Annelise Wackerfuss

Globalization
Nancy Spalding
November 21, 2016
In Spain, the dead are more alive than the dead of any other country
in the world.
- Federico Garcia Lorca
I.

Crystallization of a State

The Iberian Peninsula is located on the western edge of the

Mediterranean Sea. Its lush geography is covered by mountain ranges, the
Meseta Plateau, over 1,500 rivers, and beautiful coastal beaches. As it was
identified by many names, Spain will be used throughout as a geographical
term that defines a territory presently occupied by the Spanish state. Its
royalty sponsored the voyage of Christopher Columbus which led to the
colonization the Americas; a discovery that skyrocketed Spains presence
around the world. In the present day, Spain is the third most visited country
in the world, making tourism a large part of its GDP and culture. Ethnically
diverse works of art and architecture fill the citys streets in every part of the
country.
A journey through the history of Spain allows one to assemble the
building blocks of a thriving culture. A culture which has become globalized
as a result of diverse authorities and trade routes presiding over its territory
throughout history. Regimes in power have either squandered or facilitated
cultures for political gain. Never the less, it is evident that the goods and
ideas of peoples last well beyond the presence of the peoples themselves. As
primitive peoples were illiterate, there is no history to examine of them. Yet,
just as the those who came after them, their legacy lives on- unnoticed but
fundamental. Each century has bred innovations that have done much to
improve the territory for the lives of its human inhabitants. Many of which
remain observable in the present day.
II.

Iberian Peninsula

Greeks refer to the original inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula as

Iberians. Without regard to ethnic differences, they are believed to have
arrived in the peninsula around 4000 BC. Around 1200 BC, Celtic tribes
entered from the North, over time creating a Celt-Iberian race. As control of
territory before modern times was a rudimentary form of squatters rights,
urban development, and rural land cultivation was essential to the success of
authorities. 1100 BC marked the arrival of sea-faring Phoenicians of the
Western Mediterranean, as well as Greeks who founded colonies along the
Southern Coast of Spain. Most notable of the Phoenician city-states was
Carthage, which dominated the South Eastern coast of the Mediterranean.

Carthage became the capital of the Phoenician empire and dominated the
Mediterranean Sea during the first millennium BC until it was destroyed
during the Third Punic War with Rome. A lasting relic of these times can be
experienced in the Basque Country. The Basque ethnic group still inhabits
the North of Spain. The origins of its people and language are still unknown,
as they did not sprout from any of the cultures referenced in this analysis. Its
culture is believed to have been kept relatively pure, with its origins dating
back to a pre-Iberian population.
During this time, many cultures in the Mediterranean region exchanged
not only goods but also ideas about the advantage of self-sufficient cities
whose citizens shared power more widely than prior civilizations. Urban
settlements were known first by the Phoenicians as a qart, then by the
Greeks as a polis, and the Romans as a civitas, governed themselves and
selected their leaders. Their governments took various forms including
tyranny (rule by a popularly approved individual), oligarchy (rule by the few),
and democracy (rule by all free adult males). (Pollard, 2015) City-states bred
competition between individuals and classes for honor and prestige. Sporting
events sprang up as benign outlets for the extreme competitiveness. The
greatest of these competitions were the Olympic Games which began in 776
B.C. at Olympia in Southern Greece. Less healthy outlets took the form of
armed conflicts over land, resources, and influence which fueled
advancements in military equipment and tactics.
City-States were centered around a marketplace where individuals
bought and sold commodities. The kingdom relied on money to connect
producers and buyers of goods and services, especially as city-states
became more extensive. Carthage began to mint its own coins first out of
gold, then later other metals around 270 B.C. As city-based life became
completely independent, communities developed a culture founded on
market-based economies and private property. Along with goods, slaves were
bought and sold as commodities that were used for dangerous and
exhausting tasks. Slaves constituted up to a quarter of the population and
were used to produce agricultural surpluses that supported the urban
population. With the dissolution of the monarchy and priestly rule, peoples
were free to discuss gods, morality, and laws openly as no certain one would
get an official stamp of approval. New ideas in science and arts gave prestige
to philosophers, most notably Seneca of Cordoba, Hispania. Rich competition
among ideas advanced modes of public thinking which the Greek called
philosophia, the love of wisdom. Jesus of Christianity and Ezekiel and Isaiah
of Judaism were among the innovative thinkers of this time period. (Pollard,
2015)
Carthaginians expanded commercial and social interests into the lands
of Egypt in North Africa and the Eastern Mediterranean. More indirectly, the
territory was connected to the Silk Roads which traded throughout AfroEurasia. Fines Terre, End of the Earth signifies the idea that merchants and
peoples traveling West in Eurasia, would eventually end up in Spain as it is
the Western most point. Both the Romans and Carthaginians adopted

