Anthropological Linguistics
Egyptian Beliefs about the Bull's Spine: An Anatomical Origin for Ankh
Author(s): Calvin W. Schwabe, Joyce Adams and Carleton T. Hodge
Source: Anthropological Linguistics, Vol. 24, No. 4 (Winter, 1982), pp. 445-479
Published by: The Trustees of Indiana University on behalf of Anthropological Linguistics
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30027646 .
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believed
that sperm was produced in the
Abstract.
Egyptians
a conviction
thoracic
based upon their
underspine,
apparently
of the anatomy of the bull.
texts
show the
standing
Egyptian
felt
to exist
close
between the backbone and life,
relationship
one's ability
to survive
after
death.
The spine is
including
shown to play a major role in after-life
as rerevivification,
both in the texts
and the iconography.
flected
Ankh is identified as a thoracic
vertebra
of an ungulate,
which explains
both
and
its
its shape
meaning.
texts
from the Old Kingdom on
0.
Introduction.
Egyptian
of an individual,
or the neck, trunk or
mention the back (spine)
vertebrae
in contexts
tail
which suggest
that they were
thereof,
believed
to fulfill
or physiological
in reprofunctions
magical
and in revivification
duction
of the dead.
As early as 1864
out that the Egyptians
endowed the spine with
Brugsch pointed
More
and
Sauneron (1960a)
life-giving
properties.
recently
have
shown
that
semen
was
(1962)
Yoyotte
thought to have come
from the interior
of bones.
Harris
mentions
that in
(1971:124)
late times the Egyptians
connected
the penis with the backbone.
It is the purpose here to bring these data together
and to consider them in the light
of the ancient
of the hieroglyphs
texts,
and of the anatomy of the bull.
in our
This last
involved,
is,
of apparently
disview, the clue to a coherent
interpretation
We believe
that the evidence
to an
parate data.
(1) is relevant
of how the early Egyptians
understanding
may have begun to
a rational
evolve
basis
for healing;2
a new origin
(2) suggests
for the ankh, the Egyptian
well as
(as
symbol for life,
live
on other hieroglyphs);
and (3) has important
imthrowing
light
for Egyptian
beliefs.
plications
religious,
especially
mortuary,
1.
and veterinary
It is clear
Egyptian
beliefs
anatomy.
from the anatomical
that the models for those reprehieroglyphs
internal
(as well as some external)
senting
organs were animals
slaughtered
to) the Egyptians.
by (and of religious
importance
Thus the hieroglyph
for uterus
the bicornate
depicts
organ of
the cow (Gardiner
and
was
in
it
not
until
Vesalius
1957:F45),3
the 16th century
A.D. that the mistaken
idea that the human
uterus was also bicornate
was corrected.
Gardiner
(1968:1.15-19;
445
446
Anthropological
Linguistics,
Vol.
24,
No.
has published
an onomasticon
which includes
an ana2.237-56*)
of the parts of a bovine animal.
tomical
list
Ghalioungui
concluded
that among the Egyptians,
(as have others)
(1973:47)
that of hu"knowledge of animal anatomy must have long preceded
man anatomy.
surwas more or less a veterinary
Every physician
who were entrusted
under the Ancient Emgeon, and Wabw Priests...,
must
of the sacrificial
beasts,
inspection
pire with the ritual
a fair knowledge of that art."
have possessed
Sauneron (1960b:
of Sekhmet
that both wab priests
and priests
161) also feels
functions.
important
religio-veterinary
performed
Manetho mentions
that Athothis,
the second king of the
books
and
First Dynasty,
medicine
wrote anatomical
practiced
hierothat the anatomical
It is possible
(Waddell 1940:31).
of such early works, since
during the compilation
glyphs evolved
information
Manetho recorded
little
about most pharaohs and what
as of some importance.
he did record he must have regarded
in
his
was
papystudy of Egyptian medical
Grapow
intrigued
Kahun
the
ri
that one of the two oldest
Veterinary
extant,
in the
is uniquely
physically
presented
1897),
Papyrus (Griffith
It resembles
the Coffin Texts with
text.
form of a religious
and with horizontal
to right,
left
written
its lines
vertically,
this vetericases.
for the individual
also,
Uniquely
headings
and although
in the first
only a
person,
nary papyrus is written
the Edwin Smith Surgical
few fragments
it rivals
Papysurvive,
Notand freedom from magic.
rus in its systematic
presentation
of
same
further
the
use
the
"patient")
(e.g.,
terminology
ing
for animals,
as for man in the other medical
Grapow conpapyri,
"the
that
thesis
the
as
but
unreasonable,
rejected
sidered,
medin
forms of the healer's
were
veterinary
developed
language
therehuman
to
and only from that transferred
icine
medicine,"
of man must have served as
book on the diseases
fore "a [lost]
italics
model" (Grapow 1935:22,
ours).
tr.,
[the Kahun Papyrus']
is of
in
found
motifs
One of the principal
thought
Egyptian
ancient
abound in the most
course the bovine one, and references
to gods or pharaoh as bull.
records
Apparently
early man generbravery and
speed,
strength,
ally was much in awe of the size,
Consecattle.
of domestic
libido
of the wild aurochs ancestor
such as
and cows as principal
in bulls
beliefs
deities,
quently
or men
and the idea that rulers
Apis and Hathor in Egypt, arose,
held
became widely
from them or from cattle
descended
generally
between
Connections
Egypt
1971:1.185-555).
