a...
It"
l
1;Il
..
2. ...
~r
., 2:
n
i:
.
I..
'Pf;
m '.....
t t'..
[
!i~f
2-
:'
(f.....
...
'
It
'"
hJ:
",.
...::J:.
~
flI
. "
"
~.l ~~
Q.
~,
.l ~
~
It ~.
11>"
!M>l
r..: ~.I.
i.
.,
....
tIl~ I
>T'
i. '
~..
g~.
1;1
'~.rJ'l
.
-.
~
-
llNIT3:
Tun:riDg
UNIT 4:
Drilling
~bines::
ClLassificaliDIl;,consrructronru
fea:t::ure~drilUng
oiperaHon.~types of drill &. drill bit nomenclature . denl nUlterial.s..
.............................
-
PART-B
"
.& related
UNITS:
:MiUiDgmachines:: Classification.
UNIT 7:
I:"aping and
of ope:mtion.,
appJications.
UNITS:
Non-traditional
IlDadlining
pruces.Ses:
Prii:nci.pie~
equ:ipH1eut"
o;pera:UO'n and .LBil""[~plasnn
ace :IJi1acf\ining,. ,E"1ectm c!beJl1!1ical m;3cIDL1Fllng.
ulllnisonic :rn.:.tdhimD& abrnsive let :nnacbinin.g"",
wMerjelt
IH3!chi:Tliii'ng:.
..
need..
2~
3.
L
2..
80
WT.ol"ksbop'Jedluo'Jogy by
.& PubHshe.lrsPvt.. LJd. 2004
Hazara Cboudn.ry.
'1)
IIMI AU IMAJ
MODEL QUESTION
PAPER'
Time: 3 Hrs.]
[Max. Marks: 100
Note: Answer any five :fi.I1IQuestions; oItoosingat least 2 Questionsfren each part. .
PART A
Explain the following with a neat .tch
i) Side reHefangle
ii) Rake angle
iii) End&side cutting edge angle iv) Clearance angle
b) 'Ih an eXperiment on an orthogonal cutting a chip length 95 mm was obtained from an uncut chip
length of 225 mm while cutting with a tool of 20~'C
angle using a depth of cut of 0.5 mm.
Detennine the shear plane angle. friction angle and cfiip'thickness, if the horizontal and vertical
.,~com~Qf.Cutting
force are 1200 Nand 360 N respeCtively.
'.~
"~"""-.:'~'
-
..... ;~
--~ 1 - ;"'a}
(8)
ra.~!t
2
-t-
--
~rWhat are::lfi~fmCliil=t1i~acteristics
i) Carbon
:.ii) Chromium
iii) Tungsten
.. c) ....ExpiainJhethree~zones of heat generation in metal cutting
3
.---:,;_- ...
;(6)-
..... -.-.:-:~ ..
-,
-.
-'-':~..!'-::'~'.
(6)
'-'.'-'.'~":';
(6)
(SF
a)
b)
c)
(6)
(8)
(6)
a)
b)
(6)
(8)
c)
PARTS
5
a)
b)
c)
a)
b)
c)
15
21
23
17
27
18
29
37
39
41
43
16
19
31
47
(8)
20
33
49
What are natural and artificial abrasives? Why are laHer preferred over the former?
Write a note on dressing and truing of grinding Wheel.
Explain the factors to be considered while selecting a grinding wheel.
(4)
(6)
(06)
(8)
.-";
(6)
(8)
(6)
(10)
(10)
t~_7-
IV Sem B E Examination
a)
a)
b)
a)
b}
(8
(1~
(8;
(12
(12
(8)
(10
(10:
PARTB
5
a)
b)
e)
Differentiate between
i) Up and down milr!1lg: ii} Peripheral and face milling
iii) Simple and differential indexing'
Write a brief note on end milling cutters.
(9),
_
With neat sketch explainthe principle of operation of dividing head attachment used on
mIlling machin~.
(3)
(8)
a}
Differentiate between
b)
i)
Plunge cut and traverse grinding
ii)
In-feed and through feed grinding
Discuss the advantages and limitations of the centre less grinding operations.
a)
a)
With a neat sketch, explain the working principle of abrasive jet machining; State its
. advantages and limitations.
,
b)
Explain with a neat sketch ECM process. state Usindustrial applicationsand advantages
(12)
(08)
(20)
(10)
(10)
10MElAU/PMrrL45
Fourth Sem.ester B.I. Degree Examination" June 2012
Manufacturing Process -II
Time: 3 hrs,
a. Wilb neat sketches, explain clearly the di:iferem types of chips by enumerating the
c:oJ\didQns under \\'hidJ each 'Il3riety of chip will ~ IDnncd.
(., Mark5~
b. MUd sted bars of 50 mm di~ter are to be: turned over a Itnilb of 160 mm wtth a depth of
Cllt of 1.5 mm, teed of'O.2 mmlrev at 230 rpm by H5S toot If the tool life equation is glcn
by, VTJl..2rflJd{iU "'"SO. determine how many compol1ii?nBmay be turned befoffe regrinding of
the too I.
(07M.rk$~
C. Write an explanatory note on tlank wear.
(1M M",r'ks~
'1
"b.
c.
..
(rut'\\brk;~
pp
~MMaNl ..
(94 Marks)
C01Marks)
(09 1\>1slr'ks~
With a neat diagram. explain briefly the coostn;tion and vrrorking principle or upright
dritHng machine. State its relative merits and demerits.
O' Marks)
h. E~plain brieily with su'tab~ sketches the various operations to be perfumed 00 a drilling
a,
machine,
O. Marks)
PA.RT-B
a. With the aid of :Hlil~bJe sketches. explain dearly the C(lncepts of up miltiIflg and down
milling.
I
With a neat s,ketch. explain briefly the w0r.king of'a universal dividing head.
c. Differentiate between simple indexing 00 compound inde;in~.
h.
3,10
D.
the J01l$.trttctiLm
.
and ,,'otting
principle
(08 ~tarlB)
({III IMa"s)
(lHM .... ~)
of :. surface
(" ~b"',)
a.
(ot,Marb)
(It Martis)
b. Explain briefl;,( the principle of EDM. with It neat sketch. Li5t the variQt.Js factors afkcling
the MRR in EDM pr'l.~ss and explain any {me of them.
nt Marks)
IIIIIIIIIII
USN
06ME45
Max. Marks:l00
How is 'TOOL LIFE' defined? On what factors does the tool life depend?
(06 Marks)
What is TAYLOR's Tool life equation? CaJculatethe cutting speed for a tool to have a tool
life of 160 min. The same too) had a life of 9 minutes when cutting at 250 mlmin.
Take n =0.22 in the Taylors tool life equation.
(08 Marks)
c. Why can relief or clearance aJ?gIesnever be zero or negative? ~
is the effect of cutting
speed, feed rate and depth of cut on the force on cutting tool?
.. ""'"
(06 Marks)
a.
a.
b.
DijferentiatebetweenCAPSTAN
and
How shapers are classified? Explain b .
neat sketch.......
c. State the main differences
II _
..
.
b.
<,
5 a. Expl~fly
(Jl.Marks)
TIlES~
ex Return Mechanism"
(86 Marks)
~.,
DRILL by showing
various
(06 Marks)
(04 Marks)
~
~~
PART-B
~lates areavaileble:
Plate No. I
15
c.
(;
16
17
18
19
Plate No. 2
21
23
27
29
31
Plate No. 3
37
39
41
43
47
Find the simple mdexing arrangement.
List and explain briefly the various attachments used in milling machine.
20
33
49
(06 Marks)
(05 Marks)
10f2
USN
I I I I I \1 n I I I
Fourth Semester D.E. Degree Ex.amiDation, May/June ,2010
Manufacturing Processes - n
Time: 3hrs.
Max. Marks:~OO
Note: Answer any FIVE fuN qJU!sdons. seJeding
at least TWO questions from eachpart.
PART-A
1
a. With a neat sketch, explain the various parameters which make up the tool sigJ13tureof a
single point cutting tool.
(08Marks)
b. Derive an expression for the shear angle in orthogonal cutting, in terms of rake angle and
chip thickness ratio.
(08 Marks)
c. Explain the functions of cutting fluids.
(04 Marks)
cOmPare
4" .~
..
a. Differentiate betw
i)
Up - milli ".~ down milling
ii)
Simple'
and compound indexing.
(08 Marks)
b. 69 teeth of 4~p hear are to becut around the periphery of a cylindrical blank, Recommend
a suitab
ing mechanism.
(06 Marks)
c. With~
ketch, explain the woncing of an universal dividing head.
(06 Marks)
a. ~~
centre1ess grinding process with a neat sketch. Also discuss the advantages and
Iimitations of the same.
.
(08Maills)
b. Write a note on : i) Dressing.and truing of grinding whee1s ; Ii) Wheel balancing. (08Marks)
c. With an example, explain the specifications of a grinding wheel.
(04 Marks)
a. Explain the following, with neat sketches : i) Honing ;. ii) Lapping.
(19 Marksj
b. List the, factors which affect the Japping'process. Discuss the influence of these;paramet~'
on lapping,
(10 Marks)
a. Explain the principle of Laser Beam Machining [LBM}, with a neat sketch.
(08Marks)
b." With a schematic diagram, explain the ultrasonic machining process [USM].
(08Marks)
c. Discuss the applications and limitations of non - conventional machining processes ov
conventional machining processes.
(04 Marks) I
s
o
;z
'1
Theory of Metal Cutting
Introduction:
Metal cutting or "Machining" is the process of producing a
workpiece by removing unwanted material from a block of metal, in the form of
chips. This process is most important since almost all the products get their final
shape and size by meta] removal, either directly or indirectly. The major drawback
of the process is loss of material in the form of chips. Inspite of these drawbaks,
the machining process has the following characteristics:
1. They improve the dimensional accuracy and tolerances of the components
produced by other processes.
2.. Internal and external surface features which are difficult or notpossible to
by other processes, can be produced by machining processes.
3. Specified surface characteristics or texture can be achieved on a part or
whole of the component. .
4. It may be economical to produce a component by machinieg process.
In this chapter, we shan have a fundamental understanding of the basic
meta) cutting process.
..be produced
5. The tool should advance info the workpiece by a small amount per every
revolution of the tool or workpiece. This is called.the feed,
..
.,
is
Shank.
MAJOR CUTTlNG---.
EDGE
.. . .......
.Flank, The surface or surfaces below adjacent to thercutting edge is called flank
of the too 1.
__.
.. .
face. The surface on which the chip slides is-called the face of the tool"
.Heel. It is the intersection of the flank and the base of the tool.
Nose. It is the point where the side cutting edge and base of the tool, ",eet5.(;o;~.
Cutting edge. It is the edge on the face of the tool wl>ich removes the material
from the workpiece. The total cutting edge consists of the side cutting edge (major
cutting edge). end cutting edge (minor cutting edge and the nose).
A single point cutting tool may be either right Or left hand cut tool depending on
..the direction of feed. In a right cut tool, the side cutting edge is on the side of the
thumb when the right hand is placed on the tQolwith the palm downward and the
.fingers pointed towards the tool nose (Fig 1.2 (b) Such. a tool will cut when fed
.from right to left as in a lathe in which the tool moves from tailstock to headstock.
A left-cut tool is one which the side cutting edge is on the thumb side when the
left hand is applied (Fig 1.2(a Such a tool will cut when fed from left to right.
PRI ...... RY
CUTTING
eOGE
--FEED
--FEED
FACE
SHANK
NOSE
RAD!:.JS
---....:..
SIDE CUTTING
EDGE M!GlE
Si DE RAKE
.\.l--r--~
t-.
SHANK
SlOE .
Cl"ARANCE
AN('lE
f-t
),
__I.
END
RELIEF
_ANGLE
Side Cutting Edge Angle (SCEA). Side cutting edge angle Cs also known as
lead angle, is the angle between the side cutting edge and the side of the tool
shank The complimentary angle of SCEA is calied the "Approach angle
.
,
~
.
