V.M.RAJAN,M.E.(Struct),FIE,
Former CE/Civil/TANGEDCO
******
Classification of Structures:
Structures are classified as Low rise, Medium rise or High rise
depending upon the heights and or number of storeys.
Classification
As per Bombay
As per English
authors
Buiding upto 52 (5
Upto 6 storeys
Storeys)
Above 52 and upto 80
Medium rise
6 to 9 storeys
(upto 7 Storeys)
High rise
Anything above 7 storeys
Above 9 storeys
High rise building is defined differently by different bodies. As per Emporis
standards a multi- storey structure between 35 to 100m tall , or a
building of unknown height from 12 to 39 floors is termed as High rise.
As per building code of Hydrabad/ India a high rise building is one with
four floors or one 15m or more in height. As per International Standards
Low rise means upto 30 storeys, Medium rise are 31 to 59 storeys and
High rise buildings are above 60 storeys. In general Building Height
between 23m to 150m is called as High rise Building and above 150m
height is called as Skyscrappers.
Low rise
No. of storeys
20
35
50
60
80
120
Structural design:
The Structural Design involves the following stages:
1. Structural Planning 2. Estimation of loads 3. Analysis of structure 4.
Design of Structural elements such as Slab, Staircase, Beams, Columns
and Foundation.
5. Drawing, detailing and preparation of schedules.
1. Structural Planning :
The planning of Multi storeyed buildings is generally such that they
are in blocks arranged according to the site conditions and other utility
considerations. The blocks are normally 15m to 18m in width. This width
can be divided into 3 equal panels or 2 equal panels on both sides of a
central corridor or 2 unequal panels on both sides of a central corridor. On
analysis it is found that a frame with 3 equal panels is most economical.
The Office buildings have so far been designed on the pattern of a
central corridor and rooms on both sides. The rooms on one side of the
corridor are for officers. These need not be more than 4.80m in depth.
Rooms on other side are for sections. The depth of these rooms can vary
from 7 to 9m. The width of corridor need not be more than 2.50m.
The central corridor with two equal panels on either side found to
uneconomical and also affects natural light and ventilation. The current
trend is to provide large halls with glazed or light weight partitions on one
end forming cabins for officers. This arrangement provides better check
on the staff and also maintains ideal light and ventilations.
Squares and rectangular shapes are the least expensive. In case of
Tripods and Tees, cost will be more compared to the cost of rectangular
plan shape.
For substantial economy to be achieved in the structural design of a
building a correct choice of structural system is more important than
designing accurately only the critical sections of members forming a
building.
The structural planning of a building involves determination of the
following:
(i) Choice of form of the structure
(ii) Positioning and orientation of columns
(ii0 Positioning of Beams
(iv) Positioning of slabs
(i) Choice of form of the structure:
The form of the structure is decided based on consideration of
functional requirements such as un obstructed area, head-room and also
from economy consideration and aesthetics. It is the need of the day that
the structure must have a pleasing look. The selection of an appropriate
type and form of structure is most important for design of any type of
structure. It must satisfy the purpose for which it is to be constructed.
Suppose if a Cinema balcony floor is to be constructed, it must be
unobstructed by providing supporting columns at ends only and not by
series of columns at closer interval so that the persons siting beneath the
balcony can see the picture clearly without getting obstructions due to
intermediate columns. Similarly if any Community hall or an assembly hall
is to be constructed, columns should be avoided inside the hall, as it
makes the functional utility of obstructing clear vision and usable space. It
should be clear that one should bearing this functional aspect while
choosing the form of structure. The type of structure also involves types of
material used in the construction. One has to decide whether the material
used should be a Steel structure or RCC structure or Prestressed concrete
structure or a Cable stayed Tension structure. After deciding the form and
the system, the designer is required to select material appropriate to the
form. The properties of the available materials may be required to be
transported, then perhaps cost of the construction may be high and may
require change in the form selected.
All these aspects are inter-linked and final decision is to be taken
considering its function, utility, aesthetics and cost or even alternative
proposals if required to be worked out to arrive at a final decision.
