where do
the kids play and where does the dog usually run? (Figure 3) Thinking about how you currently use the yard, and how
you want to use the yard in the future (Figure 4), determines the need to re-organize old spaces into new spaces and
amenities. It is also important to remember the vehicles used by your family; driveways and parking are space
intensive. Budget concerns include the materials, initial installation costs and the on-going maintenance costs.
Determine the time and money you are willing to put into maintaining the plants and hardscape-be realistic about
your intentions and ability.

Use a Form and/or Style Theme

There are many different landscape design themes- from simple to complex, but it is helpful to choose one to guide
your plant and material selection. Think of a theme as the inspiration for your garden. Many people find it helpful to
look in gardening magazines and books for ideas. This is a good start, but be aware that the gardens in the photos
were picked because they are outstanding examples. Look at the photos with a critical eye to gather ideas that you
can adapt to your passion level, your budget and your site. Before choosing a theme it is important to look at the
surrounding views of your property. Decide if you want to open your yard, close your yard, or a little of both, to these
views. In other words, do you want the garden to enclose the space around you and relate mostly to the house, or do
you want the garden to open views and look outward, relating to the surroundings? This will give you a starting point
to think about a theme. Care should be taken to choose appropriate themes for your yard based on the architecture,
the type of neighborhood, the topography, and the regional landscapes. This is called "sense of place", which means
it fits with the surroundings.
There are both form themes and style themes. Every garden should have a form theme, but not all gardens have a
style theme. In fact, many residential gardens have no particular style except to blend with the house by repeating
details from the architecture such as materials, color, and form. All gardens, however, should use a form theme to
create spaces for activities. In a form theme the organization and shape of the spaces in the yard is based either on

the shape of the house, the shape of the areas between the house and the property boundaries, or a favorite shape
of the homeowner. The form theme determines the shape and organization (the layout) of the spaces and the links
between them.

Figure 5.
Naturalistic form theme.

Credits: Gail Hansen

Common themes include geometric, such as a circle, square, and rectangle; or naturalistic such as irregular (organic
edge) or curvilinear (meandering lines) (Figure 5). Form themes are sometimes combined; geometric shapes are
used for the hardscape and naturalistic shapes for the plantings. For example, plant bedlines are often curvilinear
while the hardscape is square in form.

Figure 5.
Naturalistic form theme.

Credits: Gail Hansen

Style themes are most often related to the architecture and they often simplify the design of a residential yard
because materials and form are to some extent pre-determined. Many style themes today are a contemporary
version of traditional garden designs. Architecture is usually the primary source of a theme, but themes can also
represent a time, a culture, a place, or a feeling, such as serenity or calmness. The advantage to using a traditional
style theme is the established set of forms and elements have historically worked well together and endured the test
of time.
Because architectural styles typically fall into a formal

Figure 6.
Formal style theme.

Credits: Gail Hansen

or informal category, the landscape theme tends to be either formal or informal (Figure 6). Formal architectural and
garden styles that can be used for inspiration include French, Spanish, Italian, and Middle Eastern. Less formal
designs include Oriental, English, and American. Style themes can also apply to the planting plan and may include
tropical, desert, meadow, woodland, marsh, or coastal plantings. Themes can be as simple as a color mix or plants
with a distinct character- such as grasses-used repeatedly in the composition.

Create and Link Spaces

The yard is an extension of the home where a variety of activities take place. A yard can generally be divided into
three areas: public (the front yard), private (the back yard), and service (typically the side yard). The location of
activity areas depends primarily on the type of area, the size of space needed, the type of activity, and the desired
proximity to other activities and structures. A few examples of spaces include the front entry area that brings you and
your visitors to your home, a cooking/eating/entertaining area (patio or deck), a play area, a dog run, a secret
garden/relaxation area, a vegetable garden or hobby area, and a trash/compost/work area.
Perhaps the most important spatial concept for successful garden design is the creation of outdoor rooms in the yard.

Figure 7.
Outdoor rooms.

Credits: Gail Hansen

These spaces are often separated through the use of plant beds, sod areas, trees, planters, garden walls, arbors,
level changes, and paved surfaces (Figure 7). The features are used to enclose or define the spaces and give them a
room-like feel. For psychological comfort, creating spaces that are of human scale is important because most people
prefer to be in places that feel protected and sheltering, rather than open and exposed. The outside wall of the house
often serves as the first wall or starting point of an outdoor room. Incompatible uses should be separated, and related
activities, such as cooking and dining, should be put together to make the yard more efficient and enjoyable. When

using hardscape to create spaces, use construction material similar to that used in the house for continuity from the
house into the garden.
Pedestrian circulation in the landscape should move people through the yard and provide organizational structure.
Outdoor rooms are typically linked by pathways, steps, and walkways, or openings with gates or arbors that
encourage exploration and use of the entire yard (Figure 8). These spaces can also be linked by visual features such
as a creek bed (wet or dry) that meanders through or beside several spaces, or a garden wall that begins at a patio,
moves along a turf area and ends along a planted area.

