CHAPTER

Population Ecology

Lesson 4.1 Studying Ecology

Ernst Haeckel defined ecology in 1866 as the

body of knowledge concerning the economy of
naturethe total relations of the animal to both its
inorganic and organic environment.

Lesson 4.1 Studying Ecology

Levels of Ecological Organization

The study of how organisms interact with each other and
with their environments
Scientists study ecology at various levels of organization.

Levels of Ecological Organization

Lesson 4.1 Studying Ecology

Biotic and Abiotic Factors

Biotic factors: Parts of an
ecosystem that are living or
used to be living
Abiotic factors: Parts of an
ecosystem that have never
been living
Did You Know? Decaying organisms
are biotic factors as long as their
structure remains cellular.

Lesson 4.2 Describing Populations

From 1900 to 2000, the white-tailed deer

population of New York state grew from
about 20,000 to more than 1 million.
Densities of more than 100 deer per sq
mi occur in some metropolitan areas.

Lesson 4.2 Describing Populations

Population Size

The number of individuals in a population at a given time

Sudden and dramatic decreases in population size can

indicate an unhealthy population headed toward
extinction.

Ecologists often use sampling

techniques to estimate
population size.
Did You Know? The passenger pigeon
was once North Americas most abundant
bird. Hunting drove them to extinction in
less than 100 years.
Counting Laysan Albatross Nests

Lesson 4.2 Describing Populations

Population Density
Measure of how crowded a population is
Larger organisms
generally have lower
population densities.
Low population density:
More space, resources;
finding mates can be difficult
High population density:
Finding mates is easier; tends to be more
competition; more infectious disease; more
vulnerability to predators

Northern pintail ducks

Lesson 4.2 Describing Populations

Population Distribution
How organisms are arranged within an area:
Random distribution:
Organisms arranged in
no particular pattern
Uniform distribution:
Organisms evenly spaced
Clumped distribution:
Organisms grouped near resources;
most common distribution in nature.

Lesson 4.2 Describing Populations

Age Structure
Relative number of organisms of each age group
within population
Can be used to predict future population growth of a
population

Lesson 4.2 Describing Populations

Sex Ratios
Proportion of males to females
Age structure diagrams give information about sex ratios.
For a monogamous species, the ideal sex ratio is 50:50.

Lesson 4.3 Population Growth

From 1800 to today, the human

population has grown from about
1 billion to more than 6.8 billionan
exponential rate of increase.

Lesson 4.3 Population Growth

Calculating Population Growth

A populations relative birth and death rates (mortality and
natality) affect how it grows.
Determined by the following equation:
(birthrate + immigration rate) (death rate + emigration rate)
(13) - (16)= -3/1000
Growing populations have a positive growth rate.
Shrinking (declining) populations have a negative growth
rate.

Usually expressed in terms of individuals per

1000
Did You Know?
Immigration contributes
more than 1 million people
to the U.S. population
per year.

Lesson 4.3 Population Growth

Birth and Death Rates

Survivorship curves show
how the likelihood of death
varies with age.
Type I: Most young survive,
mortality rates are high in
old age.
Type II: Equal mortality
rates at all ages.
Type III: Many offspring are
produced with few surviving
to adulthood. Death is less
likely at an older age.

Lesson 4.3 Population Growth

Immigration and Emigration

In addition to births and deaths, population growth is
affected by immigration and emigrationindividuals
moving into and out of a population.

Migration, seasonal movement into and out of an area,

can temporarily affect
population size.

Lesson 4.3 Population Growth

Exponential Growth
Population increases by
a fixed percentage
every year.
Normally occurs only
when small populations
are introduced to an
area with ideal
environmental conditions
Rarely lasts long

Lesson 4.3 Population Growth

Logistic Growth and Limiting

Factors
The growth curve shows an increase at first, but stabilizes to
the carrying capacity due to limiting factors.

Logistic Growth and Limiting

Factors
Limiting factors:
Environmental characteristics slow population growth
and determine carrying capacity.
Density-dependent:
Influence changes with
population density.

Ex: Food, Disease, predators

Density-independent:
Influence does not change with population density.

Ex: Climate change, drought, flood

Lesson 4.3 Population Growth

Biotic Potential
An organisms maximum ability
to produce offspring in ideal
conditions

Many factors influence biotic

potential, including gestation
time and generation time.
Organisms with high biotic
potential can recover more
quickly from population declines
than organisms with low biotic
potential.