End Cutting- Edge ~;\ngle(ECEA). This is the angle between the end cutting
edge and a line !l0!11laI to the tool shank Cc
Side Relief Angle (SRA). It is the angle between the portion of the end flank
immediately below the end cutting edge and line perpendicular to the tool, and
measured at right angle to the end flank as-
End Relief Angle (ERA). It is the angle between the portion of the end flank
immediately below the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the
tool, and measured at right angle to the end flank ae
Back-Rake AngJe (BRA), abo it is the angle between the face of the tool and a
line parallel to the base of the tool and measured in a plane (perpendicular)
through the side cutting edge. This angle is positive if the side cutting edge slopes
downwards from thepoint towards the shank and is negative if the slope of the
side cutting edge is reverse. So this angle gives the slope of the face of the tool .
..........from the nose towards-the shank .
.
Side-Rake Angle (SR), as It is the angle between the tool face and a line
parallel to the base of the tool and measured in a plane perpendicular to the base
and the side cutting edge. This angle gives the slope of the face of the tool from
the cutting edge. The side rake is negative if the slopeis towards the cutting edge
and is positive if the slope is away from the cutting edge.
TOOL SIGNATURE
The term tool signature or tool designation is used to denote a standardized
system of specifying the principal tool angles of a single point cutting tool. Some
common system used fer tool designation or tool nomenclature arethe foll(J.~ing:.
1. American (or ASA) System.
__
2. British system:
'3. Continental system.
4. International system.
REFERENCE PLANES
The following two systems of reference planes are used to deride the geometry
and locaTe the different parameters of a single point cutting tool:
I
to
to.
TRANSVERSE
PLANE
LONGITUDINAL
PLANE
Fig.
1"4- .Tool
. .
.'
WORK
CUTTING
PLANE
PIECE
MA.CHINED
SURFACE
ORTHOGONAL
PL,o..
i~c
PLANE
Fig.
J.-5.Tool
and Workpiece
Planes.
2. The orthogonal
assumed that the cutting tool is' operating against the workpiece_ As
usual. there are three main reference planes. One of these, the horizontal
plane. contains the base of the cutting tool and is known as the Base
Plane. The second plane, which is perpendicular to the base plane,
contains the principal cutting edge (c.) and is called the Cutting plane.
The third plane, which is perpendicular to both the above planes, is
known as Orthogonal plane. This set of reference planes is known as
orthogonal system of reference planes and is shown in (Fig 1.5).
y'
I,_}_
;:./
ccx
SECTrON
ALONG x-x
'
.A*\c
I
-,
.,.
~ORKprEC~
-A----_.
I
~~
--1'-
----_.
x-._.
-.
-~-'-:-::.;.-.:::---r-- - x '
/3y .
1"
Uy= Toprake/Backrake
ax -
angle
= 8~
10
= 6~
= 65)
=
.......
=6~
= 10
=2mm
p= Wedge
angle
D= Cutting angle (= r+ ~)
(1}= Side fake angle
Y I= End rake angle
~1= Side wedge angle
..
MACHINED
SURFACE
/
SECTiON
BASIC
PlANE------
II
ORTHOGON
~~
PLANE
..
Tool Designation
In
in ORS System
ORS system, only the mairi parameters of single point cutting tool: are ._
TOOL:
..-SHEAR
PLANE
WORK
PIECE
<
The workpiece provides the parent metal, from which the unwanted metal is
removed by the cutting action of the tool to obtain the predetermmed shape and
size of the component. The chemical composition and the physical properties
of the metal of the workpiece have a significant effect on the machining
operation. Similarly, the tool material and its geometry are equally significant
for successful machining. The type and geometry of the chip formed are
greatly effected by,the metal of the work piece, geometry of cutting tool and
method of cutting, etc.Chemical composition, and the rate of flow of the
cutting fluid also provide considerable influence over the machining operation.
..
WORK
prECE
r---
... .TOOI:.
DE PTH 0 F
CUT
--,
----.-.
CUTTING --....--~
EDGE
DIRECTION
t.IV If") ~\
"
Fig
i. 9.Orthogonal cutting
""""';0'
. Oblique Cutting: In this type of cutting, the cutting edge is placed at an angle to
the normal to the direction of tool travel in order to allow a free flow of chips as
the tool is fed into the wrokpiece. Practically all the machining operations in
moden manufacturing involve oblique cuttin~.
I
WORK PIECE-
..
-..&_"
root
1.\ (,
I
\_b)
-,
MalIaN OF
WC?RK
If) f~un;U
an
3. The chip flows on the tool face making an angle with the normal to the
cutting edge, the angle being measured in plane of the tool face.
4. Three components of the cutting force acts at the cutting edge and they are
tool adv~,
Chip --
...
r----
Tool
Lip (wedge)
angle
Cutting
ar.gle
B
Continuous "chip: Such chips are- in the form- of long ribbons of uniform
thickness as shown In (Figl.12). Usually the following conditions"favour their
formation
a.
h.
c.
d.
e.
It gives high':class sl.ii-fa~efini~h and the tool life is good. Tool failure may be
partly due to rounding of.cutting and, partly due to abrasion of tool face.
Continuous chip with built up edge: Such chips are long but not smooth as
shown in (Fig 1.13) and gene-ally considerably thicker than the feed of the tool
and their characteristic conditions are:
BurLT UP
ON \'/ORK
(c) t.:i.IILT-UP
CHIP
ne
a. Ductile workpiece
h.
c.
d.
e.
f.
material
Coarse feed
Low rake angle
Lower cutting speed
Ineffective use of cutting fluid.
High friction at tool face.
fact the discontinuous chips are short and brittle, and wh~ the pitch of the
gment is
chips are easily
sposed
off.small a good finish is produced on workpiece. The~e
!
Ioolfail.ure
._
J.. properly _designed and ground cutting tool is expected _toperform the
Fig.
i.i. Tool
. . ...
.~
Ii
'.,L,'. Mechanical
such failure are too high cutting pressure, mechanical impact, excessive wear, too
high vibrations and chatter, weak tip and cutting edge, etc. A typical form of
!l mechanical chipping is shown in
:1 (Fig. I.16 ). This type of failure is more pronounced in carbide tipped and diamond
tools due to the high brittleness of the tool material.
1
,j
.......
CHIPPED
TIP
.....
~11'
..
Gradual wear. When a tool is in use for sometime it is found to have lost some
,w~~ght or mass, implying that it has lost some material from it~which is due to
tools:
"
.' C~~te~ water, The principle region where wear takes place in a cutting tool is its
/-,~1~;,~
small distance (say 'a') from its cutting edge (See Fig. 1.17). This type of
, ~ ;.~eperally takes place while machining ductile materials, like steel and steel
IOY~;"in.which continuous chip is produced. The resultant feature' of this type of
ear.~~ftheformation ofa crater or a depression at the tool.chip interface. This type of
~';~~J~e formation of crater on the tool face, is due to the pressure of the hot chip'
~_l<l,ing,
up .the, face, of the tool. The metal from the _tool face is supposed to be
ferred tothe sliding chip by means of the diffusion process.
,
--
\'1 \
CRATER
WEAR
1
WORK PIECE
f i~ f 11:
~ ri,,"';
,I")
th Q.
e...u.tt11J lQo~.
Q(3".l.nh
.
The shape of the crater formed corresponds the shape of the underside of the chip. The
principle dimensions of the formed crater are its breadth 'b' and depth 'd' as shown in
(Fig. 1.17) A continued ~owth of crater will result in the cutting edge of the tool
becoming weak and may finally lead to the tool failure. At very high speed, and the
consequent high temperatures (say lOOOu C),the H.S.S. tool will fail due thermal
softening of material, while the tools made from harder materials, like those containing
tungsten carbide, titanium carbide, cobalt etc., will not wear out so rapidly. Higher
feeds and lack of cutting fluids increase the rate of crater wear.
b. Flank wear: Another region where an appreciable amount of wear occurs,is the
flank below the cutting edge. It occurs due to abrasion between the tool flank and the
workpiece arid excessive heat generated as a result of the same.
abrasive action is
aided by the hard microconstituents of the cut material and broken parts of built-upedge, if it is there. That is why this type of wear is more pronounced while machining
brittle material, because the cut Ichips of such materials provide a lot of abrasive
material readily.
'
The
The entire area subjected to flank wear is known as wear land. This type of wear
mainly occurs on the tool nose and front and side relief faces, as shown in
(Fig. 1.18) The magnitude of this Wear mainly depends upon the relative hardnesses of
the workpiece and tool materials at the time of cutting operation and also the extent of
strain hardening of the chip. When the tool is subjected to this type of wear, 'the
workpiece loses its dimensional accuracy, energy consumption -is increased and the
surface finish is poor .. The effect of flank wear is expressed in terms of the width (or
height) of wear land which is dependent on time. This height is a linear measure and is
symbolically denoted by VB, WL or HF millimeters. The total flank wear,
l -'
E
E
..-...
en
>
a:
~
w
f-l
3:
x
z
<:
_1
LL
~evelo~ent
. .'
._';..Consists of three main .components, as shown in the graph (Fig~1.19,) drawn
.between the wear land height (VB) and time (t). The first component (A),
. which exists for a small duration, represents the period during which initial
,;..weartakes place at a rapid rate. The second segment (B), which exists for a
;~J{;lf.very long duration represents the period during which the wear progresses
:~~{Duniformly.
The last segment (c) represents the region in which wear occurs at a
to{'\;?~ery
rapid rate and results in total failure of the tool. That is why this region is
;M.Jf.~~also
known as the period of destructive wear
.
::~t~"ilt
is suggested that the tool be reground before the flank wear enters 'the last
~~~:.s~gment
(c), for which some definite value of VB (say O.~mm) is specified as
~l:~tthelimiting value of flank wear such thatthe cutting tool must be reground
i~f1:~-j~efore
this value is attained by VB. Table 5.1 below provides the limiting
:E}(' values of flank wear for different tool and work material combinations under
"~iiY given cutting conditions. This can serve as a useful guide for the selection 'of .
{.:<?'
flank wear criterion.
.
-_-"....
.-
a..l\..~
Mechanism of wear
The wear mechanism of cutting tools is a very complex phenomenon. However, the
common mechanisms supposed to be responsible for causing wear are the following:
....
....L
the. underside-of thesliding chip, which are harder than the tool material, plough
into the relatively softer material of the tool face and remove metal particles by
mechanical action. The material of the tool face is softened due to the high
temperature. The hard particles present on the underside of the chip may be:
(a) Fragments of hard tool material.
(b) Broken pieces of built-up-edge, which are.strain hardened,
. (c) Extremely hard constituents, like carbides, oxides, scale, etc., present in the
work material.
2. Adhesion, By now, it should have been quite clear that due to the excessive pressure
a lot of friction occurs between the sliding surface of the chip and the tool face. This
.' . gives rise to an' extremely high localized temperature, causing metallic bond between the
.:. materials of thetool face and the chip. But, an important point to be noted here is that the
. surfaces of both the chip underside f!lld the tool face although appear to be smooth
apparentiy- are microscopically rough. Therefore, the contact between these surfaces is
not truly a} surface contact bilt a point contact, as shown in (Fig. 1.20). Due to the
excessiTJely high temperature at the chip-tool interface a metallic bond takes place
between the chip material and tool material at contact points, in the from of~potirelds as
shown in the diagram. When the chip slides, these small welds are broken. But this
separation is not along the line of contact. A small portion of the welded tool contact is
also carried away by the sliding chip. Thus, small particles from the tool face continue to '
be separated through this phenomenon and carried away by the chip by adhesion to its
underside. The amount of the materia} so transferred from the tool face to the chip will '
depend upon contact area and relative hardness of the chip W-J.d
the tool materials. ..
3. Diffusion. Solid state diffusion, which consists of transfer of atoms in a metal crystal
lattice, is an_othercause of wear. This transfer of atoms takes place at
.
ated temperatures from the area of high concentration to that of Jow concentration.