aspects of cultures they liked and disregarded the rest. Architectural and
artistic remnants of this period have qualities of Egyptian and Hellenistic
style that were accumulated through contact.
The 600-year reign of the Roman Empire in Spain was first established
by the Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage. Rome, having conquered
the Greeks in earlier times, rose victorious in the Punic Wars that of which
started in Spain in 218 BC. In 146 BC the Romans annihilated what was left
of Carthage- killing its men and selling all of its women and children into
slavery. The empire was able to monopolize power over the entire
Mediterranean and claimed the entire peninsula under the name Hispania.
Once unified under Roman rule, Hispania was divided into 3 provinces. Each
province was governed by Roman appointees and indigenous leaders under
a common law and Latin language. The expansiveness of the empires
developed a political style of distant, almost godlike kings. Instead of being
accessible, which was not possible when kingdoms and states were so vast.
Roman provinces worked together to build roads that connected cities in the
region and across the realm for trade. Aqueducts were constructed to irrigate
dry lands. The remains of which are still intact today.
Much of Spanish land was granted in small holdings to veterans of the
Roman army in efforts of colonizing new lands and expanding the empires
wealth. Spain became the wealthiest region of the Roman Empire,
contributing raw minerals, olive oil, and agricultural products like wine and
wheat which flourished due to the aqueducts. Although Spanish territory has
many rivers, few are navigable. The geographic future of Spain was mostly
molded by the locations of Roman settlements and the Roman road system
which joined together regional commercial networks. Hispania also birthed
three of Romes greatest Emperors: Trajan, Hadrian, and Theodosius the
Great- the last ruler of the entire Roman Empire.
Romans were multiethnic and multi-religious, as tolerance was
necessary to the survival of the vast realm. Each ethnic group was expected
to respect the right and gods of others while above all, pay homage to the
political rulers and gods of Rome. Otherwise, citizens were free to pursue
their own religion and way of life. This proved difficult for the Jewish
population in particular as they saw their god as the one true god of
mankind. Thus, making it sacrilegious to accept other religions or cultures,
much less pay homage. This was a characteristic that would be adopted by
other Judeo-Christian religions as a means of uniting conquered populaces.
When the last roman emperor was overthrown in 476 A.D., most Jews lived in
the Islamic world as it was tolerant of their beliefs. The spread of Christianity
is believed by some to be the most significant contribution of Roman rule.
Today, Roman Catholicism- which became Hispanias official religion by 587now constitutes, roughly 71% of the Spanish population according to a 2012
study.1
1According to an April 2012 study by the Spanish Center of Sociological
Research, roughly 71 percent of the Spanish population self-identifies as

The Barbarian or foreign invasions of the 4th and 5th centuries were a
time of violent and chaotic immigration of young fighting men initially invited
to satisfy Romans need for soldiers. Desperate for power, the Romans
encouraged gothic migration but mistreated the immigrants when they
arrived. A mistake which enflamed the Gothic cavalry who proved to have
great military strength. When Romes emperors could no longer raise enough
taxes to maintain control of its provinces, the Goths settled in the spaces left
by the dissolving empire. The 5th to the 8th century is known the Gothic
period in Spain, ruled by the Goths of Northern European origin. Christian
and pagan tribes of the Germanic peoples flourished opposite of the Romans.
Although the Western Roman Empire had fallen, its language, religion, and a
basis of laws lived on.
III.