Lesson 5.3 Ecological Communities

The sun provides the energy for

almost all of the ecological
communities and species
interactions on Earth.

Lesson 5.3 Ecological Communities

Primary Producers (Autotrophs)

Capture energy from the sun or
from chemicals and store it in
the bonds of sugars, making it
available to the rest of the
community
Energy from the sun is captured
by plants, algae, or bacteria
through photosynthesis.
Energy from chemicals is
captured by some bacteria
through chemosynthesis.

Did You Know? Deep-sea vents, far from sunlight,

support entire communities of fish, clams, and
other sea animals, which depend on energy
converted through chemosynthesis.

Lesson 5.3 Ecological Communities

Consumers (Heterotrophs)
Rely on other organisms for
energy and nutrients
Herbivores: plant-eaters
Carnivores: meat-eaters
Omnivores: combination-eaters
Detritivores and decomposers:
recycle nutrients within the
ecosystem by breaking down
nonliving organic matter

Use oxygen to break bonds in

sugar and release its energy
through cellular respiration
(primary producers do this, too)

California Condor

Did You Know? Scavengers, such as

vultures and condors, are just large
detritivores.

Lesson 5.3 Ecological Communities

Energy in Communities
An organisms rank in a
feeding hierarchy is its
trophic level.
Primary producers
always occupy the first
trophic level of any
community.
In general, only about
10% of the energy
available at any trophic
level is passed to the
next; most of the rest is
lost to the environment
as heat.

Pyramid of Energy

Lesson 5.3 Ecological Communities

Numbers and Biomass in

Communities
A trophic levels
biomass is the mass
of living tissue it
contains.
In general, there are
more organisms and
greater biomass at
lower trophic levels
than at higher ones.

Lesson 5.3 Ecological Communities

Food Chains and Webs

Food web: Shows the
overlapping and
interconnected food chains
present in a community

Food chain: Linear

series of feeding
relationships

Lesson 5.3 Ecological Communities

Keystone Species
Species that have strong
and/or wide-reaching
effects on a community

Removal of a keystone
species can significantly
alter the structure of a
community.

Lesson 5.4 Community Stability

Invasive Species
Nonnative organisms that spread widely in
a community
A lack of limiting factors such as predators,
parasites, or competitors enables their
population to grow unchecked.
Not all invasive species are harmful.

Did You Know? Although the European honeybee is

invasive to North America, it is beneficial because it
pollinates our agricultural crops.

Lesson 5.2 Species Interactions

The zebra mussel has completely

displaced 20 native mussel species in
Lake St. Clair.

Lesson 5.2 Species Interactions

The Niche

Describes an organisms use of resources and functional

role in a community

Affected by an organisms toleranceits ability to survive

and reproduce under changing environmental conditions

Often restricted by competition

Lesson 4.1 Studying Ecology

Habitat
The specific environment in which an organism lives
Habitats provide an organism with resourcesanything an
organism needs to survive and reproduce, including food,
shelter, and mates.

Lesson 5.2 Species Interactions

Competition
Organisms compete when
they seek the same limited
resource.
In rare cases, one species
can entirely exclude another
from using resources.
To reduce competition,
species often partition
resources, which can lead to
character displacement.

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Resource Partitioning

Lesson 5.2 Species Interactions

Predation (+/)

The process by which a predator hunts,

kills, and consumes prey

Causes cycles in predatory and prey

population sizes

Defensive traits such as camouflage,

mimicry, and warning coloration have
evolved in response to predator-prey
interactions.

Some predator-prey relationships are

examples of coevolution, the process by
which two species evolve in response to
changes in each other.

Rough-Skinned Newt

Did You Know? A single roughskinned newt contains enough

poison to kill 100 people.
Unfortunately for the newt, its
predator, the common garter
snake, has coevolved
resistance to the toxin.

Lesson 5.2 Species Interactions

Parasitism and Herbivory (+/)

Parasitism: One
organism (the parasite)
relies on another (the
host) for nourishment or
for some other benefit

Herbivory: An animal
feeding on a plant
Hookworm (a parasite)

Did You Know? One study of Pacific estuaries

suggests that parasites play an important role in
keeping these ecosystems healthy by controlling
host populations.