(see,
e.g.,
Epstein
culture
area to the south have often been pointed
and the cattle
Frankfort
out (e.g.,
1948).
into
with respect
to this inquiry
interest
Of particular
of their
about the spine and the concerns
Egyptian beliefs
is a prominent
with veterinary
anatomy and medicine
priesthood
Unlike the
of the penis of bulls.
characteristic
anatomical
of the bull's
human organ, erection
penis occurs by its considOtherwise
the penis is
from the prepuce.
erable
protrusion
the prepuce by the robust retractor
penis muswithdrawn within
arises
sheath)
in a fibrous
This muscle (which is enclosed
cle.
vertebrae
first
two
the
of
surface
from the ventral
coccygeal
for
Origin
Ankh
447
Egyptian
beliefs
concerning
the
spine.
In examining
beliefs
to Egyptian
the spine
relative
the literature
concerning
it
that
becomes apparent
these beand its role in reproduction,
to a great deal of Egyptian
are central
liefs
religious
(especteem with translatable
The texts
but
thought.
mortuary)
ially
obscure references,
many of which,
along with associated
iconogwhen examined in the
raphy, become much more understandable
of
the
bull's
the
of
knowledge
Egyptians'
anatomy and
light
therefrom.
inferences
their
apparent
are concerned
with extending
or renewThe mortuary texts
the
deceased.
Various
means
are
used
to effect
life
of
the
ing
was
of
which
revivification.
It
is
this
motif
which
one
this,
A number of sub-motifs
the following
are
dominates
passages.
the quotations
for greater
ease in assohere used to classify
them with the physiologic
discussion.
Within each such
ciating
are given in rough chronological
but
order,
topic the passages
the relative
of
conthe
without
regarding
prejudice
antiquity
For the Pyramid and Coffin
Texts Faulkner's
cepts involved.
for
are
Book of the Dead
translations
the
1973-78)
used,
(1969,
otherwise
unless
Bracketed
additions
Allen's
(1974) noted.4
in
are
the
writers.
Translations
noted)
(unless
present
by
have been put into
other languages
(such as those of Chassinat)
English.
1.
Texts with this motif relate
to the putting
Reassemblage.
of the parts of the body of the deceased,
back together
usually
reflects
a prehistoric
This apparently
as bones.
period prior
care of the corpse.
or other appropriate
to mummification
"She [Nut] will
1.1.
prevent
you
protect
[hnm] you, she will
she will
from lacking
parts],
give you
[= having any missing
for you, she
reassemble
your bones [ki.w]
your head, she will
for
will
she
will join together
members
you,
bring your
your
heart into your body for you" (Pyr. 828).
for you, and
1.2.
"Your head is knit [ts]
to your bones [ki.w]
to your
are knit
bones
your
to tie
ts is common to both
for
head
you"
and vertebra.
(Pyr.
572c).
The
root
448
Linguistics,
Anthropological
Vol.
24,
No.
"My spine
[ts]
is
[that
(Pyr.
is
Apis"
of]
[that
[hnn]
Sethe,
following
Faulkner,
sage
is Geb (?)]
(?)
2.2.
"[My back
1311c-1312a).
Two Enneads"
(Pyr.
of]
the
Wild
Bull...
My phallus
Origin
for
449
Ankh
a decoction
or
broth
with
the
in this
Utterance
[274]):
(earlier
back-bones
the
"He has broken
3.2.
of the
hearts
409bc).
the
gods"
(Pyr.
bones.
And has
[ts.w
bk'.w]
The determinatives
taken
for
the
is to extract
The breaking
vertebrae.
bks.w are clearly
cord.
spinal
Hail to you, Brother of the God!
"Hail to you, Incense!
3.3.
Hail to you, Marrow (?) which is in the limbs of Horus!" (Pyr.
116a).
The incense
3.4.
"You are made strong by means of incense...
cord
there
comes
the
the
ear
of
corn
comes...
spinal
comes;
there comes the marwhich issued
from the backbone of Osiris,
row" (CT 530).
450
Anthropological
Vol.
Linguistics,
24,
No.
and Yoyotte
the conSauneron (1960a)
(1962) have discussed
in the backbone,
in texts
as reflected
cept of sperm production
as well as the Greek parallels.