Once the structural system is finalized, the layout is prepared. In fact,
both depend on each other. The structural systems are adopted by using
preliminary layout of the building. Then final layout is prepared. The
architectural arrangements may be complicated, the structural layout
should be as simple as possible, uniformity, simplicity and symmetry shall
be observed. Unsymmetrical planning induce torsion in the building and
should be taken care while designing. The columns should have constant
cross- section atleast up to four storeys to have economy in the formwork.
Each column should be effectively tied in both the directions by beams.
Internal columns are tied in X direction (column bending about Y axis) by
slabs. This may be allowed for low rise buildings up to four storeys, of
course by providing secondary beam at floor levels and effective beam
ties at ground level and at terrace level. In multi storeyed buildings, slab
ties should not be allowed and all the columns must be tied in both the
directions effectively by beams.
The structural plan will show the following information:
(i) Positions of columns, beams, stairs and spanning of slabs.
(ii) Centre to centre dimensions between beams and columns i.e the span
length of
slabs and beams.
(iii) Marking of Slabs, beams and columns using any
standardized/established
method.
(ii) Positioning and orientation of Columns:
(i) Normally the positions of the columns are shown by Architect in his
plans .
(ii) Columns should generally and preferably be located at or near corners
and
intersection /junction of walls (at beam- beam junctions).
(iii) If the site restrictions make it obligatory to locate column footings
within the
property line the column may be shifted inside along a cross wall to
accommodate footings within the property line . Alternatively
trapezoidal
footing, eccentric footing can also be adopted. In residential
buildings,
generally columns should be located at 3 to 4m.c/c to avoid large
spans for
beams. This will also control deflection and cracking .
(iv) While fixing the columns orientation care should be taken that it does
not
change architectural elevation. This can be achieved by keeping the
column
orientations and side restrictions as proposed in plans by the Architect
.
(v) As far as possible, column projection/s outside the walls should be
avoided,
unless Architects plans show contrary or same is required as
structural
requirement.
(vi) Columns should not obstruct door and window position/s shown in the
Architects plans.
(vii) As far as possible, column should be so positioned, that continuous
frames
from one end to the other end of building in both X and Y directions
are
available. This will increase the global stiffness of the building against
horizontal forces.
(viii) When the locations of two columns are near to each other (for e.g.
the corner
of the building and intersection of the walls), then as for as possible
only one
column should be provided .
(ix) As far as possible, column should not be closer than 2.5m.c/c to
avoid stripped
/combined /continuous footings. Generally the maximum distance
between two
column should not be more than 10.0 m.c/c. Spans of 4 to 6.0m give
normal
sizes of beams. Forr Residential Building
Maximum Columns
spacing shall be
between 3m to 4.0m only.
(x) Columns should be normally provided around staircases and lift wells.
(xi) Preferably overhead water tank should rest on the columns as shown
in the
Architects plan. The height of water tank should be up to 2.0m.
(xii) Twin columns of equal size are desirable at expansion joints from
aesthetic
point of view .
(xiii) As far as possible every column must be connected (tied) in both
directions
with beams at each floor level, so as to avoid buckling due to
slenderness
effects.
(xiv) As far as possible column supported on beam (Floating column)
should be
avoided.
(xv) When columns along with connecting beams from a frame, the
columns
should be so orientated that as far as possible the larger dimension
of the
column is perpendicular to the major axis of bending. By this
arrangement
column section and the reinforcement are utilized to the best
structural
advantage.
(xvi) Orientation of columns: In case of square or circular columns there
would have
If larger barrier free distances are required then going for larger column
size is to be used.
The size of the columns increase because of two factors:
1. Increase in the distance between two columns (This increases the
dimensions of
the columns as well the depth of the beam.)
2.
unnecessary
complications while construction. This reduces the cost of construction as
well as time
required for construction. Beams which have continuity with other simply
supported
beams
have reduced bending moments, and thus require less steel and
concrete depth
to be safe .Columns have to be connected with each other for smooth
transfer of loads.
An experienced planner will keep such things in mind when planning the
structure.