' ev favorable condition for diffusion is rovided b, the rise in localized tern erature OVer
'. ' .actual contact area between the chip underside and the tool face. In such a condition,
e metal atoms are transferred from the tool material to the chip material at the points of
e tact. This weakens the surface structure of the cutting tool and may ultimately lead to
.~ failure. The amount of diffusion depends upon:
POiNTS
~{J
I .
1",..
..... cOL
~fC\~'
~J
(a) Temperature at the contact area between the tool face and the chip
(b) The period of contact between the too] face and the chip.
(c) The bonding affinity between:he materials of the tool and the chip.
Chemical wear. This type of wear occurs when such a cutting fluid is used in the
process of metal cutting which is chemically atlive to the material of the 1001. This
clearly the result of the chemical reaction taking place between the cutting fluid'
.......
,.an
, :..........
themtool
material,
leading to a changej' the chemical composition of the
,'$Urface
aterial
of the tool.
d.,
1~;
IUfe:
.'
I~;can
,'" ..".....
;"..... .
be befined as the lime interval for which the tool works satisfuctorily
' een..twoSuccessive grindings (sh3IJlening).Thus; it
be basically conceived as
OOlil'lifeof the tool. As already discussed earlier, the tool is subjected to' wear
while ..11. i operating. Obviously, after Some time, when the tool wear is
".;consid~
the tool loses its ability to cut ~ffict~!I;r; and must be reground. If
It ",!II totaUy fail. The tool hfe
be effectIvely1as-tile basis to evaluate the
~,of
1001 'material, assess machinability of the workpiece material and
the'cuttingthe
conditions.
.
..
. iui~ly
can
can
. TIDN
,n
. the smaller the toollife ..Generally, t~e re~uction in tool life correspon_dingto anjcrease in
. rting speed is parabolic, as shown In (FIg. t.. 2. t _ ) Based on the pioneer work of F_W
. ~~Ylor,the relationship between cutting speed and too] life can be expressed as:
:l
~
Q
t
......
c
e
.a
E
E
>.~,
w
w
en
a.
:
<.:>
.z
....
..
t-
:::>
u
.
VTD= C
V == Cuttingspeed (fil.:ifi/mih)
T = )'001 life (minutes)
....
N = an exponent, whose value largely depends on the material of the too, called tool life
ind,?" Upto ~,certain extent, its also influenced by some other variables like tool material,
g_~
h
.~ ~.
q,rl2~
~\-\~
.11). ~
~ = A cons~t ,caiied machining constant: which is numerically Ihat would give a tool
ife of one mmute.
tI
)01
._
-.
LOG T ~
Fig. 1--22...Cutting speed-tool life. curves fer different tool materials.
'01 or all practical purposes the average values of exponent 'n' for common tool materials .
. be taken as:
.
.::'0.1 to O.I5 for high speed steel tools
.\\
\rrS-.
I
= 0.2-to
'or assessing tool life the tools are operated at differenf cutting speeds to failure
ind the results recorded. If the relationships between -different cutting speeds and
he corresponding tool lives are plotted, on a log-log graph, straight lines are
ibtained as shown -in (Fig .1 2.1.. ) which reveal that the tool life decreases with
he increase in cutting speed.
Feed and depth of cut
Feed and depth of cot: are the other important-cutting variables which also effect
the tool life appreciably. An increase in the feed rate and depth of cuthas a similar
effect, i.e., reduction in tool life, as is experienced by the tool when cutting speed
is increased. However, the effect is not so severe as 'produced in the latter case,
The different variables, cutting speed, tool. life, feed. rate .and depth. of cut, are
inter-related as given in the following imperical formula' -.V-:::.. ?- 5
Where,
=r
TO'J"j-.5-0'3~
t~-8\)
~
-~
t=
And,
For a given tool life the relationship among the other variables is also given by the
following imperical formula:
C
z:
1-5
.f_q
)
_ Where,
~tb
.t=
~v.eCh.
anical
The exponents 'a' I and 'bl of (t) and (t) will depend upon
properties of/the workpiece material. From the expression .
above it is
quite clear that if the tool life is considered as constant the cutting speed
(V) will decrease if the feed rate (t) and depth of cut (t) are increased.
Tool geometry
Many geometry parameters (tool angles) of a cutting tool influence its
performance and life. For example, the Rake angle has a mixed effect. If it
is increased in a positive direction the cutting force and amount of heat
generated are reduced. Obviously, this should increase the life of cutting
tool. But, if it is very large cutting-edge is weakened and also its capacity to
conduct heat is reduced. Thus, a considerable increase of the positive rake
results in reduction of mechanical strength of the tool and, hence, lowering
of tool life. Since the above two effects are opposite to each other, for an
effectively economical tool life it is necessary to strike a balance between
the two, for which the optimum value of rake angle needs to be used. This
value varies from-~
The minus sigJ;l.indicafes a negative rake,
i.e., a rakeiWYi"de a--s~nttiiii
ed~wartJs
from the tip. Tools
carrying negative rake provide a stronger cptting: edge and,hence,a
stronger too1. Cemented and ceramic tools aregenerally provided negative
rake. Similar contradictory effects are observed with variations in relief
angles or clearance angles. These angle are provided on the cutting tools to
prevent rubbing of tool flank against the machined work surface. They,
thus, help in lowering the amount of heat generated and, therefore,
increasing the tool life. But, a very large relief angle results in weakening of
tool and, hence, reduction of tool life..Again, therefore, a balance needs to
be struck and only an ~g_timum value should be used. These angles
normally vary from 5) to ~ but in special cases, such as in carbide tipped
tools, a higher value upto lOjl can be used to prevent rubbing of shank
Itfp.
The two cutting edge angles aiso known as end ~~tting edge angle,
effects the tool wear. Upto a certain optim~ value an increase in this angle
pepnits the use of higher speeds without an adverse effect on tool life. But,
an increase beyond that value win result in reduction of too] life. It
generally -varies from 50 to 80 the side cutting angle or the plane
approach angle has a complex effect on too life. If this angle is smaIIer,
higher speeds can be employed. A large end cutting edge angle increases
tool life.
.Some other geometrical parameters effecting the tool life are:
(i)
Inciinati9D angle. Tool life increases withthe increases
in this angle upto an optimum value.
(ii)
Nose.radius. While it increases abrasio~ it also helps in
improving surface finish and tool strength and, hence, the
tool life.
Tool material
The main characteristics
of a good cutting tool material its hot
.
. hardness, wear .
resistance, impact resistance, abrasion resistance, heat CQ!!~hlct1v1!y, :;tr~!!g,th p:tc.
what is important to tool life is the likely changes in these characteristics at high
temperature because the metal cutting process is always associated with generation
ef geooflNieft"of high amount of heat and, hence, high temperatures. We have
- already seen that cutting speed has the maximum effect on tool lift; followed by
feed rate and depth of cut. All-these factors contribute to the rise of temperature. That is why it is always said that an ideal tool material is the one which will
remove the largest volume of work material at all speeds, It is, however, not
possible to get a truly ideal tool material. We, therefore, can say that the tool
material which can withstand maximum cutting temperature without losing its
principle mechanical properties (specially hardness) and geometry will ensure
maximum tool life, and hence, will answer the most efficient cuttingof metal.
We, therefore conclude that the higher the hot hardness and toughness in the tool
... material the longer the tool life.
7.
Work. material
...
\
. .
The microstructure of the work matenal plays a significant role because It directly
effects the hardness of the material. For example, presence of free graphite and
ferrite in cast iron and steel imparts softness to them. Pearlitic structure is harder
than this and the martensitic .structure is the hardest. Similarly scale formation and
presence of oxide layer on the work surface serve as abrasives and, therefore, have
a detrimental effect on tool life. The increases in cutting temperature and power
consumption vary directly as the hardness of workpiece material. Consequently,
higher the hardness of the work material greater win be the \tool wear and,
therefore, shorter will be the too! life. Adverse effects on tobl life are also
experienced in machining of pure metals because of their tendency to stick to the
'tool face, specially at high temperature. This results in more friction and, hence,
high amount of wear on tool and, therefore, a shorter tool life.
I
I
Nature of cutting
I
Tool life is also effected by the nature of cutting, i.e., whether itis continuous or
intermittent. In the latter case, the tool is subjected to repeated impact loading and
may give way much earlier than expected until it is made substantially strong and
tough. In continuous cutting, a similar tool will have ~ relatively longer life.
I
0'~
<-<1 ~ ~
~~.
TOOL
..0
-,
-,
WORK PIECE
-.1
F'ta12~. B~o..,tb~
.
h~~
"lfoQ...t-e1..f e..u.:tn.
.C2.(~.
2. TooJ~hip interface. As the chip slides upw ds along the face of the tool
friction occurs between their surfaces, due to which heat is generated. A
part of this heat is carried by the chip, which further raises the temperature
of the chip, and the rest transferred to the tool and the coolant. This area is .
known as secondary deformation zone. It is reckoned that the amount of
heat generated due to. friction incr~~s with the-increase in cutting speed.
However, it
is not -appreciably. ~ effected with the increase in depth of cqt.
,
When 'the feed rate is increased the amount of frictional heat generated is
-.relatively low. But, in thatcase, the surface finish obtained is iriferior..
3. Teet-workpiece interlace. niat .portion of the flank which rubs against the
work surface is..another source of heat generation due to traction, This
is also shared by the tool, wrokpiece and the coolant used. it is more'
pronounced when the tool is not sufficiently sharp.
.
(Fig. 1. 2. It. ) shows the distribution of the heat generated during meta}
cutting, neglecting the heat flowing to the atmosphere. On an 'average, .
about 700/0 of the total heat is carried away by the chip; about 150/0.is
transferred to the tool and the remaining 15% to the workpiece. From the
diagram you will observe that with.
heat
1.------------ ('/.)OF
100
t.
--.
TOTAL
HEAT
Iii WOR.
,...... SO
~
80
~
z
-
Z 70.
U bO
4
::::
~ 50~
~ 40
4
J 0Z
ffi
W
20
I-
<l: 10
W
.:1:
10
20
30
40
50.
60
70
eo
90
Flg.1.:2b-.Distributio,f
.
.
..
t~
&
~:
~:
i
j,
~
~
~.
r
~'
r
".,r
cutting angle), the work done gets increased, leading to incre ed heat
. generation. But as the cutting angle increases, the material behind
the
I
: cutting point increases. This results in better heat conduction into the tool
.... -shank, thereby, lowering the temperature at its contact surfaces. Al negative
.: --".;i;;;:Z.u ; 'rake angle causes greater deformation than a positive one and lead~ to more
~.:'\l{i~~'.r~';:
'heat generation during metal cutting.
.
I
':t_.::~<-~:>.i:~
..,~,:~
'?:_"
The larger the plan approach angle, the higher the cutting temperature will
be and more the tool is heated by cutting. .
- The larger the nose
..~. force, and more heat
. . --increased nose radius
cutting edge and the
.,.
removal both into the toll shank and into the workpiece. Thisheat removal
intensity is more predominant,
leading to reduction in the cutting
temperature. So, the cutting temperature decreases with an increase in iiv::;~
Measurement of Temperature' in the cutting Zone:.The various techniques used for the measurement of.temperature in the cutting
zone (work-tool interface) are:.
1. Tool-work thermo-couple
2. Thermo-couples embedded in the tool and/or the workpiece.
3. Radiation pyrometers
4. Temperature sensitive paints.
5. Indirect calorimetric techniques, etc.
1. Tool-work thermo-couple: - This is the most common and simpler
technique for measuring temperature in the cutting zone.
Here, the e.m.f. generated between the tool-work interface (hot
junction) and their cold ends (cold junction) is taken as the measure
of average temperature in the cutting zone. The e.m.f. generated is
measured with a millivoltmeter. (Fig. 12.5 . ) shows schematically
2 'typical layout of tool-work thermocouple. Both the work 3~d the
tool should be insulated from the machine tool. There should be a
good contact between the two junctions and the measuring
instrument. For this, a copper disk is mounted at the free end of the
lathe spindle. The edge of the disk dips in a cup of mercury. The
circuit is completed with mercury and the tailend of the tool through
a millivoltmeter. The magnitude of e.m.f.generated will depend upon
the temperature difference between hot and cold junctions, and the
nature of tool and workpiece. The measured e.m.f is converted into .
temperature with the help of a calibration curve.