Of the two
of the Late Period,
to
It is
the
one.
Yoyotte
gives
Egyptian
traditions,
primacy
the
discussion
that
the
idea
is
from
attestable
present
apparent
are the most
The late texts
back to the Pyramid Texts at least.
from
taken
Sauneron
are
and
the
passages
following
explicit,
as
illustrations.
(and translated)
the egg, who makes the chick grow, and
Khnum "who creates
3.5.
who creates
(Philae).
sperm in the bones and (?) in the belly"
with regard to bewas cited
This passage
by Grapow (1954:I,20)
here
but the translation
about reproductive
liefs
physiology
The latter
to the ambiguity
Sauneron (1960a:21).
follows
points
occurrence
where either
of m in m ksw m ht (both here and 3.6),
or
be
in
1960a:21).
(Sauneron
may
from
3.6.
(The king is) "the charitable
god, the heir of Khnum; it
of
his
semen in the bones and (?)
the
effects
who
is he
fixing
in the belly"
3.114.7).
(Edfu)
from
women by means of the semen (coming)
"You fertilize
3.7.
the bones" (Edfu 4.298.3-4).
all but
such citations,
Sauneron has seventeen
Altogether
in Upper Egypt (Hibis,
from sites
one (from Papyrus Insinger)
Dendera, Karnak, Edfu, Philae).
An animal-vertebra
4.
The snake as vertebrae.
association
in its
to sperm from bones that is highly
related
intriguing
A
of
snake.
the
that
is
implications
religio-magical
possible
this
resemblance
and
column
a living
snake is essentially
spinal
thus
A snake's
skeleton
did not escape the ancient
Egyptians.
resema
of
vertebrae
of
series
almost entirely
consists
compact
to
References
of
mammals.
vertebrae
bling the neck and tail
in Egyptian
to cattle
as references
snakes are as conspicuous
direlate
The following
and iconography.
literature
religious
to our thesis.
rectly
4.1.
"The King
is
a serpent
[ncw],
the
Bull
of
the
Ennead,
who
his seven uraei that they might become his seven neckswallowed
and the Enneads are those who were aforevertebrae
[nhb.wt],
Here
of Him who was" (Pyr. 511abc).
affairs
the
who
heard
time,
of
the potency of the spine is recognized
by the swallowing
In the
vertebrae.
which are, so to speak, primarily
snakes,
be
a
to
seems
of our knowledge there
pun here on
state
present
whether
One
wonders
pid back and pid Ennead (from pod nine).
between the two and
connection
an etymological
there is rather
set of motifs.
whether the Ennead is also part of the sperm-spine
See 2.2 above.
and
his seven uraei,
who swallowed
"I am a new-snake...
4.2.
The snake
came into being" (CT 374).
his seven neck-vertebrae
in the
is the nCw, which occurs elsewhere
doing the swallowing
documents.
later
of
number
and
in
a
Pyramid Texts (as above)
The most
revealing
passage
as
to
this
snake's
nature
and
role
Hour of the
1963; see Fig-
in
for
Origin
Ankh
451
4.3.
in this manner in this
"This god travels
locality
[niwt]
cord [im3h] of this secret
manifestation
through the spinal
while his gods pull him.
He en[ssm] of 'The-gods-live'-snare,
ters its tail
and goes out of its mouth, being born in his form
of Khepri...
This secret
manifestation
of 'The-gods-live'-snake
is at his place
in
the
underworld.
He goes to no other
[nst]
at
time
This
place
great god speaks to him in his
any
(day).
name of nCw-serpent
that he may make smooth (be smooth to) the
birth of the god.
He has a spinal
cord [Im3h] 1300 sacred ells
on the murmuring voices
ol the honored ones
long, and he lives
cord [Im3h], going out of his
[im3h.w] who are in his spinal
of Hornung's
mouth every day" (our translation
(1963:1,197-200)
Here we have the deceased,
identified
with the sun-god,
text).9
and his entire
sun-bark
crew going through the spinal
cord in
order to be reborn for the coming day.
From the perspective
of
the spinal
it seems probable
that the spinal
cord/life
motif,
cord (ms3h) is "that which makes one an 3h (a living
(see
soul)"
Helck and Otto 1975-,
sub Ach) and that an im3h.w is one who has
been revivified,
not just an "honored" or "revered"
one, as it
is usually
translated.
The frequent
phrase nb imsh (see Sethe
could therefore
be translated
either
1935-39,
1962.4:46;5.102)
as possessor
of
the being
made)
The "spinal
7).
to that of the
the same basic
living
spirit,
is the form in
1961: pl. 5).
(hr)
the
great
a spinal
a living
cord
spirit
or
possessor
of the making of
BM
1961:
157B)
(James
(e.g.,
(or,
pl.
or made a living
spirit
along
with
(hr)
the
The latter
is more likely.