Figure 8.
Linked spaces.

Credits: Gail Hansen

Using similar hardscape features and repeating plants pulls the eye around the garden. Important points along the
way can be emphasized with plantings or features that draw attention and encourage movement in a particular
direction. Moving along the path takes a person from one area to the next and allows the user to have a variety of
experiences. In an informal garden the curves and bends of the path should partially conceal what lies ahead. This
provides a sense of mystery that promotes exploration and discovery of the landscape.

Consider the Function of Plants

From a design perspective, plant materials have three major functions in the landscape: aesthetic, structural and
utilitarian. Aesthetically, plants create a visually pleasant environment and structurally plants organize and define
spaces. Plants are utilitarian because they can transform the environment for the comfort of the user by modifying
light, temperature and humidity. Plants can also be used to control noise and odor, and provide food for homeowners
and wildlife.

Figure 9.
Physical and implied barriers.

Credits: Gail Hansen

For psychological comfort plants are used as physical or implied barriers for privacy and safety. Physical barriers
block both the view and access to a space and include fences, walls and plant hedges. Implied barriers, typically low
growing plants, block access but not the view (Figure 9). Other functions of plants include cleaning the air, preventing
erosion and soil loss, retaining moisture in the soil, and returning organic matter to the soil.
For these reasons, the types of plants to be used (such as trees, shrubs, or groundcovers) should be chosen in the
early stages of planning. Plant types are chosen for their functional capabilities so that their future purpose and
required space can be considered at the same time.

Figure 10.
Microclimates.

Credits: Gail Hansen

For structure and utility, trees and large to medium shrubs are the most important plants in the landscape, they
contribute the most to microclimates (Figure 10), spatial organization, and security concerns. The size, form and
texture (density) are the three dominant characteristics that determine how the plant can be used to make more
pleasant microclimates and create a more functional, organized, energy efficient yard.

Structure the Plantings

Plants provide structure in the garden in the same way as do the walls of a building. Shrubs can act as walls in a
space and the branches of trees form a ceiling canopy overhead. The overhead plane, the vertical plane and the
ground plane should all be considered to create enclosure. Once the shape of a plant bed has been established, the
plants should be massed (grouped) and layered to achieve visual unity and the desired amount of enclosure. The
size of a plant mass will depend on the total size of the yard, the size of the individual plants in the mass, and the
emphasis or impact desired from the plant material. Overlapping the masses of plants so that they are layered, both
horizontally (Figure 11) and vertically (Figure 12) links the plants with an interconnecting pattern. Each plant mass is
in front of, behind, or next to, another mass.

Figure 11.
Horizontal plant layers.

Credits: Gail Hansen

Repeating plants within a mass and repeating masses with similar plants ties the garden together.
The individual plant characteristics must be considered to successfully layer and mass plants. Each plant should
complement or contrast a neighboring plant.

Figure 12.
Vertical plant layers.

Credits: Gail Hansen

All plant compositions begin with the main structure plants, the large, mostly evergreen background plants-such as
the trees and large shrubs. These plants separate or enframe spaces, control the size of the space, and provide the
starting point for choosing the appropriate characteristics of the second layer, midground plants, for massing and infill.
The final layer of plants, the foreground plants, includes the low growing plants that often provide emphasis or focal
points.

Highlight Important Points

Important points in the garden should be highlighted by the use of unique plants, distinct structures, or garden
ornaments. Marking thresholds or entrances to spaces can be done with gates, arbors, and steps, or through the use
of unique and colorful plants. The form and/or style theme of the garden will often help determine the important points
and how they should be highlighted. Some styles have signature elements, such as a type of statuary or water
feature, that are the hallmark of the style. Other important places in the yard are focal points, which is used to visually
organize a landscaped area. The type of focal point often depends on the viewing perspective. Different perspectives
or viewpoints can reveal different compositions in the landscape that may require a variety of focal points. Contrasting
texture, shape, size and color will capture and hold the eye.