"-'131
Cu-disk
Spindle
Hg Contact
--------Tool
insultated
firm MachinE:! Toe
Milli-Voltmeter
.....
Milli
voltmeter
~.
Electric heater
Fig.
calibration
Tool
Temperature C
Workpiece
----~~~i~--------
t--ohe.n
~~
~c'{_
o-J
=\R.j,c:,1OC..'-X-)O\)
ezico
,\'1.)
~~\
~,
-\-\-.-e.
~O
~e_y~<C-L\
-TN'\J.
pQJa.c:::e..
~~
~+;O
~()'~
l<:)
~"\Q.{;Q~'"
Qx
h~~'f~\--Q
Jhl~
~-_.
t-o i~t-h
~ ~rroc.Lt-iQ\t
)'~
rT{~\'(:_y
(toe ~
be
tte...n
~U~1Q.~
CJS.'-\ ~~\
O~\).
9-5 +tut~zyr.le .
c0.~C.t;b~\
~<:'CEJ~"'-
~g',::~~
l"""fYY'~'
[ ~ 1 1.ie~~ lhe
-l-hexQ-)c)'(.Q
~CHU'-'
\-Q()'C~,
'3
;-t
3b h0JJ !Jr:> e.
~u~
QI..
~e
\J,'0'n.i~
~~
,'r::,tc -+he
\\Q.
bQ_ ~~ \_~'~
e.
I~
Chip
Cutting
tool
....;
f.!ovqment
of tool
Shear planq
Work piece
.-,.
TOOl
0(
= Tool
rakq anghz
~ = Shear angle
Shear zone
(C.)
Work piece
?I"
Fig.1.2~.
Shear
~ '?' -j-h\
_'?
In
i0,
..
plane, shear angle (~) and rake angle of the tool (a)
15Q,U1 0 .
~O<2J~~
O<th()<>'lc:>-\ ~~.,
=Q"~ 'o~
0.
~illPQ~
roo v "-",,,Q.hl
~'<E
"3- ~~
-\-\-it_"'lDOj
w>",~
.~:;~;~~:~::o~~
h~~b::::\~~~~'~
~.
l*.2) ~ ..
~Q.'f*h
.~\ P
fhe
'f"~O
~_j
-Ji->e
O'f~'('Q~
oJ.~f:>es--'
QJ..!'
~'e.~.~ Jp:>.
~)Qj)_~~e.~~
-t \ tb t2-
t'J.
~j 8J..\~
~'r~~~
lJ~~,
CD
CJv.n
f> 'LIS> ~
.
;;'
.g~8 pj~.
:;-.
t~~>
,~
~$
~,_
~()
\q,n..\)v,s:n"")
C>---\.
c__'\..\...\\,). ~
'Cs,'--'-t>l;:
t
it
.:
tl
Y ''.13
;; xy ~~ lg-o<)
:::1--
.t_,2-
-t2-
:= ~~\_~.-~
-t,\,
e)oj.
-::- ~
_9 - C__o\9,. ~
-\- ~ ~ f\
~ .
SlT)oZ. .
CD'~ 5'.
,
;,
.-.
.. -
( ...
}- -.-
. 0'('
1- ()
I
t
,;
t
f
G\:'~'
~:9..o(
c.a\ 5 ~
-::::
.L \- ~;
0
f)
o(_ -:::.. \ -
\-"D
~i()D\.
<Q ~
;ocz_.
"
".Chip
a.
Fig.
-30
b.!
J8
,.
;.-
.-
..l~,.,;~
..
"
.:
g~eI...tv...fI_~
I .- ": <::. tf(>~'cb:-Q.t-f~. \g.f' ..tM-'
.. 1
exe"
rC, ~
c."..,P1)..!,-\IVQ.
t~e
F'0 -
&,h<Wl
+..
0'0 ~
bet
\;Oe.
the ~h='-X
or.>
t<>o~
rc "'1 toot
Ie:r-e ~ 1t>o\.
o~
u.r1C.t\ ~,
- A1-
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..
i-!>
1=0,
,'I),.
~
\,Q'J \ . 'OtW, e. ~
&\,e.UJ ~~
~ I'~.\-t.n
e_cf~~
'Ii) 0'>..1
~<;> ~
~r:t~~'-f>~
. ,_-.;..
c>J.i.?-,,' QJ,.re:
01";> ~
e-t '"\WI ~e
e_~t '
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r -::1Iict1.,n~ +: ~o1"\Wl
'VI>~' Jo~; G..e..t\,1\fr
~sJ\. ~
q
..
~e,~'
1'"6'(.\')01)' ~
..
..
N
Tool
lb)
F'(j'!''61.
(g\) FDf~
lb) NQ.f~'0:>
n~Q.\
p'J.
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6~'-C{e.ro ~
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It
Merchant found that the above theory agreed weJIwith experimental results
obtained when cutting synthetic :plastics but agreed poorly with
experimental results obtained for steel machined with a sintered cadibe
~l.
'~
- It should be noted t~t in differentiating equation (22. ) with respect to t' it
was assumed that
OC and 1: should be independent of ~ . On
reconsidering these assumptions; merchant decided to include in a new
theory the relationship.
~
~S :: 'C5
t rsOS - ~
Which indicates that the shear strength of the material increases linearly
with increase in normal stress,OS ' on the shear plane (Fig ..J -32.
) at
zero normal stress13is equal to 1SoThisassumption agreed with the work of
Bridgman, where, in experiments on poJycrystalline metals, the shear
strength was shown to be dependent on the norma) stress on the plane of
shear.
Fig!-31Dcpenden-:e
IJ,
-@
.. 8)'~
g~~.
vs
Q'
2.1-
L$ ~ liS'
N.ow
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, OT
'Cg
z:
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...
2
Cutting tool material
Characteristics of cutting tool materials
, The material used for the manufacture .of cutting tools should possess the
following characteristics:
1. Ability to retain its hardness at elevated temperatures, caned hot hardness.
2. Ability to resist shock, called toughness.
3. High resistance to wear, to ensure longer tool life.
4. Low coefficient of friction, at the chip - tool interface, so that surface finish
is good and wear is minimum.
S ... Should be cheap.
6. Should be able to be fabricated and shape easily .
......7. If it is to be used in the form of brazed tips, its other physical properties like
tensile strength; thermal conductivity, coefficient of thermal expansion and
modulus of elasticity, etc., should be as close to ~he shank material as
possible to avoid cracking.
I
The following material are commonly used for manufacturing the cutting tools.
Selection of a particular material will depend on the type of service it is expected
to perform. The various cutting tool-materials can be grouped as follows:
t. High carbon steel,
2. High speed steel,
3. Cemented carbides,
..4. Stellite,
5. Cemented oxides or ceramics, and
6. Diamond .
7. Cermets.
8. Diamond.
9. Cubic Boron NitridOe (CBN)
IO.UeON.
11. Sialon.
12. Coronite.
Pain carbon steels, medium alloy steels and High speed steels are known as "Tool
Steels". Medium alloy steels and high speed steels contain one or more alloying
elements to impart the desired properties to the cutting tools ..The function of each
alloying element is given below.
,
q (iii) Chromium. The addition of chromium results. in the formation of various carbides of
hromium which are very hard. yet the resulting steel IS more ductde than a steel of the same
~ardness produced by a simple increase in carbon content. Chromium also refines the grain
structure so that. these two combined effects result in both increased toughness and hardness.
The addition of chromium increases the critical range of temperature and raises the strength at
high temperatures. Alloy of chromium resists abrasion and wear. Its Content ranges from 0.25
to 4.5%.
f
(iv) Molybdenum. Molybdenum is a strong carbide forming element and its action is very
I much like chromium but is more powerful. It increases strength. wear resistance, hardness
I penetration and hot hardness. It is always used in conjunction with o.ther alloying elements. Its
' content ranges upto about 10%.
(,,~ Cobalt. Cobalt is .ColTirnonly usedjn high Speed steels to increase the hot ..hardriessso
. that the CUllingtools can be "sed at higher CUllingspeeds and temperat"r",! and still they retain
their hardness and a sharp cutting edge. Its content ranges from 5 to 11%.
(vi) Vanadium. It increases hot hardness and abrasion resistance. As vanadium 'has a very
strong tendency to for~ carbides. hence; it is used only in small amounts (0.2 to 0.5% in alloy
carbon tool steels and l to 5% in H.S.S).
(vii) Tungsten.
It is widely used in tool steels because the tool maintains its hardness even
at red heat. Tungsten produces a fine dense structure and adds both toughness and hardness. Its
effect is similar to mOlybdenum except that it must be added in greater quantitY(1.5 to 20%).
Note; Most of the tool-steels contain two or three alloying elements, as the.combined
acticn
several elements is more- effective than that of one element even When its Content in
. steel isofconsiderable.
I
These
carbo,nsteels are abrasion resista t. They are basically water hardening materials (Type W tool
steels). that is, they are hardened y heating follOWedby quenching in Water to Obtain hardness
of 1:'tic 60 - 67. Their hardness 4creases rapidly above 200C and so they are .useful for low
spe,~. Operations -
drilling,
'0
'.
.", AIloy Tool Steels. Tre various alloying elements (discu ssed .abo vel are added
. 1.1~.p'rbonsteel to impart the dCfired properties to the tool steel. These alloying elements slow
~Wnthe transformation rates. r>ue to this, the m.aterialsca? be hardened in oil or air, and the
.I?y steels become less suscepttble to cracks while quenchlOg. These Steels have greater Wear
""lance and hot 'iardneSs than the plain carbon-steels. These' are widery used' for drills. taps.
mers.etc. but do not.have sufficient hot hardness to be used in high.speed turning or miUing.
.e~ndtng
Ca) TJpe - 0 Tool Sleds. Thesesteels are hardened by quenching in oil. Type 0 _ I
OSt_
IS
C : 0.90%, Mn = 1.00%, W
0.5%, Cr
= 0.5%
applications,
.
(b) Type - A Tool Steel. These steels are hardened by cooling in air. In .these steels- -thl"
ltent of alloying elements is higher as compared to type 0 steels. Usually, C is' 1.0% and c-.
;%. Chiefly used for cold working applications, for example thread rolling dies; coining dies'
I gauges.
The alloy tool steels can operate upto cutting temperature of about 300C.
. High Speed Steel (H.S.S.). This tool material is basically high carbon steel, to'
.ich the various alloying elements (Tungsten W, Molybdenum Mo, Chromium.Cr, Vanadiu~it
and Cobalt Co) have been added in larger amounts as compared to alloy tool steels, td~~.
prove hardness, toughness and wear resistance properties. These materials are deep hardeningo(
j can be quenched in oil, air, or salt. They are capable of retainingtheir
hardness upto 600oe"
j so can be operated at much higher cutting speeds as compared to alloy tool steels, hence:
! name "high speed steel".
This tool material was developed in 1905.
There are two basic ..!y'~s of high speed steels :
r _
I. TungstentYP~~s
%).
rr~~rie~)
Milling cutters for cutting ferrous materials of hardness upto 350 BHN are made' of M-.
and M - 7 grades. Gear hobbing, shaping and shaving tools are also made of M - 2 and Mgrades. Drills and reamers for steels of hardness upto 325 BHN are made of M>: 1, M - 2, M
7 and M - 10 grades. Taps are mostly made from M - 1grade. Form tools are usually made
om M - 2 or T- 2 grade of H.S.S: _
High speed steels with cobalt (for example grades: M- 33, M- 36, T-4, T- 5 and Thave high hot hardness and wear resistance but lower toughness as compared to M -2 H.S.S.