It takes hr in its more
great god.
common spatial
sense and implies
that the deceased
was made a
because
he was with (in the presence
living
spirit
of, hr) the
great god at the time of the latter's
transfor(regular/daily)
mation.10
These words imply that the individual
a
undergoes
A person (living
or dead) is not naturally
process.
an 3h but
must be made one.
The same root,
and the same implication,
occurs in s3h to make a living
one of the duties
of a lecspirit,
tor priest.
The full
form of the snake's
name in Amduat is k3 n rdl Cnh
ntr.w
the
ku
of
the
one
causing
the
gods
to
live
(Hornung
1963:
The direction
of passage,
II,189).11
from the tail
to the
the belief
that the snake's
mouth, reflects
venom was semen, or
to semen, the one associated
analogous
with death,
the other
with life.
Mtwt is used for both semen and poison,
including
snake's
venom (Sethe 1935-39,1962:2.222).12
The picture
illusthis hour of Amduat shows the bark of the deceased,
trating
the
the sun in that order,
snake, the hpr-beetle,
left
to right
The snake-beetle-sun
2).
(Figure
thus reflects
insemisequence
gestation
(hpr to become)
and birth.
nation,
This route through
the snake on the way to rebirth
is what is referred
to in BD 149:
452
"May there
4.4.
be
cleared
for
Vol.
Linguistics,
Anthropological
me the
path
of
the
No.
24,
nCw-snake,
Beliefs
As collateral
about
evidence
sperm,
for
bones
this,
and
Sauneron
the
spine
outside
and Yoyotte
have
Egypt.
noted
Origin
for
Ankh
453
that similar
beliefs
about sperm, bones and the spine were curof Hippon, Plato and other
rent in the Greek world, writings
and
healers
cited
(Rostand 1936:7-34).
being
philosophers
for
characterized
example,
Plato,
specifically
sperm as "a soft
flow from the spine" and opined that the gods had made a connection from the spinal
"marrow" (spinal
of
cord) to the urethra
the penis through which the sperm could exit
(Lee 1965:120;
Cornford 1937:292
examination
of the late
Yoyotte's
ff.).'
and subsequent
Egyptian evidence,
along with the Greek sources
commentaries
-- even in the absence of the much earlier
Egyptian
we have adduced here -- led him to conclude
material
that the
of paternity
should definitely
be
"question
[for these ideas]
in favor of Egypt" (Yoyotte
settled
see also below).
1962:142;
Further search reveals
that such beliefs
about the role of
were even more widely
bones in procreation
held.
Thus, Keswani
treatise
the Aitareya
(1963) noted from the Sanskrit
Aranyaka
that "the woman contributes
the skin,
blood and flesh,
whereas
the fat,
the man contributes
bone and marrow parts of the fetus"
and from the Garbha Upanigad that from bones arise
"mar(218),
row (majja),
and from the marrow semen (Gukra)" (211).
The connection
of marrow and semen appears to be reflected
in Zoroastrianism,
as related
in the cosmological
the
treatise,
Bundahishn
"It is said in the religion:
When the
(Boyce 1975).
ox passed away, there where it sent forth its marrow,
created
the fifty-five
of grain grew up, and the twelve species
species
of healing
The
semen of the ox was borne up to the
plants...
moon station.
and he [Ohrmazd] created
There, they purified
it,
animals of all species
domestic
(Lincoln
1981:72).
[from it]"
In Judaic tradition
2:21-23
Genesis
has Eve created
from a
salac
a rib or thoracic
bone ("This
at last
is bone of my
sole-
454
Anthropological
Linguistics,
Vol.
24,
No. 4
all portions
believe
of the fetus
today in the Upper Nile valley
from the sire and the dam, the origin
of sperm
originate
equally
from
to and
to be the spinal
whence
it
is believed
passes
cord,
in the testes
is stored
(Schwabe and Kuojok 1981:235).
of source and priority,
we
as in other questions
In this,
while Egypt has the earliest
to say that,
would prefer
evidence,
to ascertain.
of source is much more difficult
the question
It
that the Greek, Indian,
seems clear
Judaic,
Egyptian
Iranian,
In our
center.
are from the same cultural
and African
concepts
to have been in a prehistoric
view this is more likely
setting
As this
derived.
from which all three (and others)
ultimately
with the ideas
have been in Africa,
connections
would probably
These basic concepts
held there are to be expected.
probably
On
in
the other
Africa.
in
had their
times
prehistoric
origin
medical
Greek
in
which
the
details
one
note
should
thought
hand,
Steuer and Saunders
is apparently
(e.g.,
upon Egyptian
dependent
and influence.
contact
to much later
pointing
1959),
albeit
physiological
These rationally
erroneous,
derived,
in
vertebrate
namely, the
about
notions
animals,
reproduction
its colin
its
in
marrow,
of
presence
bones,
sperm
production
ureto
the
thence
cord
and
its
as the spinal
lection
passage
creation
acts of
to the analogous
related
thra inextricably
intact
more or less
death after
and of re-birth
persisted
the view that sperm
While Aristotle
for some time.
disputed
only with
from bone marrow (On the Parts of Animals),
arise
in the West that sperm
belief
Galen did the alternative
prevail
(Rostand 1936:19,
in the testes
produced solely
were, in fact,
38).
