dynasty
1 Background
The loss of the land in the east to the Turks and in the
west to Bulgarians was complemented by two disastrous
civil wars, the Black Death and the 1354 earthquake at
Gallipoli, whose destruction and evacuation allowed the
Turks to occupy it. By 1380, the Byzantine Empire consisted of the capital Constantinople and a few other isolated exclaves, which only nominally recognized the Emperor as their lord. Nonetheless, Byzantine diplomacy
coupled with the adroit exploitation of internal divisions
and external threats among their enemies, and above all
the invasion of Anatolia by Timur, allowed Byzantium to
survive until 1453. The last remnants of the Byzantine
Empire, the Despotate of the Morea and the Empire of
Trebizond, fell shortly afterwards.
2
Laskaris, a boy of ten years.[2] However, John IV was
overshadowed by his co-emperor, Michael VIII Palaiologos. Palaiologos was a leading noble of military standing and the main gure of the regency of John IV, who
had used this role to propel himself to the throne, and set
the stage for his becoming sole Emperor of the restored
Byzantine Empire.
3
relatively secure, and no signicant losses occurred in tium on the road of recovery, but his achievements were
Asia Minor during Michaels reign.
still perilously fragile, as events would soon show.
3 Andronikos
12821328
II
Palaiologos,
Middle East c. 1263[9][10][11] KEY: Dark Green: Ottoman domain by 1300s, dotted line indicates conquests up to 1326 Purple: Byzantine Empire Light Green: Turkic lands Blue: Cilicia
Red/Pink: Latin states
2.3
Domestic policy
2.4
Legacy
Michael VIII was a very energetic, ambitious and capable emperor, who had enlarged and preserved the Empire
and had once again made Byzantium a power to be reckoned with in the region. His army however was still small,
and diplomacy was relied upon more than ever. An extortionate tax system supported his ambitious and successful foreign policies of expansion, as well as his numerous
bribes and gifts to various potentates. He had put Byzan-
4
revolted against imperial authority, and began pillaging
and raiding cities in Thrace, leaving Asia Minor open
to Turkish incursions. After this, Andronikos turned to
diplomacy, asking the Ilkhanids of Persia to send troops
to attack the Turks, but negotiations for such an alliance
failed.[13]
3.4
Legacy
4.1
Foreign policy
5
IIIs death would be the coup de grce for the Empire
his 10-year-old son was led by a regency that was torn
apart in dynastic rivalries which would lead to a civil war
from which Byzantium would never recover.[15]
4.2
Legacy
The Byzantine Empire entered into a new era of decay in 1341. The Empire was ravaged by every possible disaster[16] alongside wars and civil wars, renewed epidemics of bubonic plague swept through its
diminished lands. The rst outbreak occurred in 1347,
and between the 1360s and 1420s, eight further outbreaks of plague are recorded. Cities were full of social unrest between the corrupt wealthy (who had been
exploiting the tax system for their own benet) and the
countless landless peasants burdened by the demands
of the government.[16] Religious controversy, the cancer
of Byzantium in the 7th and 8th centuries, once again
emerged in the form of the Hesychasm controversy,[16]
which eventually became a doctrine of the Eastern Orthodox church. There were numerous earthquakes, destroying Byzantiums infrastructure the fortress of Gallipoli
was destroyed in 1354 by such an earthquake[16] and the
Ottoman Turks lost no time in taking it and establishing
a bridgehead in Europe. Meanwhile, the Serbs continued
pressing south, removing any nominal Imperial control
in Epirus. The Empire shrunk in size and when the civil
war ended, Byzantium would be a petty city state, hanging on to life through the respites of her foes, and soon
to-be protectors.
5.3
Turkish immigration
5.2 Reign and fall of John VI Kantak- The lands ravaged and depopulated by the civil war were
lled up by arriving Turks who colonised the land through
ouzenos, 13471357
a mixture of conquest and trade.[19] The result was that
Kantakouzenos had a son, Matthew Kantakouzenos Byzantiums power was undermined beyond all recovery
and any hope of keeping peace between John V and two hundred years ago Byzantium could rely on the
6.2
people living in the lands of Anatolia, Greece, Macedonia and several large islands like Cyprus and Crete.
Now the population under its control was limited to the
few remaining cities in Byzantine possession, namely
Thessalonica and Constantinople and the surrounding
countryside, and the Despotate of the Morea. The immigration of Turks would be decisive in the survival of the
Empire as it gave her most dire enemy, the Ottomans, a
new power base, not in Asia but now in Europe.