Islamic Spain

Fueled by religious passion and desire to acquire wealth, Muslim soldiers set
out on what they called jihad, military conquests to found a far-reaching
empire in the name of Islam. Gothic dominance persevered until 711 when
Islamic armies crossed the Strait of Gibraltar from what is now North African
Morocco into Southern Spain. It was during this campaign that the
Umayyads2 or Moors3 defeated the last Visigoth king- squashing the final
remains of Roman times in Spain. The Moors advanced North into the
peninsula undefeated until 722 when they were stopped in Northern Spain.
Although they were tolerant of conquered populations, non-Muslims were
required to proclaim Islams political dominion. Islamic dynasties did not
allow for non-Arabic speaking peoples to hold high political office, a trait
which would have a hand in their demise from the region. The Iberian Muslim
peoples gained political independence from the Arabian Empire when Abd alRahman III declared the state a Caliphate named al-Andalus. Although
Caliphs exercised political authority over the Muslim community, they were
not believed to have inherited prophetic powers or any authority in religious
doctrine.
Islamic rule owed much of its success to its ability to merge the
contributions of different geographic, economic, and intellectual territories
into a rich yet unified culture. This characteristic was embodied by Abd alRahman as he brought peace and stability to a violent region by promoting
Roman Catholic. While the majority of Spanish citizens remain Catholic, most
of them, particularly the younger inhabitants, do not always adhere to the
Churchs traditionalist ways and moral doctrine, especially on issues such as
pre-marital sex, contraception, and sexual orientation. ("Religious beliefs in
Spain")
2 As referred to in Islamic culture, representing a branch of the Meccan clans
that laid claim to Alis legacy and spread Islam beyond Arabia.
3 Peoples from the land of Mauretania in Northwest Africa. Mauretania was
once part of the Roman Empire until it was conquered by the Arab Caliphate

amicable relations among Muslims, Christians, and Jews. His diplomatic

relations with Christian rulers in France and Germany generated exchanges
between Western Europe and North Africa. Although politically independent,
the state conducted trade in both the Roman and Islamic networks which
expanded by land and sea throughout Europe, central Africa, the Fertile
Crescent, and Asia. The Islamic people encouraged artisan crafts like smiths,
tailors, shoemakers, and carpenters and were well known for their luxury silk
cloth, raw materials, and sale of slaves. Standardized trade took the form of
modios, a unit of standard measure for agriculture, most commonly grain.
Their economy was monetarized in silver and gold in the form of a solidus.
(Glick, 1979) As a result of monetarization, merchants were better able to
purchase land in the countryside which strengthened the economic and
demographic hold of the Caliphate on its territory. Al-Rahman beautified sites
with gardens of lush plants, tranquil pools and fountains, and sturdy
aqueducts that carried potable water to the inhabitants.
The ruling authority placed much value on customary law- a law which is
unofficial and the result of established customs. Overtime evolving into an
adoption of Sharia law- a body of moral and religious law derived from
religious prophecy, as opposed to the human legislation. The regulation of
the public by the public was in some ways Greek inspired. Regulations
ranged from general social aspects, like the prohibition of scandalous
irreligious behavior in the marketplace, to more specific stipulations on
thread count and quality in various kinds of cloth. Also included were the
procedures used in the preparation and sale of meat. Market Inspectors and
Public Health Officials were appointed to maintain public spaces. Their roles
were to investigate violations of law like those regarding refuse disposal or
the overbuilding of stories in such a way that blocked sunlight, making it
impossible for muddy streets to dry.(Glick, 1979) La Convivencia, was a
period of religious tolerance in Spain during the time of Islamic rule,
specifically in regards to the Jewish religion. Toledo, Cordoba, and Fez were
all thriving Jewish communities in Spain during its Islamic rule.
The markets of the Arab Empire, specifically that of Persia and India,
imported ceramics, textiles, pepper, and flax among other goods by
camelback through Morocco and up into Spain when it was served lucrative.
The mid-eleventh century borne durable ships that ignited long distance
trade. Overseas trade routes allowed for larger tangible goods to be shared
among distant cultures Among the most notable Spanish imports of this time
were Indian copper washbasins and Chinese porcelain pottery. A distinction
between public and private space was essential in Islamic culture. Evidence
of this can be seen in the windowless facades of homes in the South of
Spain. Instead, they built homes around private off street patios. Great
Islamic architecture can be viewed today in the Alhambra in Granada and the
Great Mosque of Crdoba.
IV.