Relevant
4.
Egyptian
anatomical
hieroglyphs.
Of special
of
of a relationship
demonstration
to our intended
relevance
ideas about creation/procreation/
derived
these rationally
of
to the ankh symbol are the probable
revivification
origins
words
in writing
used ideographically
some of the hieroglyphs
of non-humans),
back (medically
such as psd back,
13t spine
S3
We add a related
and ts vertebra.1i
sign (2).
(1)
&
(2)
F40; M'd~1ller
1965:II #172bis; e.g.,
).
(3wt gifts
Griffith
(3)
(4)
F37; e.g.,
Newberry 1893:I,25.34
(13t).
1898: #61
for
Origin
(5)
455
Ankh
(6)
is
found
as the
"determinative"
of psd back
in
456
Vol.
Linguistics,
Anthropological
No.
24,
It is found in connection
coincidence.
with absorbing
phonetic
the gods' creative
powers in the "Cannibal Hymn": "The King is
who knots [ts]
of offerings
the cord And who
a possessor
[btpt]
his
meal
Faulkner
himself
399cd:
1969).
[3wt]" (Pyr.
prepares
were eaten in early
that sacred bulls
It has been conjectured
We would like more direct
rituals
(Mond and Myers 1934:I,7).
such as the above would fit into
but passages
of this,
evidence
such a context.
Another
for
back
is
(7)
(Aal7,
form Aal8).
The Old Kingdom hieroM5ller 1965:1,
#594; later
an
favor
anatomical
for this sign,
do
not
origin
shapes
glyphic
an earlier
but the hieratic
forms, which may represent
shape,
Such a form,
base.
and a much shorter
show a long upright
occurs on the
from hieratic,
taken to be derived
usually
a single
of
stele
Eleventh
Tjetji,
crudely,
resembling,
Dynasty
614
1.
9:
in lateral
vertebra
(BM
thoracic
perspective
Budge
of this hierFor a very different
1914: pl. 8).
interpretation
oglyph see Montet (1925:224-5).
The
ts
hieroglyph
sign,
interest.
special
nhbt) and those of
meant in Pyr. 229:
is
(pressed)
on the
(8)
(S24)
vertebra,
knot
is
of
[ts
b~kw
knot
of
the
vertebrae]
of
Origin
for
457
Ankh
is
possible
that
the
sign
(9)
s3
[z3]
of rope and
While it is clearly
may also be relevant.
S3
in writing
in
its
use
1470c)
(Pyr.
hobble,
protection
and
whether the rope version
is secondary
raises
the question
with
its
we
have
another
of
the
whether
spine
representation
vital
force (compare the other spine signs,
[5]
especially
above).
an apparently
evidence
This orthographic
special
supports
and very early association
of the thoracic
by the Egyptians
of
animals with the analogous
spine of ungulate
processes
procreation/revivification.
(V16)
used
5.
the
ankh symbol,
has shown
made
ject
exposition
Fischer's
consideration
treatment
of
of this
that
in early
times
this
was an obalready
dynastic
of something
such
as cloth
or reeds.
His
flexible,
centers
a beautiful
around
stone
of the
dish,
probably
First Dynasty,
with the ankh symbol in it.
A liquid
(Fischer
believes
water) was put into the loop of the ankh and then
ritual.
The ankh sympoured through the stem in a life-giving
bol is frequently
associated
with lustrations
(Fischer
1972).
As noted above, even very early hieroglyphs
be
based on
may
the stylized,
form
of
the
than
on
the
rather
ritual,
object
We are therefore
in
original
shape of the prototype.
justified
for an object
which has a loop at one end, projections
looking
to either
a straight
shank from the loop,
and which is
side,
associated
with a liquid
of life-giving
The most
properties.
obvious
answer, based upon the above information
regarding
Egyptian beliefs,
is a thoracic
vertebra
The ankh, like
5).
(Figure
458
Anthropological
Linguistics,
Vol.
24,
No. 4
a central
the vertebra,
two lateral
possesses
processes
canal,
and an elongated
a slightly
has
flared
(which
spinous
process
less exact feaThe anatomically
distal
end and a median line).
tures of sign (6) above and of the ankh symbol are the same,
and their
lateral
somewhat simplified
processes
namely their
that in preWe therefore
vertebral
less obvious
suggest
body.
was recognized
thoracic
vertebra
times an ungulate's
by
dynastic
excellence
as
the
sacred
secret?)