Pay Attention to Detail

Detail in the landscape is derived from the visual quality of plants, hardscape, and garden ornaments. Sensual
qualities such as scent, sound, and touch also add detail to the landscape. Various combinations of form, color,
texture, and size create aesthetic qualities. Plants come in various forms-such as round, columnar, weeping, and
spreading, that compliment or contrast with each other depending on how similar or different they are (Figure 13).
Form is the most enduring quality of a plant and thus the most important characteristic.

Figure 13.

Plant forms.

Credits: Gail Hansen

After form, texture is the next dominant feature of a plant; coarse, medium and fine textures can be used for contrast
and emphasis in the landscape. Form and texture both trump color in the garden for most of the year. However,
during certain seasons, color will be the most noticeable characteristic of the garden. To extend color displays
throughout the year, use plants that have color in numerous plant parts, such as the foliage, bark, and fruit.
Various color schemes, based on color theory, are used for contrast or unity in a garden. Typically one color, two
contrasting colors, or several analogous (similar) colors are repeated throughout the garden. Both color and texture
affect distance and can change the perceived size of a space-warm colors and/or coarse texture make a space feel
smaller; cool colors and/or fine texture make a space feel larger. The characteristics of individual plants affect
balance, unity and emphasis in the composition. Dark colors and coarse textures make a plant look heavier and
larger (more visual weight) and must be balanced with the same or with a larger mass of bright or light colors with fine
or medium texture. Massing plants with similar colors and textures provides unity, but contrasting plants should be
included to provide emphasis at important points.
To fully appreciate and experience a garden, all of the senses must be considered. The pleasant scent of plants, the
sound of wind in the trees, the sound and texture of water, and the colors and textures of sculptures, pots and garden
furniture all add to the experience of the garden. One detail that is often overlooked is the effect of light on the
aesthetics of the plants. Light shining through a plant, such as a feathery grass, can change its appearance. The
entire garden changes in function and appearance over the course of the day, and the course of a year, as the light
and temperature change from morning to night and season to season.

Take Time into Account

Plant selection must consider a plant's growth rate, its mature size and form, and the maintenance it will require. Fast
growing plants may or may not be desirable depending on the size of the site, the design intent, and the expected
level of maintenance. It is important to know the eventual mature size of plants so they can be placed in the right
location and spaced properly when they are installed.

Figure 14.
Plant spacing.

Credits: Gail Hansen

Giving plants room to grow is a challenge because the common mature size is typically based on optimal growing
conditions and the environmental conditions of a site may cause a plant to grow larger or stay smaller. If plants are
spaced too closely (to simulate a fully grown landscape) the overcrowded plants will present a maintenance issue.
Provide enough space so that, when fully mature, the plants are barely touching their neighbors and a somewhat
solid growing mass is formed (Figure 14). It is important, however, to leave space so the plant does not touch the side
of the house-this space allows for air circulation and home maintenance. Another common mistake is to plant too
close to utilities such as AC units and meters.

Figure 14.
Plant spacing.

Credits: Gail Hansen

Protect Your Resources

Be a good steward of the land through the wise use of plants, water, and building materials. The three areas of
greatest impact are the use of resource-efficient plants, the management of water, and the use of environmentally
sound hardscape materials. Before you remove any plant material, consider how you might be able to enrich your
existing ecological capital. That is, look at what you have and decide if it is worth saving. Some plant material may
simply be in the wrong place and can be transplanted for more favorable conditions. Look for resource-efficient plants
when choosing new plants. Florida-friendly plants are long lived, insect and disease resistant, and don't demand
frequent trimming, fertilizing, and watering.
The design phase is the time to consider incorporating the development of a rainwater catchment system. The
availability of water will no doubt be limited in the future so you must decide the role of water in your design: where
will you get irrigation water, how will you manage it, and how will you use it? The most obvious source will be
rainwater and the use of a harvesting system to capture, move, and store it. The system can be an aesthetic design
element if planned for early in the process. It is typically the first element to be installed because it sometimes
requires earthmoving and underground piping.
Protecting resources also includes the use of environmentally friendly hardscape materials and non-toxic
preservatives, stains, paints, and cleaners. Reusing construction materials will reduce the environmental impact of
using new materials and keep old materials out of the waste stream. Before any demolition starts on your old patio,
pool deck, arbors, or structures, consider how you might reuse the material in your new design. In addition to helping
the environment it will also help your budget. If you will not be doing any demolition work in your yard, look for other
sources of used material in your community.