John V, 13541391
7
Fortunately for John V, he had other European connections his mother was Anna of Savoy, and her nephew
(being John Vs cousin) was concerned for the safety of
his Greek counterpart.[20] Sailing from Venice in June
1366 with dreams of initiating yet another Crusade,
Amadeo VI of Savoy arrived at and seized the fortress
of Gallipoli from the Ottomans and handed it back to the
Byzantines, hoping that this would stem the tide of Turkish emigration into Thrace.[20] However, the Turks had
by now rmly established themselves in Thrace. Amadeo
and John spent much time between 1367 and 1369 thinking of ways to stave o defeat. Amadeo returned to
Europe via Rome and brought with him Byzantine envoys. The Pope again was uninterested, but called for
John V to visit him.[20] In 1369, when the Ottomans
nally captured Adrianople (though some sources indicate 1365),[20] John V rushed to Rome and confessed his
Catholic faith both privately and at a public spectacle.[20]
Nevertheless, in 1371 John V returned empty-handed,
having humiliated himself and done nothing to improve
the deteriorating situation in the Balkans.
6.1
8.3
8.2
8.3
Byzantium. The rst was a non-aggression treaty between the local Christian powers (who were also free
from Ottoman servitude), meaning that the disasters of
Andronikos IIIs later rule would not be repeated. Next
were a treaty between Byzantium and the successor of
Bayezid, Suleyman who was in Asia Minor, conrming
Byzantiums freedom from paying tribute. The Empire
also gained Mount Athos and coastal land of the Black
Sea from Constantinople to Varna. As an added bonus,
Imperial authority was asserted over a number of Aegean
Islands. The importance of the latter should not be underestimated as these would serve in the future as refuge for
any seeking to escape Ottoman expansion, even if only as
a temporary refuge.
10
support the victor and Mehmed I did not forget the kind- 9 John VIII takes over
ness of the Byzantines and was able to control his Turk
subjects from expanding into Byzantine territory.
For more details on this topic, see John VIII Palaiologos.
Manuel IIs nal years saw his gains wasted and the Em-
pire status quo ante 1391. John VIII was still hopeful that
he could emulate his Fathers success and more. Like his
predecessors, his attempts were in vain. And just like his
predecessors, he relied too heavily on a Pope not willingly
to give, only take; take that is, the Church of a wretched
state surrounded by the Ottomans, soon-to-be Christendoms direst foe.
9.1
10.1
11
9.2
10
Constantine XI
10.1
12
built by Orban, a Hungarian engineer who had originally
oered his services to Constantine, who rejected them
for lack of money.[27][28] After the rejection of terms
of surrender by Constantine, the siege began on April 2,
1453, with Ottoman cannon ring from April 6. The defenders were few, but the mighty walls allowed them to
withstand the siege for some time. Finally however, on
May 29, the Ottomans achieved a breach, and the city
fell. Constantine XI charged at the oncoming Ottoman
army; the last Roman Emperor died ghting, and since
his body was never recognized, is assumed to have been
buried in a mass grave.
11.1
10.2 Conclusion
Constantines rule is hard to assess due to the shortness
of his reign. As a Despot, he had shown ability, but the
fall of the Empire to the Turks was by his time inevitable,
no matter how able and energetic an Emperor sat on the
throne. What is most remembered of him is the stubborn defence of his city against the odds, and his death in
battle, through which he entered popular legend. Despite
his Catholic confession, he is viewed as a saint by many
Orthodox, and many legends were created about the ultimate fate of the last Constantine.
11.3
11.2
Greek Byzantium
13
Despite this, Persian works such as those on astrolabe
were translated into Greek as early as 1309. In 1352,
Theodore Metochites published his thoughts using Persian and Ptolemaic tables. Further works were translated;
Six Wings, a Hebrew text believed to have originated from
southern France, was translated into Greek.
Such works, whilst being non-Christian and in many
cases non-Hellenistic were cultivated by the Greek Orthodox ecclesiastics; George Choniades and Theodore
Metochites both found themselves positions in the Greek
Orthodox Church; the former becoming Bishop of Tabriz
and the latter the head of the Patriarchal school.
Notable philosophers include Planudes who characterized the interest in Science and Mathematics at the time.