(and
symbol par
Egyptian
priests
of the
(powers)
properties
for the procreating/revivification
the eviof
Portions
of
life.
spine and thus for the mysteries
sexand
with creative
association
dence for the ankh symbol's
Baines
have been reviewed
by
of life
previously
ual aspects
(1975).19
thoracic
an ungulate
vertebra,
If the ankh was originally
and
rams were
Bulls
animal?
what
ungulate
the question
arises,
the
while
but,
gods,
fertility
both prominent
among Egyptian
the
ankh
the
resemble
symbol,
of
each
vertebrae
closely
thoracic
that
already
preof
including
more substantial
evidence,
body
with the
connection
seems to favor its particular
sented here,
the spine
of
the several
relationships
In noting
bull.
implied
after
death beof revivification
and its bones to the process
one is struck by the frequent
in Old Kingdom texts,
ginning
and
of both the back (and its bones)
in these texts
association
In the
2.1 above).
with bulls
quotation
e.g.,
the process
(see,
discussed
texts
by Sauneron the ram god Khnum is
sperm-from-bone
where he is the creator).
3.5
actor
the
(see
above,
frequently
is
above
1.10
in
Our citation
spoken by the Ram of Mendes, anseem to be another
would
therefore
ram
The
other fertility
god.
bone.
the
ankh
of
for the origin
candidate
is the size of an ankh symbol as
line of inquiry
A possible
source
In order for this to be a valid
held by some officiant.
ankh
one would have to assume that the ritual
of information,
of
the
sake
For
the size of its actual
prototype.
approximated
discussion
The
assume this to be the case.
argument we will
for
The average height
information.
add useful
at least
will
times
of Middle and Upper Egypt in early dynastic
inhabitants
the
On that scale
1957:88-95).
168 cm. (Seligman
approximated
Mea20 cm. or more in length.
ankh was almost always an object
of mature present-day
skeletons
of 26 mounted standing
surements
the length of the
for
cm.
to
36.9
20
a range of
cattle
provide
as high
standing
of
animals
vertebrae
or second thoracic
first
regresleast
the
squares
Using
as 167.5 cm. at the shoulder.20
=
measurefrom these
derived
+ 0.64x)
-2.92
sion equation
(y
of a length of 40.8 cm. for a thoracic
estimation
ments permits
as high as 182 cm., or approximately
of a bull standing
vertebra
anas did aurochs
(Bos primigenius)
at the shoulder
six feet,
the
until
at
least
in
Egypt
cattle
domestic
of
present
cestors
horn
has
boney
skull
aurochs
extant
One
end of the Old Kingdom.
circumin
cm.
43.8
horns
themselves)
cores (not the much larger
and Ulrik
and 98 cm. between tips21
91 cms. in length
ference,
in
Museum
Copenhagen
Zoologiske
M4hl of the Universitetets
Origin
for
Ankh
459
of the highest
informed us that the length
thoracic
verkindly
there
is
44.5
tebra from an old aurochs bull skeleton
preserved
vertebrae
of rams are considerably
cm! The thoracic
smaller
bull.
than those of the smallest
in which the spithe
opening or vertebral
canal,
Moreover,
in even a small bovine vertebra
the vertenal cord lies,
(e.g.,
is wide enough
bra in Figure 5 that is only 20 cm. in length),
and carry as the ankh symbol was
two fingers
for a man to insert
The vertebral
canal of the
carried.
That of the ram is not.
wild aurochs bull was, of course,
than that
considerably
larger
of the ankh symbol suggest
shown in Figure 5 and many portrayals
if the bone itself
was once carried
chiefs
by predynastic
that,
its vertebral
canal was enlarged
or filor priests,
by scraping
to
obtain
the
marrow
of
its
vertebral
(eat?)
ing, possibly
body,
to hold (Figure
to make the ankh even easier
6) or to deliberthe size of its magical
sperm-marrow contents,
exaggerate
ately
done too in exaggerated
of the
as was sometimes
portrayals
in the Early Dyas of Min.
There is too great variation
penis,
forms of ankh for us to use them as evidence
nastic
for the size
One must assume that at this period they alof the opening.
the ritual
object(s).22
ready represented
Some iconographic
The Metropolitan
Mu6.
implications.
dish discussed
illustrates
our concept
of
seum schist
by Fischer
Other fruitful
into the iconoankh iconographically.
essays
field
confined
to
may be made, but they must be narrowly
graphic
We therefore
to be convincing.
return to the
clear contexts
in which the snake clearly
snake-beetle-sun
sequence,
represents
4 of the text citations
There
the vertebrae
above).
(see Section
on this sequence,
are a number of iconographic
variations
of
the following.
We have also restricted
which we have selected
to what we consider
the key icons for our purpose.
ourselves
1.