Summary
Your yard is a very important natural resource that adds value to your home and enjoyment to your life. It contributes
to a desirable, healthy community. Several important concepts will help you create an aesthetically pleasing,
functional, and sustainable design. First remember to put your ideas on paper: create a design plan. Use the design
process to identify and understand your site and your needs. Use a theme to guide your decisions; professional
designers always look to the existing conditions for inspiration and material and plant choices. Create spaces that
serve as outdoor rooms-this is an essential concept of design-both for functionality and psychological comfort human
scaled spaces are the most desirable. Use plant material to create the walls, ceilings and floors of the rooms for a
physically comfortable microclimate. Remember that plants change over time, plan for this and you will find that
observing the changes is one of the most rewarding aspects of your garden. In many of our urban areas private yards
represent the last remnants of green space, think about how your yard fits into the big picture and what you can do to
have a positive impact on the environment in your neighborhood.

Sources:
Austin, R. (2002). Elements of Planting Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, NY

Bertauski, T. (2005). Designing the Landscape: An Introductory Guide for the Landscape Designer. Pearson
Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
Booth, N. (1983). Basic Elements of Landscape Architectural Design. Waveland Press, Inc. Prospect Heights, Illinois
Chaplin, L.T., & Slack, W. (1998). Landscaping, Southern Living Garden Guide. Oxmoor House Inc. Birmingham,
Alabama
Erler, C. T. (2007). Creative Homeowner: Design Ideas for Home Landscaping. Upper Saddle River, NJ
Holmes, R., & Buchanan, R. (2006). Creative Homeowner: Southeast Home Landscaping. Upper Saddle River, NJ
Levy, C. (2001). Landscaping Your Home, Fine Gardening Design Guides. The Taunton Press, Inc. Newtown, CT
Scarfone, S. (2007). Professional Planting Design: An Architectural and Horticultural Approach for Creating Mixed
Bed Plantings. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
Smith, C., Clayden, A., Dunnett, N. (2008). Residential Landscape Sustainability, A Checklist Tool. Blackwell
Publishing, Oxford, UK

Footnotes
1.
This document is ENH1112, one of a series of the Environmental Horticulture Department, Florida Cooperative
Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Original publication date January
2009. Reviewed January 2012. Visit the EDIS website at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.
2.
Gail Hansen de Chapman, assistant professor, Environmental Horticulture Department, Center for Landscape
Conservation and Ecology; Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences,
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611.

The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) is an Equal Opportunity Institution authorized to provide research,
educational information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function with non-discrimination with
respect to race, creed, color, religion, age, disability, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, national origin, political opinions
or affiliations. For more information on obtaining other extension publications, contact your county Cooperative Extension
service.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida, IFAS, Florida A. & M. University
Cooperative Extension Program, and Boards of County Commissioners Cooperating. Millie Ferrer-Chancy, Interim Dean.

Landscaping
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding
citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.(December 2009)
Landscaping refers to any activity that modifies the visible features of an area of land, including:
1. living elements, such as flora or fauna; or what is commonly referred to as gardening, the art and craft
of growing plants with a goal of creating a beautiful environment within the landscape.
2. natural elements such as landforms, terrain shape and elevation, or bodies of water;
3. human elements such as structures, buildings, fences or other material objects created and/or
installed by humans; and
4. abstract elements such as the weather and lighting conditions.
Landscaping is both science and art, and requires good observation and design skills. A good landscaper
understands the elements of nature and construction and blends them accordingly.
Thales, an early Greek philosopher known for his view that "all is water," spent a considerable time thinking
about the nature and scope of landscaping. Some of his students believed that in order for human activity to be
considered landscaping, it must be directed toward modifying the physical features of the land itself, including
the cultivation and/or manipulation of plants or other flora. Thales rejected this notion, arguing that any aspect
of the material world affecting our visual perception of the land was a proper subject for landscaping.
Both Plato and Aristotle praised Thales' analysis as a model for philosophy. In the early 20th century, British
philosopher G.E. Moorecited Thales' reasoning as one of the few historical examples of how philosophical
inquiry has led to genuine human understanding and progress.
Philosophers in the 17th century debated whether visual beauty was a necessary goal of landscaping. With the
advent of the positivistsby the early 20th century, however, most western philosophers had rejected the notion
of an objective esthetic standard for any form ofart, including landscaping. Practitioners since the mid-20th
century have experimented with jarring visual panoramas that are now generally accepted, at least in western
societies, as falling within the scope of landscaping.

[edit]See

also

Aquascaping

Arboriculture

Ecoscaping

Horticulture

Landscape architecture

Landscape contracting

Landscape design

Landscape ecology

Landscape engineering

Landscape planning

Naturescaping

Sustainable landscaping

Categories:

Landscape

Gardening
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Gardener" redirects here. For planting a plain-text to be encrypted by an adversary, see Gardening
(cryptanalysis).