Lesson 5.2 Species Interactions

Mutualism (+/+) and

Commensalism (+/0)

Lichen: a symbiotic relationship between a

fungus and a photosynthetic partner, such as
an alga

Mutualism: a
relationship in which two
or more species benefit

Commensalism: a
relationship in which one
species benefits while
the other is unaffected

Did You Know? Symbiosis describes a longlasting and physically close relationship
between species in which at least one
species benefits.

Lesson 5.4 Community Stability

A 2010 report on invasive
species suggests that they cost
the U.S. $120 billion a year in
environmental losses and
damages.

Invasive kudzu

Lesson 5.4 Community Stability

Ecological Disturbances
A community in equilibrium
is generally stable and
balanced, with most
populations at or around
carrying capacity.
Disturbances or changes in
the environment can throw
a community into
disequilibrium.
Severe disturbances can
cause permanent changes
to a community and initiate
a predictable series of
changes called succession.

Forest fire

Lesson 5.4 Community Stability

Primary Succession
Occurs when there are no traces of the original community
remaining, including vegetation and soil
Pioneer species, such as lichens, are the first to colonize.
The environment changes as new species move in, adding
nutrients and generating habitat.

Lesson 5.4 Community Stability

Secondary Succession

Occurs when a disturbance dramatically alters a

community but does not completely destroy it
Common after disturbances such as fire, logging, or
farming
Occurs significantly faster than primary succession

Lesson 5.4 Community Stability

Succession in Water
Primary aquatic succession occurs when an area fills
with water for the first time.
Disturbances such as floods or excess nutrient runoff
can lead to secondary aquatic succession.

Lesson 5.4 Community Stability

Climax Communities
Ecologists once thought
succession leads to stable
climax communities.
Today, ecologists see
communities as temporary,
ever-changing associations
of species.
Communities are influenced
by many factors and
constant disturbances.

Beech-maple forest, a classic climax community

Lesson 5.1 Evolution

Scientists have identified
and described
over 1.5 million species.
Millions more
have yet to be discovered.

Lesson 5.1 Evolution

Evolution and Natural Selection

Gene: A sequence of
DNA that codes for a
particular trait
Gene pool: All the genes
present in a population
Biological evolution:
The change in a
populations gene pool
over time

Lesson 5.1 Evolution

Mechanisms of Biological
Evolution: Mutation and Migration

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Mutation
Accidental change in DNA
that can give rise to
variation among individuals

Migration (gene flow)

Movement of individuals into
(immigration) or out of (emigration)
a population

Lesson 5.1 Evolution

Mechanisms of Biological
Evolution: Genetic Drift and
Natural Selection

Genetic Drift
Evolution that occurs by chance

Natural Selection
Process by which traits useful for
survival and reproduction are passed on
more frequently than those that are not

Lesson 5.1 Evolution

Conditions of Natural Selection

(1) Organisms
produce more
offspring than can
survive.

(2) Individuals vary in

characteristics, some
of which are heritable.

(3) Individuals vary in

fitness, or reproductive
success.

Did You Know? Darwin privately

researched natural selection for two
decades before publishing On the Origin of
Species.

Lesson 5.1 Evolution

Artificial Selection
Selection under human direction
Throughout history, humans have chosen and bred
animals and plants with beneficial traits.

Lesson 5.1 Evolution

Speciation

Process by which
new species are
generated

Can occur in a
number of different
ways; the most
important way is
called allopatric
speciation

Has resulted in every

form of life on Earth
today and in the past

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Allopatric Speciation

Lesson 5.1 Evolution

Extinction
The disappearance of
species from Earth

Trilobites
Marine arthropods that went extinct at the
end of the Permian period.

Did You Know? During the Permo-Triassic

extinction 250 million years ago, 70% of all
land species and 90% of all marine species
went extinct.

Generally occurs gradually,

one species at a time,
when environmental
conditions change more
rapidly than the species
can adapt
There are five known mass
extinction events, each of
which wiped out a large
proportion of Earths
species.

Lesson 6.1 Defining Biomes

Fossil evidence suggests that the frozen continent of

Antarctica was once covered in temperate forest.

Lesson 6.1 Defining Biomes

Earths Major Biomes

Groups of terrestrial
ecosystems that
share biotic and
abiotic conditions

10 primary biomes:

tropical rain forest

dry forest savanna
desert
temperate rain forest
temperate forest
temperate grassland
chaparral
boreal forest
tundra

Did You Know? Taiga is another

name for boreal forest.