Christian Spain

The Roman Catholic Church (Catholic meaning universal) worked to

replace a political unity that was lost in western Europe when the Roman
Empire fell. Monasteries housed monks4 and nuns who worked to translate
and produce bibles which were seen as the vehicles of the holy. Contrary to
the commonness of Muslim and Jewish religious leaders, warrior societies in
the Christian West honored peoples unlike themselves- small groups of
monks and nuns that were unmarried, unfit for warfare, and vastly literate in
an incomprehensible tongue. Payment for human sin, the atoning power of
Jesuss crucifixion, and the effectiveness or monastic prayers were commonly
emphasized throughout the Roman Catholic Kingdom. Prior to 1000 C.E,
Christian Spain had essentially no cities, instead, power was spread along
the countryside ruled by Canon Law5.
Early medieval monasteries acted as an administrative center of
commerce and law as they were located between the peoples of the
mountains and the plains. When Christian urban areas began to form, they
were tightly arranged in a way that allowed for the municipal government to
have substantial control over the society. Positions were created for elected
officials as a means of institutionalizing the market for the benefit of the
realm. Amidst the medieval institution was a form of modern-day labor
unions. They took the form of associations of merchants or artisans that
organized to maintain standards and to protect the interests of its members
by electing delegates to interact with local governance.
Bartering was pronounced through the tenth century in Christian Spain.
Early land prices were quoted in cloth, livestock, iron, and wine.(Glick, 1979)
The Silver currency was mostly money for the account and regarded as a
weight equivalence, not monetary value. Luxury goods were imported from
the French, English, Italian and the Islamic kingdoms as Christian textiles
were not of luxury standards. Until the 11th century, Christian Spain was
colonial in respects that it generally exported raw materials and imported
finished goods. Similar to the Muslims, Christians settled into outlying plains,
thereby creating a hold over territory outside of its urban developments. Low
population density kept the settling peaceful; into what was considered a no
mans land between the Islamic and Christian rule. The agricultural surplus
in the 11th and 12th century allowed for the population to boom, further
advancing both Christian and Islamic society. The clergy reached more
deeply into the private lives of its parishes. Marriage and divorce, for
example, were previously considered family matters but became the domain
of the church. (Pollard, 2015)
Due to their close history and proximity for trade, the Islamic and
Christian cross-cultural trade created a need for the regulation in- weighing
of meat and flour; preparation of sausages and cooked dishes; and norms in
4 Monk comes from the Greek root monos, alone: a man or woman who
chose to live alone without the support of marriage or family
5 The body of codified ecclesiastical law, especially of the Roman Catholic
Church as proclaimed in ecclesiastical councils and by the pope

weaving and shoemaking.(Glick, 1979) Interdependence of Islamic and

Christian territory was facilitated by the Roman roads and standards that
were integral in trade throughout Spain and much of the explored world. A
shared sense of Europes place in the world, especially with respect to a
Christian identity, gave way to the belief in the existence of something called
Europe. Inhabitants increasingly began to refer to themselves as
Europeans, especially in contrast to the world of Islam to the East and
South. (Pollard, 2015)
Following Roman rule, Gothic kings and nobles took over many of the
lands once held by the Romans. The Gothic elite was traditionally Arian
Christian and many of their peoples the same or pagan. This created conflict
as the remaining Hispano-Roman populations were Roman Catholic. In 587,
The Visigoth King Reccared converted himself to the Catholic Church. The
religion was hoped to connect lands throughout Afro-Eurasia under a
common belief and rule. With the Catholicization of the Visigoth Kings, the
Catholic bishops increased in power and took it upon themselves to convert
their kingdoms. Groups began to challenge the clergys right to define
religious doctrine and practices, causing the church to fight back by
demanding strict obedience to the true faith. The resulting Catholic
predominance led to the persecution of heretics, Jews, Muslims,
homosexuals, prostitutes and witches. Crusades ensued throughout Europe
with long-term hopes of hardening Muslim feelings against the millions of
non-western Christians who had previously lived placidly in Egypt and
Europe.(Glick, 1979)
The Gothic peoples were generally tolerant of and allowed Jews to
survive and in some places thrive. Jewish people were seen as a facilitator
between Christian and Islamic economies and cultures as they were
generally neutral on both sides. For much time, Christianity remained
relatively tolerant but over time the spread of Christianity promoted the
eliminations of deviations from the faith. Contrary to what the future would
hold, history gives accounts of Christians socializing with and dining in the
homes of Jews. During this time many Christians converted to Judaism,
though few Jews converted to Christianity. This worried the ruling Catholic
Church. In response, they created policy, laws, and practices that kept the
two religious groups apart. For example, laws prohibited Jews from having
Christian employees and ghettoes were established to keep the Jewish
culture confined.
V.