)"01 bits for planing and heavy duty turning arc made from T-4, T- 5 and- T- 6 grades .'
rades M - 33 and M -.36 are used for: drilling and milling hard alloy steels, stainless steel.
anium and heat resistant materials. T- 6 grades are also called" Super I-i.S.S'. They have a
gh ,W (18 to 22%) and high Co (10'to 12%) content. They are less tough than other types arid - (
.ed 'Ii:\0 be well supported on a very rigid rnachine.jThis
type is the most expensive I-i.S,S.
f
_.
H.S.S. with high percentage of vanadium (For example M - 3, M -4, and T- 15 grades) ,
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)Ss~SSincr~ased red hardness and wear resistance. but their toughness and grind ability is
duced. Que to jncreased red hardness and wear reslsta~ce, these steels nave greater tool life.
; compared to conventio~al. H.S-.S. They are used for machi~ing conventional alloys, super
loys and refractory materials. Single point lathe tools, flat and form cutters, broaches and r!r:!:;:,
:e made of these steels. ..
. ..
.
_ H.S.S. with cobalt (grades M - 41, M - 42, M - 43; M - 44, M:- 45 and M - 46) have
igh hot hardness and wear resistance. Their grind ability is better as compared to H.S.S. with
anadium. These steels are used for machining: heat treated steels, titanium alloys and
erospace materials of high hardness (cobalt and nickel base alloys). Drills, milling cutters, form
ools, broaches. hobs, shavers. taps and tool bits are made of these steels.
.
In the conventional H.S.S., there is every possibility of large dispersion and segregation of
arbides. Due to this, there will be local variations in the chemical composition and structure
If the material, resulting in difficulty in producing the tool and also poor performance of the
001. There drawbacks are overcome by using powder metallurgy (P/M) for the manufacture of
001 steel. The powder of the steel alloy is made by atomizing the molten metal. The powder
s then compacted under pressure in dies, to produce billets. These billets are then transformed
o the desired shape and size by conventional hot forging. In this tool steel, there is better and
nore uniform distribution of carbides and the alloying elements. H.S.S_ produced by PIM
irossesses higher wear resistance greater toughness, greater impact strength, better hoi
vorkability. improved grindability, higher material removal rates and good dimensional
.tability.
j
I
Non - Ferrous Cast Alloys (Stellite). This material which was introduced in 1915
is an alloy of Cobalt, Chromium and Tungsten with compo_sition : Cobalt, 38 to 53 per cent,
Chromium. 30 to 33 per cent, Tungsten, 10 to 20 per cent and Carbon, 1 to 3 per cent. 1 per
cent Carbon content gives a relatively soft and strong tool and 3 per cent Carbon content gives
a hard and more wear resistant grade. Cast alloy tools are cast and ground to any desired shape.
Cast alloys bridge the gap between H.S.S. and Carbides (the. next tool material). They have.
properties intermediate between H.S.S. and cemented Carbides. This material maintains great
hardness at high temperatures and has good wear resistance but is not as tough as H.S.S. and
is sensitive to shock loading. The tool material is available in the form of tool bits for use _in
holders and in the form of tips brazed to a medium carbon steel shank. The material is
recommended for deep roughing operations-at relatively high speed and feed rates and-it can
machine more difficult materials such as high tensile steels, stainless steels and heat resistant
steels, la.nd C.L This m~teria' is used ~t surface speeds. above those of H.S.S. and below tho~e
of Carbides. and can Withstand a. cuttmg temperature In the range of 900C.
'.
I The introduction of Cast alloys as cutting tool materials somewhat overlapped that of the
T~ngsten carbide .and since these carbides were, in general, superior cutting tools, the cast
ntn:-ferrous a~loys never caught on to th~ extent ant.icipa~ed.
.
\ .
.
i
.
Sintered or Cemented Carbides. The first sintered carbide cutung tool (tungsten
carbide) was marketed in 1926. Since then lot of-research has been done and many types of
sjntered carbide materials -have been produced to improve their performance. This has been
achieved by. improving the methods of their manufacture and their composition. For example,
carbides of titanium, tantalum, niobium and columbium etc. can be added to straight tungsten
carbide to extend the range of their appiication. Sintered carbides are produced by PIM .
technique and have the following properties. Very high red hardness (of about lOOOC). very
high wear resistance, high modulus of elasticity, low thermal expansion and high thermal
conductivity.
There are three general groups of cemented carbides in use:
"'..!) Z
L Straight tungsten carbide with cobalt as a binder.
I11.
2. Tungsten carbide with cobalt as a binde~ and having large percentages of carbides er
~'., Ta and. Nb, which along with we form a solid solution of WC - TiC - TaC _ NbC.
;
3. Titanium carbide with nickel or molybdcilum as the binding material.
Manufacture,
ollowing steps :
The cemented
by PIM technique
involving
the
,
I
l. Firstly. we should get the ingredients. Tungsten oxide is reduced in hydrogen to get
sten
metal powder. Similarly,
to obtain titanium
and ' tantaium,
titanium oxide, and
ung
h
I
anranlum oxide are reduced in hydrogen atrnosp ere, respective y.
2. Tungsten p~\Vder is then mixed with lamp black and the mixture is heated at about
600C to form carbide of tungsten. and so on.
3. The lump of the carbide so produced is crushed to a powder. Then, pOwdered cobalt
.t.: etai which acts as a binder to hold together the particles of carbide powder, is thoroughly
. ' ixed with the latter.
.
d
j
4. To increase the mouldability of we - eo mixture. it is mixed with a lubricant such as
/' araffin, ethylene glycol or camphor. Sometimes, only water is used.
5. After drying and refining, the mixture is compacted
6. The strength of the green compacts so obtained is quite low. To give the necessary
, ength to the compact; it is healed ar1300C tt? 186S0C{siriteied pl'ocess) depending Upon the
mposition and the cobalt c.ontent. As a ru~e, the sinre'r.ing temperature is.9.00C to 1000C belov v
-e melting point of pure cobalt The sintering process is done for about 1.5 to 2 houTs and it
ould be done preferably in an inert atmosphere to avoid oxidation Or decarburization.
r
s,
~.::
-,
e'
./.
u.
d: (iii) Micro-structure
is
.~: The finer the grain size, the higher is the hardness. Out of these, the major effect
or the
i~ emical composition <the method of man;lfacture and the grain size ean be properly taken ease
III
'.'
20%:
.n
$,!!!aiEhttungsten carbide contains co1i~1t from 3 to
with increase in the percentage
s CObalt. the ~e-s-s:tfie'oflttleness
and compressive strength 'of the material decre:tses.
Wever. with increase in cob a l. content. the transverse rupture- strength of the tool material
h, eases'-1'!>ismaterial h~j!:1L abr~i ve wear resistance and high strength in_res=-L.of a gi ven
~
-'~-------------~
n~s. The main
drawback --of straight tungsten
carbide is it~ affinityJor
steel. Dup.
to this,
st~~~~nsI
t~ weld to the tool surface resulting in crater wear-:-Henc~:this-tool material
.e ot .~Uitable for tutting steel, but gives superior pei-formiulce with non-ferrous. non-metaliic
rial and cast iron. This material is called as 'C' grade cemented, carbide material.
To reduce the tendency of the metal chips to weld to the tool and to decrease the diffusion
. e tOol material to the chips:- TiC is added-to we-e, system. However, with increase in the
enrages of TiC. compressive,
trans-,:erse and impact strengths and also the thermal,
UCtiVityand the modulus of elasticity of tool material decrease; These drawbacks -of TiC;
e overcome by adding TaC, which increases the" transverse strength. and the hot hardness of
tOol material. The effect of adding NbC is similar to that of Tae These mixed carbides ace
for ,"achinin g. steel. Th is ceinen ted carbide maieri aI is kno wn by S' grade. It con tai flS :
t 16% TiC, 0 to 10% Tae. Cabalt cpntent varies from 3 to 16%.
.._
- Cr
With TiC tool material nickel and molytdenum are used as binding materials~ Molybdenum.
Ied to check the very high grain growth with TiC-N.i system. This material has -low
bility.' This improves its crat7r wear resistance and hence i_t is used .when cutting
-ratures are high. because of high cutting speeds or hard workpiece material. According to ISO (International
Standards Organization},
naterial have been grouped in three series:
1. Carbide
Ko, to K40
the.
"~f!()IIS
grades of carbide
:;.
from:
as : P0\ to P 60'.
3. Grades of carbide tools used for general purpose applications are designated as : M.IO_,
to MJo'
In all the above three series, the harder and brittle materials have the lowest number -and _.._
.ss hard and most tough materials have the- higher numbers.For example in K-seiies, K
~ hardest and most brittle and K.co is the least hard and the most tough material. The
ides of carbides are essentially straight tungsten carbides with cobalt as the binder, and are
for machining cast iron, non-ferrous metals, plastics and similar materials. P-grade carbides
ombiued carbide tool materials (carbides of W, Ii, Ia a{ld Nb) with cobalt.as the binder.
~ materials are similar in composition to the K-grade, but have different properties due to
'ent manufacturing methods. These are used to cut heat resistant steels and stainless steets:
AI_I carbides, when finished, are extremely brittle and weak in their resistance to impact
hock loading. Due to this, vibrations ar~ very harmful for carbide t601s. The machine tools
d be rigid. faster and more powerful. Light feeds, low speeds and chatter are harmful. Due
! high cost of carbide tool materials
and other factors, cemented carbides are used in the
of inserts or tips which are brazed or clamped to a steel shank, Fig.
o, ..
i
I.
(b) Brazlnq
- (a) Clamping
I
Methods of Attaching Inserts to Tool S:hankS.
,
In the case of a- brazed tip, when it is worn- out, it is resharpened with the help of special
irig wheels
a Tool and Cutter grinder. The main drawbacks of a brazed tip are: For
rpening purposes, the tool will have to be removed from the machine involving a resetting
tion, Also, because of the difference in co-efficients of expansion of tip material and tool
: material, the brazing has to be done very carefully.
on
Mechanically clamped tips are known as "Indekable tips or insens", because these have
than one cutting edge which are used one by one by indexing the tip. These tips are also
.n as "Thro.v-away"
or "disposable',
because once all the edges of the tip have been
the tip Or insert. is removed from the tool shank seat and thrown away or disposed-off. In
r:,
~ -(
y a rectangular tool bit (tip or insert) can be used upto eight times before disposal and
l S wa no resharpening
COst. The inserts are available in a variety of shap<.s, such as square,
Ulf1es
: ang
e, diamond and round, as shown in Fig. 7.2
W900
Fig.
(a) Higher the cutting edge angle, higher is the cutting edge strength. That is, cutting edge
ngth increases from right to Left in Fig.
(b) Power reguirement
(Left to Right)
(c) Tendency to vibration increases with increase in cutting edge' angle. (Right to Left).
as thecutting edge angle decreases. (Left to
'ht)(d) Versatility and accessibilitY.increases
There are certain rules of thumb to be foll6wed when selecting
(i) For strength
and economy. the largest possible cutting edge angle should-be selected.
To improve the cutting edge strength, the insert edges are usually honed and chamfered or
uced with a negative land. The radius of honing may be alx!tntO.025 nun. When using-ceramics,
hamfering is recommended to minimize the risk of burrs when the insert exits the cut. It also has
sitive effect on the insert while entering.
Laminated and Coated Carbides. We have seen above that the resistance of straight tungsten
ide to crater wear can be increased by the addition of TiC. The same result can be obtained by
inaled and coated carbides. In laminated carbides, laminatt.s consisting of a hard thin surface
r of TiC and in the form of throw-away tips, are bonded by epoxy resin to the rake face of a tip
y ofWC. Coated carbides have a win coating of TiC on all faces of the tip. The coating tlll'ckness
i
the order
of a few microns (0.0025 to 0.005 mrn). These
tools resist the diffusion wear on the
er and give a tough shock resistant too and have lower friction. Laminated and coated carbides .'
: ~~wn id Fig, . . Other common coati ng materials'are titlanium nitride, titanium Carbonitricle
InlUrn Okide and diamond,
..
>
I.
.
LARG~lY
TUNGSTEN
LAYER
OF i'URE
ULTRA-FINE GRAIN Tl
(a) LAMINATE
Fig.