Part of a parterre in an English garden

Gardening is the practice of growing and cultivating plants as part of horticulture. In gardens, ornamental
plants are often grown for their flowers, foliage, or overall appearance; useful plants, such as root
vegetables, leaf vegetables, fruits, andherbs, are grown for consumption, for use as dyes, or
for medicinal or cosmeticuse. A gardener is someone who practices gardening.
Gardening ranges in scale from fruit orchards, to long boulevard plantings with one or more different types
of shrubs, trees and herbaceous plants, to residential yardsincluding lawns and foundation plantings, to plants
in large or small containers grown inside or outside. Gardening may be very specialized, with only one type of
plant grown, or involve a large number of different plants in mixed plantings. It involves an active participation in
the growing of plants, and tends to be labor intensive, which differentiates it from farming or forestry.
Contents
[hide]

1 History
2 Types
3 Gardeners
4 Accessories
5 Gardening departments and centers
6 Comparison with farming
7 Gardens as art

8 Social aspects
9 Garden pests
9.1 Garden pest control

10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links

[edit]History
Main article: History of gardening

Robert Hart's forest garden in Shropshire, England

Forest gardening, a plant-based food production system, is the world's oldest form of gardening. [1] Forest
gardens originated in prehistoric times along jungle-clad river banks and in the wet foothills
of monsoon regions. In the gradual process of families improving their immediate environment, useful tree and
vine species were identified, protected and improved whilst undesirable species were eliminated. Eventually
foreign species were also selected and incorporated into the gardens. [2]

After the emergence of the first civilizations, wealthy individuals began to create gardens for purely aesthetic
purposes. Egyptian tomb paintings from around 1500 BC provide some of the earliest physical evidence of
ornamental horticulture and landscape design; they depict lotusponds surrounded by symmetrical rows
of acacias and palms. Ornamental gardens were known in ancient times, a famous example being the Hanging
Gardens of Babylon, while ancient Romehad dozens of gardens. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon are a World
Heritage Site and one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
Elaborate ornamental gardens existed since ancient Egypt, when wealthy people used them for shade.
Egyptians associated trees and gardens with gods as they believed that their deities were pleased by gardens.
Commonly, the gardens in ancient Egypt were surrounded by walls with trees planted in rows. Among the most
popular species that used to be planted were date palms, sycamores, fig trees, nut trees, and willows. These
gardens were a sign of higher socioeconomic status. In addition, wealthy ancient Egyptians grew vineyards, as
wine was a sign of the higher social classes. Roses, poppies, daisies and irises could all also be found in the
gardens of the Egyptians.
The Assyrians were also renowned for their beautiful gardens. These tended to be wide and large, some of
them used for hunting game on (much as a game reserve would today) and others as leisure gardens.
Cypresses and palms were some of the most planted types of trees. It is believed that when the Assyrian
Empire was destroyed Babylon developed as an empire with its very famous hanging gardens.
The ancient Roman gardens are known by their statues and sculptures, never missing from the lives of
Romans. These gardens were laid out with hedges and vines and they contained a wide variety of flowers,
including acanthus, cornflowers and crocus, cyclamen, hyacinth, iris and ivy, lavender, lilies, myrtle, narcissus,
poppy, rosemary and violet.[3] The beds of flowers were popular in the courtyards of the rich Romans.

A gardener at work, 1607

The Middle Age represented a period of decline in what concerns gardening. After the fall of Rome gardening
was only done with the purpose of growing medicinal herbs and/or decorating churchaltars.
Islamic gardens were built after the model of Persian gardens and they were usually enclosed by walls and
divided in 4 by watercourses. Commonly, the center of the garden would have a pool orpavilion. Specific to the
Islamic gardens are the mosaics and glazed tiles used to decorate the rills and fountains that were built in
these gardens.
By the late 13th century, rich Europeans began to grow gardens for leisure and for medicinal herbs and
vegetables.[4] They surrounded the gardens by walls to protect them from animals and to provideseclusion.
During the next two centuries, Europeans started planting lawns and raising flowerbeds and trellises of roses.
Fruit trees were common in these gardens and also in some, there were turf seats. At the same time, the
gardens in the monasteries were a place to grow flowers and medicinal herbs but they were also a space
where the monks could enjoy nature and relax.
The gardens in the 16th and 17th century were symmetric, proportioned and balanced with a more classical
appearance. Most of these gardens were built around a central axis and they were divided into different parts
by hedges. Commonly, gardens had flowerbeds laid out in squares and separated by gravel paths.
Gardens in Renaissance were adorned with sculptures, topiary and fountains which often contained water
jokes. In the 17th century, knot gardens became popular along with the hedge mazes. By this time, Europeans
started planting new flowers such as tulips, marigolds and sunflowers.
In the 18th century, gardens remained a privilege reserved for the upper class. They were laid out more
naturally, without any walls. Gardens of this century often contained shrubberies grottoes, pavilions, bridges
and follies such as mock temples. By the next century, gardens became available to the middle class as well.
Also, in 1804 the Horticultural Society was formed. Gardens of the 19th century contained plants such as the
monkey puzzle or Chile pine. This is also the time when the so called "gardenesque" style of gardens evolved.
These gardens displayed a wide variety of flowers in a rather small space. Rock gardens increased in
popularity in the 19th century.