Lesson 6.1 Defining Biomes

Climate and Climatographs

Climate: Average conditions,
including temperature and
precipitation, over long periods
of time in a given area
Weather: Day-to-day conditions
in Earths atmosphere

Climatographs: Diagrams that

summarize an areas average monthly
temperature and precipitation
Each biome has a set of characteristic
organisms adapted to its particular
climate conditions.

Lesson 6.1 Defining Biomes

Biomes and Net Primary Production

Gross primary production: The rate at which primary
producers undergo photosynthesis
Net primary production: The amount of organic matter
(biomass) that remains after primary producers use some to
carry out cellular respiration
Ecosystems vary in their net primary productivity, the rate
at which primary producers convert energy to biomass.

Warm, wet biomes generally have higher net primary

productivity than cold, dry biomes.

Lesson 6.2 Biomes

Tundra, found at very high latitudes,

is nearly as dry as a desert.

Lesson 6.2 Biomes

Savanna
Receives less precipitation than tropical
dry forests, but more than deserts; usually
has a distinct rainy season
Grasses interspersed with groups of trees
Tree growth limited by frequent fires and
strong winds
Plants are adapted to dry conditions; tend
to be deciduous with deep roots, thick
bark, and waxy coatings on leaves.
Many animals migrate to find water, or
burrow when water is scarce.

Lesson 6.2 Biomes

Desert
Receives less than 25 cm (9.8 in.)
of precipitation per year
Temperatures vary widely from
day to night.
Plants tend to have thick, leathery
leaves, store water in their tissues,
and have shallow roots.
Animals get most of their water
from the food they eat, and they
tend to be nocturnal. Mammals
have exaggerated appendages to
help regulate body temperature.

Did You Know? Cactus spines are

modified leaves that protect the plant
from thirsty animals. Photosynthesis
occurs within the green stems and
trunks.

Lesson 6.2 Biomes

Temperate Forest
Precipitation evenly spread
throughout the year
Varied temperatures (hot
summers, cold winters)
Plants tend to be broad-leafed and
deciduous.
Soil is enriched with nutrients from
annual leaf drop.
Animals may migrate, hibernate,
or store food to survive cold
conditions.

Lesson 2.2 Biomes

Temperate Grassland (Prairie)

Moderate seasonal precipitation and fairly
extreme seasonal temperatures; droughts and
fires common
Not enough precipitation to support large trees;
grasses, which grow from their base, thrive
despite droughts, fires, animals grazing
Animals are adapted to deal with lack of cover.
Soil tends to be rich in nutrients; most of worlds
grasslands have been converted to farmland.

Lesson 6.2 Biomes

Chaparral
Highly seasonal conditions with mild,
wet winters and warm, dry summers

Did You Know? Some

chaparral plants contain
oily compounds that
facilitate the spread of fire.

Prolonged hot, dry periods; droughts and fires common

Plants are drought-resistant; many have thick, waxy
leaves or leaves with hairs that trap moisture;
succulents are common.
Plants may have thick bark and
deep roots to resist fire; some plants
require fire to germinate.
Many animals burrow or are nocturnal
to avoid heat.

Lesson 6.3 Aquatic Ecosystems

75% of Earths surface is

covered by water.

Lesson 6.3 Aquatic Ecosystems

Describing Aquatic Ecosystems

Salinity: the amount of dissolved
salt present in water. Ecosystems
are classified as salt water, fresh
water, or brackish depending on
salinity.
Photosynthesis tends to be limited
by light availability, which is a
function of depth and water clarity.
Aquatic ecosystems are either
flowing or standing.
Aquatic ecosystem zones: photic,
aphotic, benthic

Lesson 6.3 Aquatic Ecosystems

Freshwater Ecosystems: Ponds,

Lakes, Inland Seas
Salinity is less than 0.5 ppt (parts per thousand)
Ponds and lakes are
similar, except in size,
but inland seas contain
organisms adapted for
open water.
Ponds and lakes are
divided horizontally
into zones: littoral
and limnetic

Lesson 6.3 Aquatic Ecosystems

Freshwater Ecosystems: Wetlands

Areas of land flooded with water at least part of the year
Include freshwater marshes, swamps, bogs, and fens

Wetlands prevent flooding, recharge aquifers, filter pollutants,

and provide habitats.