The columns can preferably be arranged in two different fashions:
1.
2.
2.
3.
of
wrong
Structural
design
can
be
Support
Conditio
n
Simply supported
Fixed/Continuous
Cantilever
Section
Max.
span
m
Rectangul
Flange
Rectangula
Flange
Rectangul
Flange
ar
ar
in
6.0
10.0
8.0
12.0
3.0
5.0
can be tried.
Reduce the beam depth without violating deflection criteria and
maximum of steel
criteria for beams.
In case there is a wall, over the beam without any opening inverted
beam may be
provided in consultation with Architect.
11.
and to
that
casting slabs and beam will be simple. No secondary beam condition
would
be ideal.
13.
Beams which are required to give a planer look from the underside
shall be
provided as inverted beams, e.g. canopies. Alternatively hidden beams
inside the slab having the same depth as thickness of slab may be
adopted.
Such hidden beams can be provided in toilet blocks, under partition wall
etc., where a cluster of beams can be avoided.
(iv) Positioning of Slab:
One-way or two way slab details can be obtained from aspect ratio
L/B=2
Aspect Ratio
Where
If
L / B
Longer Span
is > 2
=
B
= Shorter Span
1.
For one way slab design, there could be serious of long beams with
spacing approximately between 3m to 5m.
2.
For two way slabs, cross beams shall be provided so that the smaller
span of two way panel lies between 4m to 6m.
3.
4.
Two way slab can be adopted for shorter spans above 3.0m.
5.
6.
As two way slabs are not economical for short spans, in practice,
even though a slab may be supported on all four sides, still it is
designed as one ways slab transferring load only in one direction. Care
should be taken to provide minimum steel at top across the short edge
support to avoid the cracks to be developed at top along short edge
support.
7.
8.
Supported
condition
Live Load =
5 KN / m
Cantilever
Simply
supported
Fixed /
continuous
Slab type
One
way
Two
way
One
way
Two
way
One
way
Two
way
Maximum span in
meters
1.50
2.0
3.50
4.50
4.50
6.0
9.Types of slabs:Slabs are classified based on whether the slab is supported on four edges
or not. If the slab is supported on four edges, check the aspect ratio ly/lx.
If ly/lx is < 2 it is Two way slab. If ly/lx is >2, it is one way slab. For two
way slab, there are 9 edge conditions. In two way slab, the main
reinforcement is provided in two directions. In one way slab, the main
reinforcement is provided in one direction only. For slab not supported on
four edges, they are classified as follows:(i) If the slab is supported on 3 edges all around, the slab is designed as
one way
slab along lx or ly spanning in two opposite direction.
(ii) If the slab is supported on two opposite edges, then the slab is
designed as one
way slab, based on spanning lx or ly span as the case may be.
(iii) If the slab is supported on two adjacent edges, the slab may be
designed as
cantilever slab spanning along short direction lx.
(v)
for all floors provided the intended use of various floors are identical in
nature. If the dispositioning of columns and arrangements of beams vary
to different floors or the usage of floors vary for different floors, a separate
key framing plan
floor with respect to the first floor level is to be marked on each key
framing plan (key framing plan / floor 2 and level at 3500). Grid Reference
scheme as per IS 5525 with slight modification is adopted in practice. The
marking of Frame components as Per IS 5525 is as detailed below:
Before starting the structural design of R.C. frame components, it is
always
necessary
to
mark
or
designate
them
first
to
facilitate
The
horizontal (ith) and vertical (jth) grid lines intersecting at the column.
Thus, the column at x is marked as C D3. Beams are marked as BM1,BM2
etc., serially starting from the top left corner and proceeding downwards
and then rightwards (bay wise) sequentially. Slabs are designated serially
as Sb1, Sb2 starting from panel in top left corner, proceeding vertically
downwards bay wise and rightwards. This scheme is partially followed in
practice. Scheme of marking columns in this way is very common, but
that for beams and slabs is not very much favoured (especially writing
suffixes m and b to mark beam and slab respectively, is considered to be
superfluous).
(to be continued)