[edit]Types

Conservatory of Flowers in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco

Hanging baskets in Thornbury, South Gloucestershire.

Residential gardening takes place near the home, in a space referred to as the garden. Although a garden
typically is located on the land near a residence, it may also be located on a roof, in anatrium, on a balcony, in
a windowbox, or on a patio or vivarium.
Gardening also takes place in non-residential green areas, such as parks, public or semi-public gardens
(botanical gardens or zoological gardens), amusement and amusement parks, along transportation corridors,
and around tourist attractions and garden hotels. In these situations, a staff of gardeners
or groundskeepers maintains the gardens.

Indoor gardening is concerned with the growing of houseplants within a residence or building, in
a conservatory, or in a greenhouse. Indoor gardens are sometimes incorporated as part of air
conditioning or heating systems.

Native plant gardening is concerned with the use of native plants with or without the intent of
creating wildlife habitat. The goal is to create a garden in harmony with, and adapted to a given area. This
type of gardening typically reduces water usage, maintenance, and fertilization costs, while
increasing native faunal interest.

Water gardening is concerned with growing plants adapted to pools and ponds. Bog gardens are also
considered a type of water garden. These all require special conditions and considerations. A simple water
garden may consist solely of a tub containing the water and plant(s). Inaquascaping, a garden is created
within an aquarium tank.

Container gardening is concerned with growing plants in any type of container either indoors or
outdoors. Common containers are pots, hanging baskets, and planters. Container gardening is usually
used in atriums and on balconies, patios, and roof tops.

Hgelkultur is concerned with growing plants on piles of rotting wood, as a form of raised bed

gardening and composting in situ.[5]An English loanword from German, it means "mound garden." Toby
Hemenway, noted Permaculture author and teacher, considers wood buried in trenches to also be a form
of hugelkultur referred to as a dead wood swale.[6] Hugelkultur is practiced by Sepp Holzeras a method
of forest gardening and agroforestry, and by Geoff Lawton as a method of dryland farming and desert
greening. [7]When used as a method of disposing of large volumes of waste wood and woody debris,
hugelkultur accomplishes carbon sequestration.[8]. It is also a form of xeriscaping.
Community gardening is a social activity in which an area of land is gardened by a group of people,

providing access to fresh produce and plants as well as access to satisfying labor, neighborhood
improvement, sense of community and connection to the environment. [9][10] Community gardens are
typically owned in trust by local governments or nonprofits.[11]
Garden sharing partners landowners with gardeners in need of land. These shared gardens, typically

front or back yards, are usually used to produce food that is divided between the two parties.

[edit]Gardeners

Gardener

Hendrick Danckerts, Royal Gardener John Rose and King Charles II, 1675

A gardener is any person involved in gardening,[12] arguably the oldest occupation, from thehobbyist in
a residential garden, the homeowner supplementing the family food with a smallvegetable garden or orchard, to
an employee in a plant nursery or the head gardener in a large estate.

The term gardener is also used to describe garden designers and landscape gardeners, who are involved
chiefly in the design of gardens, rather than the practical aspects of horticulture.