Snake sequences
beetle
snake
sun
1.1. boat
snake
beetle
sun
1.2.
ithyphallic
Osiris
snake
beetle
sun
1.3.
2.
Djed sequences
2.1. boat
beetle
sun
djed
2.2.
beetle
sun
djed
ankh
sun
2.3.
djed
djed
2.4.
falcon-sun
Cartouche ring sequences
3.
beetle
sun
3.1. boat
ring
sun
3.2.
ring
beetle
4.
Shorter versions without snake, ankh or djed
4.1. boat
beetle
sun
These are exemplified
in the following:
1.1. Amduat, Hour Twelve (Figure 2).
1.2. Papyrus of Her-Uben B. The four sons of Horus stand in the snake's
coils.
The snake extends under the "Moundof Khepri," on which lies
an ithyphallic Osiris.
Above him is Khepri and the sun disc (Piankoff and
Rambova1957:76 and pl. 2 far left).
460
Anthropological
Linguistics,
Vol.
24,
No. 4
40).
development.
it too is a natural
with multiple
capitals,
pillar
of
representations
If, on the other hand, we go to the earliest
djed, we find that it looks far more like a segment of spine
(Kaplony 1963:
10,12)
(Figures
than a bundle of reeds or a pillar
also the
Compare
Fischer
15,16).
1972:figs.
746,747;
figs.
III,
for
Origin
Ankh
461
forms in Mtller
hieroglyphic
#541(Dyn 4), II, #541 (Dyn
1965:I,
#541 (Dyn 25), where the last
is most like a spine in
18), III,
The early
could be interpreted
11).
allographs
as
shape (Figure
a close
vertebrae
several
examination
of the
plus an extension,
of the texts.
combination
The extension
spine-penis
may extend
(Figure
into what appears to be ankh (Figure
10) or tit
12i V39
If the tit symbol is a ritual
after
S34).
object
originally
the vulva,
we have in Figure 12 an Egyptian
representing
On the other hand, the djed
to the Saiva linga/yoni.26
parallel
and sacrum of an
vertebrae
lumbar
last
three
the
could represent
the terminal
is
simply
the
extension
in which case
ungulate,
in the bull,
note
that,
We should also
of the latter.
portion
vertebra
fused sacral
or last
of its fifth
the terminal
portion
the
of
portrayals
13), as in the more standard
flares
(Figure
8, 11).
base of the djed (Figures
is not
sequences
The role of ankh in our set of parallel
beetle
the
to
replace
it
appears
cases
In
some
clear.
entirely
as
be
it
to
take
functioning
also
We
and
2.3).
might
2.2
(cf.
associit
is
case
In
Osiris.
closely
any
the
does
ithyphallic
[Cnh] as the Beetle
ated with djed.
Compare, "may you live
Here ankh
a
as
stable
(Pyr. 2107c).
dd-pillar"
[dd]
[Cnh] being
on
Ankh
djed is a
parallel.
and djed are clearly
poetically
if one is
is
natural
8), which
(Figure
grouping
very frequent
to
(note that ts does not refer
spine
the lumbar plus sacral
and the other a "knot" of the thoracic
sections)
these spinal
of the thoracic
a
vertebra
of
out
spine (ankh) through
spine
One
is reborn the sun.
cord of the lower back (djed)
the spinal
under
ankh
with
(or
snakes
near)
the
numerous
also
notice
should
to djeda parallel
heads in New Kingdom iconography,
their
ankh.2
ankh,
djed
held
by a deity,
sometimes
with
the
ankh
at
We are
in a revivifying
ritual.28
the nose of the deceased
looks remarkto find that this scepter
not surprised
therefore
on dissection
(see Figure 14).
penis,
ably like a bull's
In
gods.
I djed
a serpent
is
called
is called
the
of
father
n
Cnh
s3-t3
the
snake
of
1886: Appen.,
(Lefibure
pl. 3; Snake, pt. 4, pl. 46).
reof ankh assume a closer
of the origin
Other discussions
origin
forms and its ultimate
between its familiar
lationship
these
to refute
It is not necessary
than we consider
likely.
of our
inherent
show
the
to
probability
but
only
interpretations
we have done.
This we believe
construct.
own formal/semantic
symbol remained
that the nature of the original
We also believe
the students
not
unreasonably,
unknown so long simply because,
in veterinary
anatomy.
have not been versed
of the subject
are far-reaching.
of these identifications
The ramifications
been
for what have hitherto
a raison
They have provided
d'etre
life
462
Anthropological
Linguistics,
Vol.
24,
No. 4
Origin
for
Ankh
463
Figure 1
464
Anthropological
Figure
Linguistics,
2
Vol.
24,
No.
Origin
for
Ankh
465
Figure
Figure
466
Anthropological
Figure 5
Linguistics,
Vol.