Lesson 6.2 Biomes

Tropical Rain Forest

Year-round warm temperatures
and at least 2 m (6.6 ft)
precipitation a year
Soil generally nutrient-poor
Forest canopy, emergent layer,
and understory support enormous
variety of plants.
Plants tend to have large, flat
leaves and shallow roots.

Supports more animal species

than any other biome; animals
tend to be highly specialized.

Did You Know? Some tropical plants

(epiphytes) grow high on other plants to
access sunlight and do not touch the soil.

Lesson 6.2 Biomes

Tropical Dry Forest

Warm year-round, but rainfall
highly seasonal
Most trees are deciduousthey
lose their leaves and cease
photosynthesis part of the year.
Plants and animals exhibit
adaptations (e.g. waxy leaf
coating, deep roots, estivation,
migration) that enable them to
survive the dry season.

Tiger (Panthera tigris)

Lesson 6.2 Biomes

Temperate Rain Forest

Year-round moderate temperatures and heavy rainfall
Largest extent found in Pacific Northwest of United States
Characterized by tall evergreen trees, such as cedars and
hemlocks, that dont lose leaves annually; many are conifers
(produce seed-bearing cones)
Forest floor is shaded,
damp, covered in moss.
Animals that require
moisture, such as
amphibians, thrive here.
Olympic Peninsula, Hoh River rain forest

Lesson 6.2 Biomes

Boreal Forest (Taiga)

Long, cold winters; short,
cool summers
Nutrient-poor, slightly
acidic soils
Low species diversity
Coniferous trees with
waxy needles and conical
shape, adapted to harsh, snowy conditions are common.
Animals feed, breed, and care for young mostly during
short warm season; year-round residents tend to have thick
insulation and small extremities that maintain heat.

Lesson 6.2 Biomes

Tundra
Extremely cold, dark winters; relatively sunny and cool
summers
Found at very high latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere

Harsh winds, nutrient-poor soil, and freezing temperatures

limit plant growth; no tall trees; mosses and lichens common
Characterized by permafrost (underground soil that is frozen
year-round)
Birds and caribou migrate to the
tundra during the mild summer to
feed on insects and lichens; only a
few species live here year-round.

Lesson 6.2 Biomes

Polar Ice and Mountains

Not classified as biomes
No land under polar ice in
Northern Hemisphere; ice sits
atop Antarctica in Southern
Hemisphere
Very few plants; most life
is in surrounding ocean
Mountain communities
change with elevation,
similar to how biome
communities change
with latitude.

Lesson 6.3 Aquatic Ecosystems

Freshwater Ecosystems: Rivers

and Streams
Bodies of surface water that flow
downhill, eventually reaching an
ocean or inland sea
Watershed: The area of land
drained by a river and its tributaries
Characteristics, such as dissolved
oxygen, temperature, water speed,
organisms, and others, change
from source to mouth.

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Lesson 6.3 Aquatic Ecosystems

Estuaries
Occur where a river flows into the
ocean or an inland sea
Coastal estuaries are brackish
ecosystems; organisms must tolerate
wide salinity and temperature ranges.
Coastal estuaries are home to salt
marshes and mangrove forests.
Like wetlands, estuaries help prevent
flooding and soil erosion as well as
provide habitats.

Everglades, Florida, wetlands

Did You Know? Salt marshes and mangrove forests are

two of the most productive ecosystems on Earth.

Lesson 6.3 Aquatic Ecosystems

Oceans
Currents are driven by water temperature and density
differences, wind, and gravity.
Surface winds and heating generate vertical currents that
transport nutrients and oxygen.
Horizontal ocean zones:
intertidal, neritic, open
ocean
Vertical ocean zones:
photic, aphotic, benthic
Did You Know? If the water in the
oceans evaporated, a 60 m (200 ft) deep
layer of salt would be left behind.

Lesson 6.3 Aquatic Ecosystems

Ocean Ecosystems
Intertidal: Highly diverse; extreme range of temperature,
moisture, and salinity
Neritic: Productive kelp forests and coral reefs provide
habitats and help protect shorelines from erosion.

Open ocean: Low

productivity due to low
light penetration;
phytoplankton base of
food chain; deep sea
organisms and
hydrothermal vent
communities
Did You Know? Over 90% of ocean water
on Earth is in the open ocean zone.

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