[edit]Accessories
Gardening may be performed at a professional level, a hobby, or for therapeutic reasons. There is a wide range
of accessories available in the market for both the professional gardener and the amateur to exercise their
creativity. These accessories can help decorate all the different areas of gardens such as walk ways and raised
beds, and any other area.
Location, size, budget are all characteristics to be considered when choosing accessories to improve a
garden's deco. Accessories are made of different materials such as copper, stone, wood, bamboo,
metal, stainless steel, clay, stained glass, concrete, iron, and the weather where the garden is located will
determine which material works best to ensure accessories last long.
A garden's decoration with the appropriate accessories also adds personality and beauty, and depending on
the situation, the decoration chosen will provide functionality to the garden. Paths for instance are functional for
the maintenance of the garden, and can be somehow decorated using different materials such as pine
needles, wood chips, fieldstone, or bricks. Also, backdrops include walls, fences, and hedges which are
intended to provide privacy. Moreover, they hide unsightly areas and also emphasize desired views. [13]
Trellis, arbors, and arches add height. Trellises are used for climbing flowers and vines or to create a vertical
garden of small fruits and vegetables while arbors and arches can be places on walkways or entry ways. This
kind of structure provide additional depth to the landscape. [14]
For those who enjoy their garden at any time, there are also night accessories which include
candle lanterns, oil lamps, patio torches, and illuminations.
Feeders, hummingbird feeders and birdbaths are all good options to invite birds to visit one's garden and also
make good ornaments.
Large accessories such as benches, water fountains, stone features, urns, and statues should be used
sparingly or they will cause a cluttered appearance. Fountains come in a variety of styles ranging from
traditional to modern. Not only do they work as part of the deco but they also have a calming effect. [15] Some of
them are made of fiberglass which makes them lightweight and weather resistant. There are also solarpowered fountains with a remote solar panel that can be placed in the sun while the fountain is located in
theshadow.[16]
Other accessories to be taken into account are garden gongs, gazing balls, garden bugs, garden stakes, pot
hangers, spinners, pinwheels which help enhance different deco styles. [17]

[edit]Gardening

departments and centers

Gardening departments and centers mainly sell plants, sundries, and garden accessories, but in recent times,
[when?]

many now stock outdoor leisure products as diverse as spas, furniture, and barbecues. Many garden

centers now include food halls, and sections for clothing, gifts, pets, and power tools. There are also a number
of online garden centers that now deliver direct to customers' doors. [citation needed]

[edit]Comparison

with farming

Gardening for beauty is likely nearly as old as farming for food, however for most of history for the majority of
people there was no real distinction since the need for food and other useful product trumped other concerns.
Small-scale, subsistence agriculture (called hoe-farming) is largely indistinguishable from gardening. A patch of
potatoes grown by a Peruvian peasant or an Irish smallholder for personal use could be described as either a
garden or a farm. Gardening for average people evolved as a separate discipline, more concerned with
esthetics and recreation, under the influence of the pleasure gardens of the wealthy. Meanwhile farming has
evolved (in developed countries) in the direction of commercialization, economics of scale, and monocropping.
In respect to its food producing purpose, gardening is distinguished from farming chiefly by scale and intent.
Farming occurs on a larger scale, and with the production of salable goods as a major motivation. Gardening is
done on a smaller scale, primarily for pleasure and to produce goods for the gardener's own family or
community. There is some overlap between the terms, particularly in that some moderate-sized vegetable
growing concerns, often called market gardening, can fit in either category.

Planting in a garden

The key distinction between gardening and farming is essentially one of scale; gardening can be a hobby or an
income supplement, but farming is generally understood as a full-time or commercial activity, usually involving
more land and quite different practices. One distinction is that gardening is labor-intensive and employs very
little infrastructural capital, sometimes no more than a few tools, e.g. a spade, hoe, basket and watering can.
By contrast, larger-scale farming often involves irrigation systems, chemical fertilizers and harvesters or at

least ladders, e.g. to reach up into fruit trees. However, this distinction is becoming blurred with the increasing
use of power tools in even small gardens.
In part because of labor intensity and aesthetic motivations, gardening is very often much more productive per
unit of land than farming.[citation needed] In the Soviet Union, half the food supplycame from small peasants' garden
plots on the huge government-run collective farms, although they were tiny patches of land.[18] Some argue this
as evidence of superiority of capitalism, since the peasants were generally able to sell their produce. Others
consider it to be evidence of a tragedy of the commons, since the large collective plots were often neglected, or
fertilizers or water redirected to the private gardens.
The term precision agriculture is sometimes used to describe gardening using intermediate technology (more
than tools, less than harvesters), especially of organic varieties. Gardening is effectively scaled up to feed
entire villages of over 100 people from specialized plots. A variant is the community garden which offers plots to
urban dwellers; see further in allotment (gardening).