(b)
COATED
rial (wh!~h is the major cause of carbide tools) can be retarded by coatm~_the tool surface
e carbide tools
.,
1",".
Diamonds. Diamond is the hardest of all the 'cutting tool materials. Diamond has
following properties: extreme hardness. low thermal expansion. high heat conductivity. and . ~
er-y'low co-efficient of friction. This. is used when good surface fini.sh and dimensional '!~,.'...
uracy Fre desired. The work-materials on which diam<?ndsare successfully employed are the
i-ferrous' one. such as copper. brass, zinc, aluminium and magnesium alloys. On fe.TOUS ;
erials. diamonds are not suitable because of the diffusion of carbon atoms from diamond to ~.
Ie
work-piece material.
~
S6
-'11
Diamond tools have thefollowing applications: single point turning and boring tools,
i '. . . cutters, reamers, grinding wheels. honing tools. lapping powder and for grinding wheel
1lh~gC1 Due to their brittle nature, the diamond tools have poor resistance to shock and so, .
h es~~~ loaded lightly. For fine turning. the following values are recommended: cutting speed
oUto 500 mJmin, feed 0.01 to 0.05 mm/rev. and depth of cut 0.10 to 0.15 mm.
Diamonds are available either as naturally or as man made (synthetic). The natural
nds are. however, of low grade. For metal cutting applications, polycrystaliine diamond
n . read of single crystal diamond. has been recently introduced. This tool material known as
stea
. I IS
. rnade olamon
f di
d
' ompacts " ha~ inc.reased strength ana'. shoc~ resistance. ThiIS rnatcrra
iwderby sintenng .mto moulded shapes by high pressure and temperature technology.
), polycrystalline diamond has been successfully used for machining tough. abrasive
r n-ferrous materials, plastics, ceramics and glass. The material can be moulded into standard
. . ped inserts and used as conventional indexable inserts. Indexable inserts can also be made
brazing compacts of polycrystalline diamond to each cover of a carbide insert. This material
also be used by bonding its thin layer (about 0.5 mm thick) to a WC substrate. These blanks
' brazed on to a steel shank in position, ground and then used. \VC being tougher than
imondwill increase the shock resistance of the tool. such tools are called as "Compax" tools,
mond tools can with stand heat upio 2000C with highest tool fife (50 to 100 tithes more
that of WC).
Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) : Next to diamond, CBN is the hardest material
ently available. This material, which consists of atoms of nitrogen and-boron, was produced
the early 1970's by high pressure, high temperature processing. As a cutting tool material,
N is used in the polycrystalline form. CBN has high hardness and high thermal conductivity.
as much higher tensile strength (1000 N'mrrr') as compared to diamond (300N/mm\ CBN
ng chemically inert, is used as a substitute for diamond for machining steel. Other
lications are : as a grinding wheel on H.S.S. tools, for machining high temperature alloys,
e nium, Nimonic. Stainless steel, Stellites and Chilled C.L
In dealing with iron-based alloys and hardened steels, the life of a CBN tool is 4 to 5 times
er than that of a diamond tool.
" CBN, as a cutting tool material, can be used' in different ways: In "Compax" tools. a 0_5
thick layer is bonded to a cemented carbide substrate at high temperature and pressure.
e tools combine the high hardness and wear resistance of CB* with the high shock
In stance and toughness of WC. CBN can also be made in the form ~f indexable inserts and
tho ks of standard shape and size. The blanks can be brazed on to steel shanks, form ground
~" ~: used. This material is known by the trade name "Borazon", it U,S.A.1nd 'Elbor' in
-
' UCON. This is also new cutting material developed by Uruon Carbide, U.S.A. Its
th stituents are: Columbium 50%, Titanium 30%, and Tungsten 20%. This tool material is
lig, ufactured according to the following steps:
I
to
1 a;
1. The powders of columbium, Titanium and Tungsten are thoroughly mixed and blended.
2. The mixture is compacted in a punch-and a die.
tho 3, The compact is then melted in an electric arc furnace and the alloy is cast into ingots.
,4. The ingot is rolled into sheets which are then cut into strips.
h S. The strips are then
an
',_ cut into blank' of desired shape and size.
::>n' 6.- The blanks are then can ground and honed subsequently by tumbling to produce a
. th Us of 0.05 to 0.075 mm at cutting points.
..
,
, . ,: 7. Lastly, the blanks lre nitrides in a nitrogen atmosphere at a very 1high temperature.
UeON has the following properties: High hardness, High toughness. excellent shock
lance and excellent resistance to diffusion and adhesion wear. This is a basically steel
;utting material and is not preferred for cutting cast' iron, stainless steel and super alloys
;ontcining Ni, Co and Ti as base materials. Cutting operations recommended for U~ON .are :
oughing, semi-roughing and finishing, turning, facing and boring operations. Itpermits 60%
;ncrease in cutting speed when compared with WC.
.
Sialon (SiAION) : The research on this tool material has been going on for the last
100ut 14 years. The material is produced by milling together Si3N4 Aluminum oxide, AI203 and'
vttria, The powder is dried, pressed to shape and sintered at a temperature of about 1800C. This
material has been found 1.) be considerably tougher than ceramics, and thus can be successfully
used for machining with interrupted cuts. Cutting speed can be 2 to 3 times, those with carbides.
At present, the field of.application of this tool material (in the form of tips) is for machining
aerospace alloys, .Ni-based gas turbine blades etc. at cutting speed in the range of 3.~ to 5 m/s.
Coronite : It is a new cutting tool material whose properties lie in between those
of H.S.S. and cemented carbides.
'
It combines the toughness of H.S.S. with hardness and' wearresistance of cemented
carbides. This improves tool life, reliability and surface finish. Cutting toois mace from.this- .'
material are mainly endmills used for machining grooves, pockets and for profiling in majority
of the workpiece materials.
The material consists .of fine grains of Ti N evenly dispersed in a material of heat treatable
steel. The hard grains of Ti N form about 35 to 60% of material's volume. The properties of
the material are attributed to : very small size of hard grains of Ti N (about 0.1 micron) as
compared to 1 to 10 microns in H.S.S. and Cemented carbides and the proportion of hard grains
in the material (which is higher than in H.S.S. but less than in cemented carbides). The material
is producced by particle metal technology.
.
Majority of the tools are' not produced from solid coronite but by compound and coating
technology as follows :_
1. A core 'of H.S:S or spring steel.
2. A layer of about 15% ofdiameter of core is created over the core by extrusion process
at about '540C. The bat thus. produced is the raw' material for coronite cutting tools.'
3. A thin coating (about 2 microns) or TiCN or TiN is created on the material by pvD
method.,__
o'
o..
__
_~_
hLl
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Cutting speed
Dimensions of the cut (feed, depth, etc)
Tool form (angle, radii, type, etc.)
Tool material
Cutting fluid (chemical and physical properties, temperature, etc,)
Rigidity and freedom from chatter of machine tool and workholding device
Nature of engagement of tool with work (continuous or intermittent,
entrance, for a exit conditions, etc.)
...
Likewise, for a.given set of machine .conditions, the ease of machining varies with
. the work-material variables (the various quantities that are used in practice to
specify the properties of the work material, are enumerated in List Il).
List II. Common work-material affecting ease of cutting
l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Hardness
Tensile properties
Chemical composition
Microstructure
Degree of cold work
Strain hardenability
Shape and dimensions of work
Rigidity of workpiece.
Further, the criteria for judging the ease of working a metal vary with the
preference of the experimenter or the requirements of the job. Some of the more
common of these criteria, used singly or jointly as measure of the ease of working
a metal, are given in List III.
List III. Common criterijl for judging ease of cutting:
A. genera} criteriar
1. Life of the cutting tool between reshapenings, expressed in various terms.
Machinability Index
machinability
materials
..
SI.No
Me1als
1
2
SAE 11 12 steel
(free cutting steel)
Aluminum alloys
300-1500
Magnesium alloys
500-2000
red brass
180
Copper
70
Stainless steel
100
25
of different
66
Rating
test finds out the tool life-cutting speed relationships for the test material
and for a reference material under identical conditions of testing. Though
this test is very reliable, it consumes considerable time and material.
2. Short-Time tests are not reliable but take much less time and material
they can be advantageously used for comparing different material as
regards their machinability. Short tests may be classifiedas follows;
a. Tests at elevated cutting speed, when conducted effect rspid tool
wear they are used for the rapid comparison of different materials for
their machinability rating.
,"",b. Facing tests are carried out from the center ofthe WOikpitce rapid
tool wear they. ,are used for the rapid comparison of different.
materials for their machinability rating.
c. Workpiece is machined using radio-activated cutting tool. The chips
thus produced carry some amount of ratio-activity from the cutting
too) proportional to the wear developed on the tool. Radioactivity of
a known quatity of chips is measured with a suitable counter to
assess the machinability of the workpiece material.
d. Tests with low-wear criterion have the same basic procedure as
those of long-time tests, except that low values of wear are taken as
the criterion for machinability assessment, in order to reduce the
time and material requirements for the tests.
.
.'
I
I
.
'
"
1. To cool the tool, preventing its being heated to high temperatures (thereby
reducing its hardness arid resistance to abrasion). Tool wears faster at high
temperatures.
2. To cool the work-thus preventing its being machined in a warped shape. If the
workpiece is machined, while keeping it cool, accurate final dimensions can be
obtained.
.
3. To form a protective chemical film on the tool surface so that~p~cks of chips
do not weld on the tool. Compounds of sulphur, chlorine etc.,.if~ added to the
cutting fluid for this antiwelding function.
4. To lubricate that:
5. The energy or power consumption in removing metals is reduced.
6. Abrasion or wear on the cutting tool is reduced thereby increasing tool life.
7. Less heat is generated at a tool work interface and the tool therefore operates
lower temperatures resulting in increased tool life
. 8~.Chips are helped out flutes of drills, tapes, broaches etc.
9. To w~I:t. the chips away from the tool and the working area. This IS
particularly desirable in deep hole drilling milling etc ."
10. To protect the tool, work andmachine from rust and corossion.
\
High beat absorption capacity so that tool and workpiece run cool.
Good lubricating qualities. .
High flash point to avoid any combustion of fire hazard
Stability so that the cutting fluid neither oxidizes or decomposes nor gives
rise to gummy deposits.
.
5. Non-corrosive to the painted or machined surfaces of the machine, work or
~~
6 .. Odorless ; should not develop unpleasant odor as the fluid ages or becomes
contaminated.
7. Harmless to the skin of the machine operator
8. Transparent, so that the machining action is visible oil back to the ~peratorJ
9. Low ciscosity to permit fee flow of the cutting iol back to the storage tank.
10. Cutting fluid should create a minimum of smoking or fogging when being
used.
11. Cutting fluid leave minimum sediment deposit on the machine.
12. Cutting fluid should resist bacterial growth
13. Low price
14.Easily available in the market.
I
Most cutting fluids commercially available today are well qualified in regard to
the above mentioned factors, SO., the user seldom has to worry about them.
Huwever, not all cutting fluids are equally well qualified in each criterion, do
these must be kept in mind.
. J.~;Emulsifiableoils ..
.,
The emulsifiable oil solutions are the most widely used of all the
-cutting fluids. They have wide applications and many be used on
most metals for
except the most severe operations -,
all
<:
in
up:.tnto fine
of
to
Compressed air.
3"
Production Lathes
Types of-lathes
Such a
classify
~esign,
we can
/"
etc. this lathes is made to have a comparatively smaller bed length than the
usual engine lathe. The most commonly used lengths are 135 to 180 em.
4. Capstan and turret lathes. These lathes form a very important and
usefuI group and are vastly used in mass production. These machines are
actually of semi-automatic type and a very wide range of operations can be
performed on them. In operating these machines, a very little skill is
~-
--
HEADSTOCK
BED
SQUAMe
TOOL POST
Fig.
"- CARRI~GE OR
CH"~ER SADDlE
PILOT
BA~
SGUA~E_
TURRET
(FRONT
TOOL POST)
-8-
.._____;
F)~
eJ ~
'62. C::..L~G2.IC>~
<"fUJT'<;U:
~e.