24,
No.
Origin
for Ankh
467
Figure 6
468
Anthropological
Linguistics,
Vol.
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
24,
No. 4
Origin
for Ankh
Figure 10
469
Figure 11
Figure 12
470
Anthropological
Linguistics,
Figure 14
cI
Vol.
24,
No.
for
Origin
471
Ankh
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NOTES
1. The authors wish to express their appreciation to EdmundS. Meltzer
for reading and commenting on the manuscript. The present text, while profof the authors.
iting from his comments, is entirely the responsibility
2. By rational basis for healing is meant anatomical knowledge of the
body's normal structure and physiological knowledge of its normal function
so as to permit descriptions of abnormalities and symptomatic and systemic
ways to counteract them.
3. References such as F45 are to the Sign List in Gardiner 1957 unless
otherwise attributed.
476
Anthropological
Vol.
Linguistics,
24,
No.
4. For the hieroglyphic texts see: Pyramid Texts: Sethe (1960); Coffin Texts: Buck (1935-61); Book of the Dead: Budge (1898).
5. The entire land of Egypt is considered to be the body of Osiris,
each province being one of the members of the god (Chassinat 1966-68: I,
195).
6.
7.
paper.
For Chassinat's
translations
of [i]3t
I, 372.
our attention
to this
directing
For
nlwt
see II,
10. For hr by see Edel (1955-64: II, 395). For hr with cf. Pyr. 894a
hr k3.f with Z7is ku (Sethe 1935-39, 1962: VI, 196).
11. On ka vs. ku see Osing (1976: II, 380). The present writers preIn any case
fer to withhold judgment and use the cuneiform transcription.
k3.
Greek ke:r
or
written
like
Cf.
*k-r(-)
it was something
kk-i(-), being
deceased
of
persons).
spirit (usually
12. Sethe is probably correct not only in connecting Pyr. 681d with
443a but in translating "Die Schlange, Voegelfang mit dem Phallus" (1935-39,
1962: III, 245-47), as against Faulkner (1969:128) "festal of Phallus."
The image is apparently that of the snake's head as similar to the glans
(von Deines and Westendorf 1961Comparealso C3C Samen, Giftstoff
penis.
62: I, 129-33) and the use of the hieroglyph spitting (D26) for mwsemen
Possibly related is the use of saliva in healing and
(Erichsen 1954:154).
blessing.
13. The ancients commonly equated the bone-enclosed
cord substances with the marrow of other bones.
Origin
for
477
Ankh
the latter
not seen
of the ankh symbol with the un19. The senior author's identification
in
occurred
thoracic
vertebra
1961, during a period in which he was
gulate
engaged in Kenya, the Sudan and Egypt in simultaneous studies on diseases
of African ungulates, current Nilotic folk veterinary practices and ancient
has
Egyptian veterinary medicine (see Schwabe 1958). This identification
been mentioned in passing in Schwabe 1978.
20. We are grateful for these measurements to the following veteriR.C. Williams, Tuskegee Institute;
H.E. Evans, Cornell
nary anatomists:
University; G.R. Bratton, University of Tennessee; W.C. Wagner, University
R.M. Liptrap, University of Guelph; J.H. Venable, Colorado
of Illinois;
State University; R.P. Worthman, Washington State University; C.D. Diesem,
Ohio State University; P. Dodson, University of Pennsylvania; J.K. Malone,
University of Minnesota; R.F. Sis, Texas A&MUniversity; H.R. Oyer, Michigan State University; A.E. Marshall, University of Georgia; L.F. Faulkin,
University of California; L.E. Freeman, Oklahoma State University; W.K. Latshaw, University of Saskatchewan; J. Pierard, Universite de Montreal and
R. Dembinski, Iowa State University; and also to M. Pappaioanou of University of California, Davis.
21. See Wood (1897).
by Epstein (1971:227).
The largest
region,
478
Anthropological
Vol.
Linguistics,
24,
No. 4
23. See also Piankoff and Rambova (1954:312-16, Fig. 87). Hornung
(1981) has recently discussed the final frame of the underworld sequences,
the one in which the snake-beetle-sun appears in Amduat. The variety is
he provides.
even greater than the illustrations
24. The Double Bull platform or rod also performs this function but
is not part of the twelfth hour activity.
25.
articles
fig.
87.
Piankoff and Rambova1954:
Figure 6.
by filing.
A bovine thoracic
Figure 7.
48 (p. 61).
2.1 Boat-Djed-Beetle-Sun.
canal enlarged
Origin
for
479
Ankh
Figure 8.
2.3 Djed-Ankh-Sun.
Figure 9.
3.2 Ring-Beetle-Sun.
(p. 35).
Figure 10.
Figure 11.
Djed.
Figure 12.
Djed in Tit.
Figure 13.
17b
15 (p. 39).
16 (p. 39).