Reconquista

Noble Arab families began to split from the al-Andalusi rule in attempts
to secure power within their regions. The division created a warring and
relatively weak authority that aided in the eventual loss of the Arab city of
Toledo to Catholicism in 1061. The loss of Toledo took with its many
resources and laborers, leaving the Moors ever more abolished from the
newly proclaimed Christian Spanish land. The Westernmost portion of Spain

was granted independence in 1139, under the name Portugal. With great
slaughter, Catholicism took back the remaining majority of the peninsula by
1300, leaving only the southern territory of Granada in Islamic control.
During this period, the church expanded its charitable and bureaucratic
functions by helping the poor and registering births, deaths, and
transactions. The clergy began to demand and receive privileges in the form
of access to land and relief from taxation, allowing the church became an
economic powerhouse.
The Jewish population excelled in tasks that the Castilian6 society
neglected. This benefited both sides as specialization and trade were of
increasing importance. Understanding this importance, the strong central
government kept the Spanish populaces resentment of Jewish populations at
bay. The 1348 outbreak of the black death killed 25- 40% of the Spanish
population, creating a social and institutional disruption that undermined the
regime in power. A civil war within Christian Spain in 1369-1371 weakened
the governments hold even more so. The debilitated authority of Church and
state allowed for waves of anti-Jewish violence, which resulted in the forced
conversion of tens of thousands of Jews by 1391 in fear of what their religion
would imply for their futures. Brutal religious persecutions forced mass
conversions to the Catholic faith in hopes that it would save them and their
families from a terrible impending fate. The converts were called conversos
when they came from Judaism, and moriscos when they came from Islam.
When converted, they were freed from the bonds of discriminatory laws and
became an influential aspect of municipal government. Over half of Spains
Jews converted as a result of the persecution. At first, the conversions
seemed effective. But as many conversos excelled socially and commercially,
these new Catholics were the target of great resentment among Catholic
clergy and royalty.
The established Catholic kingdoms thought it wise to consolidate
monarchies throughout the peninsula by marriage. The infamous marriage of
Isabela of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon in 1469 united the majority of
the Iberian region under one rule against what little remained of al-Andalusi.
The monarchs launched the Inquisition in 1481 which was aimed at Marranos
to identify Christians that were believed to be secretly practicing Judaism.
This concept raised many questions and ignited an all-out assault on the
practicing Jewish population. Conversos in positions of power aided many
Jews to escape with their lives. Thus, creating, even more, hostility and a
legal separation between them and old Christians. This separation was
combatted by a promotion of the unity of all Christians and the subsequent
deepening persecution of the Jewish population.
Granada was eventually conquered by the Bourbon monarchs in 1492,
the same year as the Alhambra Decree which expelled practicing Jews from
their territory. Spain was preceded in the expulsion of Jews from England,
France, and some German states, among many others. It wasnt until the late
6 A native or inhabitant of Castile, Spain

19th century that ancestry became consulted in anti-Semitism. Coming to

blows with Hitler and the Nazis, during the holocaust. A time when religious
or non-religious beliefs meant nothing, instead factoring ancestry as a means
of division. In Spain, the number of Jews expelled reached hundreds of
thousands- drastically more than the Jewish expulsions of France and
England. Wealth left behind by refugees was usurped by the monarchy of
Ferdinand and Isabella and used in part to fund the voyage of Christopher
Columbus the same year. Although the Jewish and Islamic land and wealth
were confiscated, their skills and traits could not be. The ethnic populations
that remained would come to influence Spanish culture covertly for the rest
of history. Sustained progress took place after the Reconquista in the context
of a frontier economy, urban expansion, and openness to trade.
VI.