TURRET
HAND
.....
TURRETE SLIDE
/
(SADDLE)
WHEEL
FOR
MOVING
SADDLE
vvAvs OF
THE BcD
BED
HEAD
SADDLE
. _
__,..-CLAPING
STAq
HAi..JD
WHEEL
Fig.
Mounting
he
turret
he
ad
LEVE;R
74
b.Uead stock
- The headstock is alarge ~tiIlgl()caJed on tlleJ~ft end of tile bed. It houses the
transmission mechanism (gears etc.) which operates the spindle at various speeds.
These speeds are controlled by the built-in speed selector.
.
- A modern turret lathe uses either an electric head with a multiple-speed motor
mounted directly on the spindle or an all-geared head is used.
- The operator needs only to set the dial to the diameter of work, and the spindle
speed selector will automatically shift to the correct speed.
c. Carriage
- The carriage is fitted over the ways of me bed, Mounted on it is the tool post. '
The front of the carriage inc1udes the apron which contains the feed mechanism.
- The carriage has feversible power longitudinal-teeds ranging from 0.125 to
4.5mm and also reversible power cross-feeds ranging from 0.050 to 2.25 mm per
revolution of the spindle.
I,
- Most models hav~ longitudinal and cross-feed positive stops which act to
disengage the feed !according to the specifications of work.
i
d Turret
".;.The turret is a hexagon on square-shaped tool holder mounted on the saddle or
, carriage on the bed ways.
' - The main ram turret usually is .six-sided, and provision is made formounting
'tools on each of the sixfaces, The turret can be rotated about a vertical axis to
bring each tool into operating position, and the entire unit' can be moved,
longimdinalJ.y?'either manually or by power, to' provide feed for the -tools.
- The, cross-slide turret also can be rotated manual1y about a vertical axis to bring
, ' eacll, of the four tools into operating position.
most machines the turret can be _moved transversely, either manually or by power, by
s of the- cross slide and longitudinal!y through power or manual operation of the carriage..
-
-'
'.
nest cases, a rear-tool post also is added to the-back end of the cross slide; this often
es a partingtooL
~ tools held in the turret m~y be used to perform certain operations on a workpiece, while
e same time, other tools held in the square tool-post mounted on the carriage do other-ations.
.e workpiece having been previously chucked correctly, with these basic features of a tuh~t
e, a number of tools can be set up on the machine and then quickly be brought successively
. working position so that a complete part _canbe machined without the necessity for further
istrnent or changing tools or making measurements. Operations such as roughing; knifing,
oing, boring etc., can be performed merely by rotating the hexagon turret and presenting to
workpiece a different tool secured in the turret, .in order of sequence.
'..'.'
Turret head indexing mechanism is an aIToogement that indexes the turret head
automatically when it is brought back away from the spindle nose or chuck after the
Erst operation is completed. That means, automatically the present tool in the turret
head will rotate away and the next tool will come in its place for the next operation.
(Fig.
) Explains the turret head indexing mechanism.
tg.~Sprlng
,
..-'
Pluriq e r
..
'
\._Com
Index
ol
o te ----~~
Ratchet
-,Pn\AJl
...... ..
wheel
Turret
spi-n d le
-s
As the turret head reaches the backward position that is away from the chuck holding the
workpiece, the plunger actuating cam lifts the plunger
76
from the slot S of the index plate and thus unlocks it so that, now the turret
head is free to rotate. As-the saddle is still moving, the ratchet wheel comes
in contact with projecting pin of the pawL The pin pushes and rotates the
ratchet wheel which results in the indexing of turret. When the turret head
has reached its extreme right position, ratchet wheel has also been rotated
through 60 and the plunger has again set in one of the slots of the index
plate.
Saddle type turret lathe is a heavy duty machine, there is no ram, rather the
turret head is mounted directly on the saddle and the saddle ~Iides on the "
ways of the machine this makes a more rigid turret, avoiding ~e overhang .
which occurs when a ram type turret is advanced to the wprk and pte
possible sagging out of line.
.
I
- Power feed is standard on turret and both axes of the cross slide, .'
Speed may be from 20 to 1500 RPM depending upon the size of the
I.
mac hime.
- Vertical turret lathe closely resembles a vertical boring mill, it commonly has a
rotating table ranging from 600 to 1200 mm in diameter, which is equipped with
both removable chuck jaws and T-slots for clamping the work.
minimum, the work holding devices should be accurate, easy and quick to
operate, and should ensure rigidity against heavy cuts.
Commonly used work holding devices are;
a. Collet chucks,
b. Jaw chucks,
c. Arbors, and
d. Fixtures.
Collet Chucks
Collets or collet chucks are used mainly to hold bar stock, espedally in the smaller
sizes. A collet is a circular steel shell having three or four equally spaced slits
extendingthe greater part of its length, (Fig
) These slite impart springing
action to the coUet. That is why, collet are also known as "Spring Collet". The
collet nose is made thicker to from the jaws. The inside of the collet is made
according
to the shape ).oftlIf!.\\,()rktQ.be.hold
various types of collet chucks.
. .shown in (Fig
.
. ate....
1. Drawback Collet. In drawback collet, (Fig
), the spring col1et
is pulled by the thrust tubeor collet tube, to the left into the toper bore of
the spindle nose. This action puts pressure on the tapered sections of the
collet forcing them inward and tightly clamping the bar stock. The thrust
tube is placed behind the collet in the spindle. It can be moved axially a
short distance by either a handwheel or a lever. The bar to be machined is
passed through the tube and the collet jaws.
.'
"::"~i\
(~) .COll ET
COLLET~
(b) ORA .. eACK
COLLET
---
cou ET .:>
COLLET
78
4. Jaw Chucks. The types of jaw chucks commonly used on capstan lathes
and" turret lathes are:
(a) Two Jaw Chucks (b) Three Jaw Chucks Four Jaw Chucks.
I
3.
Two
jaw chuckS~these chucks are ()f~e seft-<entring type and are used
for bar work. Many of these chucks may haveblank'jaws to which may be
attached specially shaped holding devices or jaws for quickly locating and
clamping irregular or odd-shaped pieces, for example, small castings and
forgings. Two jaws hold the irregular work Clore readily since the clamping
is at two points which are diametrically opposite. Two jaw chucks are
available in size form about 125 mm to 250 mm outside diameter to hold" "
bar stock diameter of about 20 mm to 45 mm diameter.
b. Three jaw Chucks. Threejaw universal chucks are used for holding
round or hexagonal bar stock CT other symmetrical work. They are of selfcentring type and are used mostly for. machining of forgings and castings.
The size of these jaw chucks ranges nomIOO rom to 750 mm diameter and
they can hold work upto about 650 mm diameter.
c. Four Jaw Chucks. Thes"e chucks are used for holding rough castings and
square or octagonal work. The jaws move independent of one another.
These chucks are available in sizes upto about 1000 nun diameter. Two jaw
chucks and three jaw chucks are generally power operated. They may be
either pneumatically or hydraulically operated. Four jaw chucks are
manually operated.
- (Fig
)shows two types of collet chuck for clamping bar stock. One shown at
(Fig
) calmps bar 3 when tube 4 together with collet 2 is inner tapered hole
of spindle 1. the drawback of this arrangement is an axial bar displacement in
clamping, which decreases the accuracy of axial bar positioning.
) illustrates a collet chuck inwhich, on clamping bar, collet I is moved
- (Fig
to the right and outer taper of collet is contracted under the action of the inner
taper of stop nut 2. Screwed on spindle 3. The conventional collet taper angle is
30.
--.-
..
-'
..
.Fixtures
.
Turret Tool
-On a turret, the workpiece are machined,
Of
L Boxtools, and
2. HolJow mills (for reducing the diameter of the bars of stock to the required
size).
..
3. special designs oftuming toolsortumers are used extensively on flat turret"
lathes,.
.
.
4. Forming tools are used when there is an irregular 'surface to be machined,
.5. Drills and reamers,
.6. Dies, when the part must be threaded,
7. Cutting off tools for severing finished parts, and
8. Many tools of special design.
In general cutting-off and forming tools are mounted on a cross-slide between the
turret and headstock, whereas box tools, hollow mills, dies, etc., are carried in the
turret.
_ For chuck work, the turret tool equipment often includes tools such as :
............
L .Drills
".
Boring bars .
Reamers
Facing cutters
Taps
6. Dies, etc.
2.
3.
4.
5.
_ A box tool held on the turret is commonly used for turning operations. As a box
tool operates on the unsupported end of the bar projecting from the chuck, it is
equipped with some form of back-rest opposite the turning tool fOT supporting the
work; it usually encloses or surrounds the turned part to some extent, and for that
reason, is .known as a box tool, (Refer Fig
)
R1
Special adapters are available .thathoId three or four tools for performing three or
four operations simultaneously, particularly when the turret is capable of moving
horizontally in two directions
-
r------------------------------------~
Turret attachements
- . Different attachments when fitted on the turret lathe increase its usefulness
and a wide variety of works may be done on lathe and more efficiently.
A few attachernenrs commonly used"on turret lathe are:"
1. Bar stops.
2. Roller support turning attachment.
3. Box tool Holder.
4. Multiple tool holder.
5. Knee-tool holder.
6. Slide tool.
7. Screw cutting self-opening die head.
8. Collapsing Tap.
9. Taper attachment.
1. Bar Stop
-
when same component is to be produced on mass scale from the bar stock,
every time the same length of the hat is to be measured and projected out
from t..he collet chuck. This is a cumbersome and time-consuming process.
A simple solution is to make use of a bar feeding arrangement and a bar
stop, Every time, a piece is finished and cut off, the collet opens and the bar
moves forward out from the chuck and its end rests against the bar stop
fitted on the turret machine. This ensures constant length of bar projecting
from the collet chuck every time for each component to be machined.
"
3. Box-toolhold"r
Roller support can be extended for use axial tur.4ing as from a turret. Tools
used for this procedure combine support with o~e or more cutting tools.
Tools that incorporate both support and cutters are often called box tools. A
box tool that incorporates two supporting rolled and one cutting edge is
shown in (Fig
).
I
In turning with this type of tool, the rotating workpiece passes between the
rollers and the cutter. The cutter is set slightly ahead of the rollers, which
allows the rollers to begin their function of providing support as turning
progresses. Both rollers and the cutter can be adjusted, permitting
considerable size variation for any given tool.
. ....
..
'
A multiple tool holder permits several operations to be carried out from the
same position. This tool holder may be bolted direct on the turret face
.'Fig
).
Different turning and boring tools may be held in different holes of the
multiple tool holder, for carrying out such operations simultaneously. The
pilot bar at the top of multiple tool holder lends additional support to the
tool and prevents any vibration or deflection. While the tool is carrying out
cutting action.
6. Slide tool
- As shown in (Fig
) the slide tool can hold tools for boring, drilling,
reaming, recessing, and grooving operations.
- The slide can be moved up and down by means of a hand wheel provided at
the top. The movement of slide is similar to that of the shaper tool head.
...
85
8. ColI~psing
tap
It is employed for cutting internal threads. A usual solid tap, if used for
cutting threads, need be reversed to take the tap out of the threaded hole at
the end of threading operation. But in case of a collapsing tap, its cutting
edges are made to collapse into the body of the tap, when threading is
complete and the tap can be brought out of the workpiece very easily.
9. Taper attachment
- Ataper attachment for the universal carriage is a separate tool bolted to the Tslots on the near of the cross-side. The rear tool block can be used for taper
turning without affecting normal use of the square turret at the front of the
cross-slide.
1. Cylinddcal turning
2. Taper turning
3. Form turning
4. Facing
5. Boring
6. Drilling
7. Reaming
8. Threading
9. recessing
10. Chamfering
11.knurling
12. Parting off
I
- The above named operations are carried out using
a. Turret tools described in anicle
h. Turret tool holders described in article
c. Turret attachmentsI described in article
i
i
(Fig
.