Astronomy was also a eld of interest, as Nikephoros
Gregoras illustrates with his proposal to modify the calendar before changes were put in place by the Gregorian
reform.
Moreover, some prominent personalities also proposed
the change of the Imperial title to 'Emperor of the
Hellenes', instead of Romans. This enthusiasm for the
glorious past, contained elements that were also present
Plethons nal resting place was moved to this Church by his Italin the movement that led to the creation of the modern ian disciples
Greek state, in 1830, after four centuries of Ottoman
rule.[29]
Not all thinkers were welcome in Byzantium and naturally some of those who opened their minds to other
beliefs would have strayed from the extquotedblone true
11.3 Persian science enters, ca. 1300
Religion extquotedbl, as the Byzantines would have unAt the time, astrologists had to rely on Ptolemy's tables doubtedly seen it. One such example is that of Plethon.
for calculations. However, these proved to be no good His works on computational astronomy utilizing Hebrew
when compared to Arab astronomy. As a result, Persian and Persian tables are overshadowed by his neo-pagan betables were used more often, even if in conjunction with liefs that he adopted in his old age. He proclaimed his bePtolemys. The acceptance of Arab astronomy was made lief in the Seven Wise Men, the message of Zoroaster
harder by the fact that it had to be translated and only en- and Fatalism. Consequently, his work on a modied
tered through lowlier social channels, namely by men Greek Pantheon, The Laws was burnt by the Patriarch
who travelled between Constantinople and Trebizond. of Constantinople and his ashes repose in what is someSuch men include Gregory Choniades, who later with his times stated as the most Pagan Renaissance Church
follower George Chrysokokkes, acquainted themselves Tempio Malatestiano of Rimini.
with this oriental science. By the mid 14th century, when
Byzantium was overwhelmed with troubles, the tables of
Ptolemy were deemed by professionals as inadequate and
slowly abandoned for Persian tables.
14
13 NOTES
considered the extquotedblindel extquotedbl Tartars as tium to submit to Rome. If the price for political freedom
more noble in some aspects, such as morality, than his was religious freedom, certain emperors such as Michael
Christian comrades.
VIII were willing to pay it. In the long run though, the
Byzantines were not prepared to surrender their ancient
customs and beliefs willingly.
11.4 Patronage
Philosophers, like all men at the time had to make ways of
bringing food to the table. The most common occupation
in the Byzantine Empire would have either been agriculturally based or earlier on in the Empire, trade based so
this came about naturally through their own work. However Philosophers needed Patronage in order to live. The
most important came from the Imperial court, especially
before the destructive civil wars that were characterized
by Andronikos III and his son John V. Other sources were
from minor courts, from the rich and from the Church, if
not from individual Church clergy. Of course, only Bishops had such resources. As the Empire descended into
chaos, it could not spare any nances in its eorts to defend her borders and so the need to study in the elds
of science and mathematics would have naturally disappeared from the minds of those whose lands were raided
and seized. It would be this lack of Patronage that led to
many of these scholars eeing to the West. Remarkable
travels were recorded by John Argyropoulos, Constance,
Manuel Chrysoloras who between them all had travelled
to Florence, Pavia, Rome, Padua and Milan. It could
be said that the end of the Byzantine Empire coincided
with the beginning of the Renaissance what little inuence the Byzantine Church had over Rome was more
than made up for by their philological preaching and mass
conversion to humanism.
15
14 References
Madden, Thomas F. Crusades the Illustrated History. 1st ed. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan P,
2005
Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium.
1st ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2002
15 Further reading
Evans, Helen C. (2004). Byzantium: faith and
power (1261-1557). New York: The Metropolitan
Museum of Art. ISBN 1588391132.
Parker, Georey. Compact History of the World.
4th ed. London: Times Books, 2005
Turnbull, Stephen. The Ottoman Empire 1326
1699. New York: Osprey, 2003.
Haldon, John. Byzantium at War 600 1453. New
York: Osprey, 2000.
Healy, Mark. The Ancient Assyrians. New York:
Osprey, 1991.
Bentley, Jerry H., and Herb F. Ziegler. Traditions
& Encounters a Global Perspective on the Past. 3rd
ed. Vol. 1. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006.
Historical Dynamics in a Time of Crisis: Late
Byzantium, 12041453
Philip Sherrard, Great Ages of Man Byzantium,
Time-Life Books, 1975
16 External links
Byzantine & Christian Museum, The Palaiologan
period: The nal owering of Byzantium
16
17
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