Spanish Empire

The Black Death or Bubonic Plague spread along trade routes and
killed up to 30 million people in Europe between 1348 and 1354. During this
period, Spains population plummeted from 6 million to 2.5 million, 60% in
nine years.(Pollard, 2015) The economic impact of the plague seemed to be
substantial as Spain hit a peak level of output per capita in the 1340s and
between then and the 1370s per capita income contracted by one-fourth.
Also, partly as a result of the Hundred Years' War over succession rights in
neighboring states which drained Spanish resources from 1350 to 1389.
Demographically, the aftermath of the plague resulted in new institutions
and ideas across Afro-Eurasia. The Renaissance (rebirth) was an era (14301550) of Spanish rediscovery of its Greek and Roman past which brought
about innovations in art, architecture, thought and political and financial
institutions.
The 15th and 16th centuries were noted for trade flourishing across the
Atlantic and Pacific. In part due to Spanish expeditions that colonized parts of
the Americas and the Philippines. The Discovery of America brought tons of
gold and silver which made Spain one of the most powerful nations of the
Golden Age. Noted for achievements in mining in the Harz mountains,
Germans were imported during this time to build and operate mountain
mines. For much time the Habsburgs ruled Spain and its New World Colonies,
drawing on the Catholic traditions to establish a powerful and lasting
dynasty. The Habsburgs were elected as the heads of states in the federation
of states of the Holy Roman Empire almost continuously from 1438 to 1806.
Latin lost ground as the Spanish dialect was chosen for the region.
By the end of the sixteenth century, output per capita returned close
to pre-Black Death levels. Christian Spain had built an empire and become an
economic center which connected Europe and the New World. Madrid was
named capital in 1561 because of its location at Spains center. Madrid
embodied the central authority of the regime and gave the court centrality
throughout the realm it ruled. Along those same concepts, la Puerta del Sol
in Madrid is at kilometer zero for Spain's modern road system.

The Golden age began to decline around the 17th century due to
catastrophic military defeats, most notably- the defeat of the Spanish
Armada in which a third of the 130 Spanish ships were lost in an attempt to
overthrow Queen Elizabeth I of England. When the last Habsburg died while
on the throne, without a descendant, The House of Ferdinand and Isabella,
House Bourbon held the strongest claim to the throne. More specifically
Prince Philip 5th, the nephew of King Louis XIV of France. As King of Spain
from 1700-1746, Philip notably strengthened the central authority relative to
the provinces.
When Napoleon took the throne of France in 1789, he had hopes of
expansion to the Spanish throne. His invasion of Spain in 1808 was
successful in placing his brother Joseph Bonaparte in power. This started the
War of Spanish independence. Napoleons short reign lasted until in 1815
when Ferdinand III was restored to the throne. During his rule Ferdinand
changed the line of succession to the throne, placing his daughter Isabel II as
queen. His brother Charles rebelled against this action, igniting the War of
Seven Years. A division of this caliber led to a national instability and
economic recession. Meanwhile, the defeat of British invasions in South
America in 1806-7 emboldened independence and revolution hopes in
Americas. Spanish American Wars of Independence in the early 19th century,
caused Spain to lose its colonies everywhere besides Puerto Rico, Cuba, and
the Philippines. The first glimmer of a democratic Spain appeared in March of
1812 with the creation of the first modern Spanish constitution called La
Pepa written by Cadiz Cortes. A later political revolution forced Isabel II to
renounce her throne in 1868. Followed by what was called the First Republic,
which only lasted a year until a coup by Isabels son Alphonse XII restored
the kingdom.
The Spanish defeat in the Spanish-American war in 1898, bred
statesman and intellectuals that demanded liberal change. This opposition to
conservative rule was mostly disbanded by military means. Until the Second
Spanish Republic was proclaimed when King Alfonso XIII was sent into exile
from the country following elections in which anti-monarchist candidates won
the majority of votes. The republic was enacted during the economic
depression on 1929 which led to a period of faltering public and internal
support for the regime. The 1931 constitution solidified the Spaniards
freedom of speech, freedom of association, and extended suffrage to women
in 1933. This constitution stayed in effect until the civil war in the coming
years rendered it irrelevant.
VII.