[edit]Gardens

as art

See also: Landscape architecture

Garden at the Schultenhof in Mettingen,North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany

Garden design is considered to be an art in most cultures, distinguished from gardening, which generally
means garden maintenance. Garden design can include different themes such as perennial, butterfly, wildlife,
Japanese, water, tropical, or shade gardens.[19] In Japan, Samurai and Zen monks were often required to build
decorative gardens or practice related skills like flower arrangement known as ikebana. In 18th century Europe,
country estates were refashioned by landscape gardeners into formal gardens or landscaped park lands, such
as at Versailles, France, or Stowe, England. Today, landscape architects andgarden designers continue to
produce artistically creative designs for private garden spaces. Professional landscape designers are certified
by the Association of Professional Landscape Designers. [20]

[edit]Social

aspects

People can express their political or social views in gardens, intentionally or not. The lawn vs. garden issue is
played out in urban planning as the debate over the "land ethic" that is to determine urban land use and
whether hyper hygienist bylaws (e.g. weed control) should apply, or whether land should generally be allowed
to exist in its natural wild state. In a famous Canadian Charter of Rights case, "Sandra Bell vs. City of Toronto",
1997, the right to cultivate all native species, even most varieties deemed noxious or allergenic, was upheld as
part of the right of free expression.
Community gardening comprises a wide variety of approaches to sharing land and gardens.
People often surround their house and garden with a hedge. Common hedge plants
are privet, hawthorn, beech, yew, leyland
cypress,hemlock, arborvitae, barberry, box, holly, oleander, forsythia and lavender. The idea of open gardens
without hedges may be distasteful to those who enjoy privacy. This may have an advantage to local wildlife by
providing a habitat for birds, animals, and wild plants.[21]
The Slow Food movement has sought in some countries to add an edible school yard and garden classrooms
to schools, e.g. inFergus, Ontario, where these were added to a public school to augment the kitchen
classroom. Garden sharing, where urban landowners allow gardeners to grow on their property in exchange for
a share of the harvest, is associated with the desire to control the quality of one's food, and reconnect with soil
and community.[22]
In US and British usage, the production of ornamental plantings around buildings is
called landscaping, landscape maintenance orgrounds keeping, while international usage uses the
term gardening for these same activities.
Also gaining popularity is the concept of "Green Gardening" which involves growing plants using organic
fertilizers and pesticides so that the gardening process - or the flowers and fruits produced thereby - doesn't
adversely affect the environment or people's health in any manner.

[edit]Garden

pests

Man wearing protective equipment and sprayingpesticides

A garden pest is generally an insect, plant, or animal that engages in activity that the gardener considers
undesirable. It may crowd out desirable plants, disturb soil, stunt the growth of young seedlings, steal or
damage fruit, or otherwise kill plants, hamper their growth, damage their appearance, or reduce the quality of
the edible or ornamental portions of the plant.
Because gardeners may have different goals, organisms considered "garden pests" vary from gardener to
gardener. For example, Tropaeolum speciosum, while beautiful, can be considered a pest if it seeds and starts
to grow where it is not wanted. As the root is well below ground, pulling it up does not remove it: it simply grows
again and becomes what may be considered a pest. As another example, in lawns, moss can become
dominant and be impossible to eradicate. In some lawns,lichens, especially very damp lawn lichens such
as Peltigera lactucfolia and P. membranacea, can become difficult to control and be considered pests. Despite
this, aphids, spider mites, slugs, snails,ants, birds, and even cats are commonly considered to be garden
pests.[23]
There are many ways to remove unwanted pests from a garden. The techniques vary depending on the pest,
the gardener's goals, and the gardener's philosophy. For example, snails may be dealt with through the use of
a chemical pesticide, an organic pesticide, hand-picking, barriers, or simply growing snail-resistant plants.

[edit]Garden

pest control

Although pest control is often done through the use of pesticides, there are also more natural ways to prevent
getting the garden infested with different parasites. Yet, pest control and the products used may vary based on
the specific type of plants and type of insects. Although pesticides advertise the control of garden pests,
gardeners must recognize that garden "friends" like bees, ladybugs, and birds can also be affected by

pesticides. Of particular concern is the toxicity of even low doses of pesticides, particularlyneonicotinoids, that
can be fatal to honey bees.[24]
Preventing pests can be done by pulling out weaker plants which may already be infected. Also, a healthy and
organic soil helps in reducing the chances of pest in the garden. Some specialists recommend using seaweed
mulch or spray on the plants and minimize the insect habitat by cleaning the garden area of debris and weeds.
[25]

Interplanting and rotating crops as well as keeping foliage dry are methods to prevent pests in their garden.

Some plants have pest repelling properties or draw beneficial insects to the garden. Their use is
called companion planting.[26] Disinfecting the tools is also important when working with infested plants and
should be performed every time the gardener moves to another area of the garden.