Introduction to the Modern Age

The tension between the liberal republican government and the

nationalist monarchy led to the Spanish Civil War of 1936 lasting until 1939.
The conservative pro-church nationalists received support from Nazi
Germany and Fascist Italy and succeeded in putting Francisco Franco into
power. Up to half a million opposing intellectuals, artists, doctors, scientists

and skilled workers were forced into exile. Another 200,000 men and women
who stayed in the Peninsula were executed by Francos firing squads, while
the same number died of starvation as a result of harsh treatment. The
regimes system of rationing gave rise to a society based on privilege and
corruption as well as a black market known as the estraperlo. The market
came into operation-often larger than the official market- for bread, olive oil,
medicines, coal, scrap iron and raw cotton. Francos military dictatorship
resulted in political and economic isolation by restricting imports in a time
when major developments were happening worldwide. This period is referred
to as Spains Lost Years. The Spanish economy was relatively opened up in
1959. Although, the country was still kept out of the European Recovery
Program and was denied in its 1962 application for membership to the
European Economic Community because the dictatorship of Franco did not
meet the criteria. Instead, the 1970 preferential trade agreement (PTA)
established free trade between Spain and the EEC by removing trade barriers
for agriculture and industrial products. The summer of 1973, marked the
start of an economic crisis the inflation rates running at 12% as cut throat
competition entered the market. This resulted in an uprising of trade unions
across the state calling for reforms. (Harrison, 2016) By 1979, the currency
was back on track but consequences began to show in slow economic growth
and a jump in unemployment.
Francos successor was uncertain, which led to a bidding of possible
candidates. Among those candidates was the grandson of King Alfonso XIII,
Juan Carlos. Never having been in Spain, Juan Carlos was sent there by his
father to pursue an education that would make him eligible to claim his
rightful throne. Following Francos death in 1975, Juan Carlos was crowned
the King of Spain in a belief that he would maintain an authoritarian state.
But, Juan Carlos understood the status of the world outside his borders.
Almost immediately, Carlos began a transition to democracy based on three
pillars: historical tradition, national laws, and the will of people. Democratic
elections were held in June of 1977, then approving the Spanish Constitution
of 1978. The constitution devolved power to the regions and recovered
Spaniards right to vote or join a trade union. Title II, Section 57 of the
constitution asserted Juan Carlos's right to the throne of Spain by dynastic
succession in the Bourbon tradition, as "the legitimate heir of the historic
dynasty" rather than as the designated successor of Franco. Carlos remained
involved in the government, satisfying the nationalist party members in
power. The position of Head of State remains with the monarch while the
Prime minister or President of the Government is most always the leader of
the largest party in the Congress nominated by the monarch and approved
by congress. Under Juan Carloss influence, Spain once again flourished in
the international community.
Removal of investment controls sparked strong growth and inward
investment as foreign multinationals came into the countrys manufacturing
and service industries. Spain became a member of NATO in 1985. And joined
the EEC in 1986 which converted to the EU in 1993. Between 1996 and 1999,

Spain created as many new jobs as the rest of the European Union put
together.(Harrison, 2016) In January 1999 Spain became a founding member
of the European Monetary Union (EMU). Along with other EMU members,
Spain adopted the Euro in 2002 which has further integrated its economy
globally. Spains current political landscape consists of nineteen autonomous
communities. Between 1985 and 1991 the Spanish economy as a whole
expanded roughly 5% per year, and EU subsidies were used to modernize
vessels making Spains fishing fleet among the worlds largest. Spain has
sustained its role as a massive agricultural producer. While wine and olive oil
are still essential exports to its economy, the European Community
membership further liberalized the economy and culture. Which transformed
the traditional agricultural society into a broad industrial nation with a large
service economy.
VIII. Conclusion
The information presented does not aim to make assumptions of each
cultures impact on Spain, but rather aims to highlight aspects that are
relevant to present day Spain. As it is impossible to comb through the
unfathomable amount of factors that accumulated to create Spains modern
globalized culture- critical thinking is a necessary part of the analysis. Over
thousands of years, cultures from every continent have left their mark on the
Western European state. Initially, Phoenician and Roman peoples created a
structural template that would be essential in the development of the region,
probably farther beyond what they could have ever envisioned. That
template was filled in with new meaning and peoples that would establish
their own lasting effect on the region. The most notable aspect of cultural
heredity in Spain is certainly the religion, which spilled into the economic and
social policies of the institutions. Spains history has been a journey in search
of divinity and purpose- something that to be sure, all humans can relate to.
IX.

Figures

Carthage

Roman Empire

Roman Roads

Kingdom of Visigoths

Al-Andalusi

Islamic Trade Routes

Spain Holdings and Overseas Trade Routes

X.

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