(i)
Set up time is the time required for a skilled tool setter to set the various
..........
cutting-tools. andwork.holders.in theturretlathe, adju~ttl:l~IIl.to.prodtlC:~'...
the desired dimensions on the workpiece, and set the various stops. Set
up time should be as short as possible for maximum production. ThIS
may be achieved by using standard tool holders and tools.
(ii)
Work handling time is the time required for putting work into and
removing it from the turret lathe. Power chucks and automatic bar
feeding may help Ireducing work handing time.
(iii)
Machine controlling time is that required to manipulate the controls
which reverse and rotate the turrets, change speeds and soon. Machine
controlling time may be reduced by combining operations in a single
turret position, etc,
(iv)
Cutting time is that during which chips are produced-cutting time can be
reduced by working simultaneous cuts.
..
.....
. ... -_.
After operation 6, a parting tool held in the rear tool post does the cutting _off
operation and the threaded adapter separates from the bar stock. The collet
chuck opens, bar stock is advanced again and -operational steps from] to- 6
above repeat to produce the next workpiece.
-.It can be seen from (Fig
) a~d (Fig
) that at time,
lathe can
hold six tools in the hexagonal turret, four tools in the (front tool post) and one
tool in the rear tool post: All these tools can be used while 'designing the
tooling layout.
turret
CAPSTAN LATHE
The capstan lathe is so called because of the hexagon-shaped too] carrier,
the capstan, which replaces the tailstock of the centre lathe.
The capstan (tool head) is mounted on the capstan slide (Fig
) which
in tum is mounted on a suitable rest or saddle (Fig
) which is fitted
on the lathe bed.
HEAD
STOCK
BED
LEG
\. CARRIAGE OR
CHASER SADDLE
LEG
TURRET
SAOOL E
/-TURRET
-TURRET SLIDE
WAYS OF THE BED
..
INT ERMEDltTE
SLIDE (SADDLE)
CAPSTAN
HEAO
SLIDE
CLAMPING
LEVER
SADDLE
BED
.-"11
Feature
Centre Lathe
Turret Lathe
Capstan Lathe
!
I
ft'-lO-.-lt:--H-c-a-d-s-to-C....:k-.--r--E-i-tb-e-r-co-n-e-_--t--.-.H-e-a-v-ie-.--c""o-n-s--r--S=am--e,
as in case
. I
I ,.
I . '-,
2.
I Toolpost
.........~I'
Usually a single
tool post, which
can hold a single
tool at a time. In
some
lathes,
however. a square
turret type tool post
is provided, which
can hold 4 tools
Its cross-slide
Same, as in case
carries a square of a Turret Lathe.
turret-type tool post
as well as a tool post
at its rear, which can
bold 1 or 2 tools at
a time. Thus, 4 tools
can be mounted on
and . indexed
III
sequence on the
from tool post and
1 or 2 tools on the
rear tool post.
indexing movement:
--~--------------r-----------~---+----------------T---------~'_____
"' i Ta ilstock
It essentially
In place of the
It also carries a
carries a tail-stock, tailstock it carries a square, round or
whicb is primarily hexagonal indexable hexagonal tu....
Tet,
meant to support the turret head, on called
Capstan
workpiece during each face of which head, in place of the
the
operation. can be mounted a tail-stock, which
Occasionally,
of tool or tool-head and also provides the
course, it is used to which
can'
be same facility of
hold and support automatically
mounting
and
some cutting tool> indexed in sequence indexing 4 tc 6 tools
also, like drills' and to bring each tool as in case of a turret
reamers, when some in proper position lathe.
operations are to be for performing the
performed on the operation on the job.
:end face of the work
piece.
'--~=----------r~~---------r-------------r-~
Turret Head
Does not exist on
Sq uare
Of
Usually carries
Or
a Centre Lathe
hexagonal in shape, a circular head, but
Capston Head
with 4 to 6 vertical may carry a square
faces respectively Of hexagonal head
carrying one central also. The axis of
bole each to receive the bead may be I
the shanks of lOO:S inclined or vertical,
or 1.001 holders. Axis but the axes of the
of the turret head is holes
on
the
always
vertical, periphery or flat
except III vertical faces are always
turret. lathes where horizontal. All the
the
axis
is boles are equispaced .
horizontal.
and on circular
beads
also
the
number of these
1holes is six. :
5.
Leadscrew
I
I,
I!
l
iI
iI
f
i
I
Always pfuvidcd
Thread cllf{ing IS "
<:'lm('"", as in case
on a Centre Lathe to generally performed of a TUlfC( Lame.
enab!e thread cutting. by taps and die
by a single point beads. Hence,
~o
tool.
lead
screw
IS'
provided for thread
.I
I 6.
L2:
I
tI .....
I 7. I Number
I.
'1
cutting.
Method of
mounting the
Turret or
Capstan Head.
Not applicable
10015
Turret
head
directly
on the saddle and for
feeding the tools to
the work the entire
saddle has to be
moved
(see
Fig. 7.2).
mounted
I I
I
. f
of
mounted
".. I
Capstan head is
mounted on a rem
or slide, which
travels
on
the
saddle. The saddle is
fixed at a proper
location and the
tools are fed one by
Usually
one.
: 4 tools can be
Same as in case
when a single tool mounted
on the of a Turret Lathe.
post is provided. If a front tool post. one
square turret tool or two on the rear
post is provided. tool post and 4 or 6
then 4 tools can' be on' tile turret head,
mounted.
depending . upon
whether it is a
'square or hexagonal
turret head. This
II I
different positions.
Skill, required
pf the operator
9.
rrme
001
setting
Very h:gb
A lot of time is
Whatevertime is
Same. as in case
spent in tool setting spent is in the of a Turret Lathe.
because the tool initial setting.
has to' - changed Thereafter. no time
I e v ery
time a new in lost because all
operation is to be the tools are present
done. Even during for each operation in
the same operation. sequence. Only the
the tool m~y need required tool is to he
resharper.ing or'
indexed
to
the
replacement if-it has correct position.
become blunt or
worn out.
.'
10.
Degree of
automation
11.
Application
Very nom in al
More versatile.
Capable of handling
individual jobs of
varying shapes and
sizes. Made in
various sizes and
capacities so as to
handle
from
precIsion
machining, as in tool ream
work. upt(J hea v y
duty work. Dest
Suited for johhing
work.
Semi-autoniatic
Used In mass
production
of
identical
componcuts and can handle
much larger and
heavier jobs than
capstan
lathes.
Classed as a
production
machine tool.
used
for
rebtiveJy lighter and
r=t=-:-:--::-::::~~~..."",=t-~------~==j:====.;;..-,=;;c.==';';;'==_=_:::':'_=':'-t-L
__ _
.....
12. Rate of
Lower
Higher.
. . J . JF~hcr
production
.
.
13.
Overhead
charges
Less than
other two
the
J
.
14.
of power and
higher m<lintenance
cost
Labour cost
Higher. because
Lower. because
Same. as in case
of the requirement
after
tools
and of a Turret lathe.
of .highly skilled machine: selting the
workers
.:
opcraliorrs can be
performed
hy.
unskilled or semisk il'led . operalors
only.
_J
I
--------------------------------~--------------~-------------
sc
Capstan Lathe
Turret Lathe
No.
1.
.2.
3.
4.
... ...
S.
6.
7.
8.
hands.
operator.
4Drilling Machines
"r-..
Introduction
Drilling is an operation through which holes are produced in solid .metal by
means of a revolving tool called drill. Since it is not possible to produce a
perfe.ct1ytrue hole by drilling, it is considered as a roughing operation. Obviously,
therefore, where a very close dimensional accuracy is to be maintained, this forms
only the basic operation. For such holes, drilling is followed by another operation
called reaming, in which the required dimensional accuracy and fine surface
finish is obtained by means of a multi-tooth revolving tool called reamer.
Elements of a d~illjllg I.J1~c.bille.
- A dril1ing machine can perform only those operations. where the tool (i.e., drill).
is rotated and fed along its axis of relation. The 'workpiece always remains
stationary during the machining process. (Fig. 1 . 1.
) shows a drilling machine
.and its varirius parts. Different parts of a drilling machine are discussed below:
Head
i,
Spindle
'
Column
Table
Base
95
...
1. The head containing electric motor, V-pulleys and V-belt which transmit
rotary motion to the dril1 spindle at a number of speeds.
2. Spindle is made up of alloy steel. It rotates as wen as moves up and down
in a sleeve. A pinion engages a rake fixed onto the sleeve (Fig
) to
provide vertical up and down motion of the spindle and hence the drill so
that the same can be fed into the workpiece or withdraw from it while
drilling. Spindle speed or the drill speed is changed with the help of V-belt
and V-step-pulleys. Larger driJ1ing machines are having gear boxes for the
said purpose.
3. Drill chuck is held at the end of the drill spindle and in tum it holds the
drill bit.
4. Adjustable table is supported on the columm of the drilling machine. It
can be moved both vertically and horizontally. Tables are generally having
slots so that the vise or the workpiece can be securely' held on it.
5-: Base is a heavy casting and it supports the drill press structure. The base
supports the columm which, in turn, supports the table, head etc.
6. Columm is a vertical round or box section which rests on the base and
supports the head and the table. The round columm may have rack teeth
cut on it so that the table can be raised or lowered depending upon the
workpiece requirements.
f:';3 1.2.
Hand dri II
.....
T
A
8
,_
t:
])
R
J
tlI
"I
Bre u s t d r j J ;
G.
M
4
Q.
}.}.
I
N
~
8.
E~ectric
?neumoti
c d ri f I
drill
Hand"Wheel ....
Body ~
l. .
I
Sleeve
Lol ftVlng
..
" ..
IViotor
Drill Spindie
Chuck
Pillar
Clamp
Work (able
8ase
;..
tr:
- .- Sensitive drilling-machines are used for tool and die work and for
drilling very small holes often only a few thousandths ofan inch in
-diameter. -
;
I
, .
r---_-__
~ :Yb' :.;'
PGi:ev
Drive
I'"
;1
r eec
Hand
........ Spind;" ..
.-
..
__=_~
I~
r -.
Drive
Motor
.. J>'illo'
I
I
---_- ..--~--.
I
3cse
.D~\ w (')It
~~;~ve.
nJa.~;f::>e. .
..
'
.
4. Upright Drilling Machine .
Upright drill presses are very similar to the sensttrve type drilling
machines, except they are equipped with a power feed. Thus machine is
usually of heavier construction and is suited to a range of work. Upright
drilling machine may by equipped with a universal table that allows the
table to be accurately positioned both longitudinally and laterally.
Machines of this type often have a gear driven mechanism for changing
speeds and feeds and thus a large number of drill spindle speeds and
feeds are avai1ableto drill different kinds of jobs.
Upright drilling machines are available in various sizes and with various
drilling capacities (ranging up to 75 mm diameter drills) on the largest
machines.
The upright drilling machine may have
a. Box Columm section (columm drilIing machine)
b. Round columm section (pillar drillin g machine)
99
Column and
upright
drilling
machine
Column
Table
Base
:
i
FI~'1.5. BlP~~,
CU 'p~~
ol.i~'6QlJt)
o:f-
oft c .
o\~;u,"
CT> \
<~~
..
Motor for
efevating
the arm
Spindle feed
.handwheel
~Uide ways
.Radial arm
ele~ating
screw
..........
-~Spindle
Drill
r~
r-~-'-----L_----_JUL_UJUlJlJI
Base
Table
]
..
'
.'.
--.# .'
Drill head
B~~.~~~.1ro .
'~l
Work piece
For drilling long holes -inrifle barrels connecting reds, and long
.spindles, special high speed m-achines are used.
..Most .machines 'are of horizontal construction using a center-cut gun
drill which has' a single cutting edge with a straight flute running
throughout its length. Oil 'under high pressure, is brought to the cutting
edge through a hole in -the drill. Normally, the drill is stationary and the
work is made to rotate, but where it is difficult to rotate the work, the
situation is reversed. In deep hole drilling, the feed must be light to
avoid defecting the drill. The long job should be supported at several
places to prevent its deflection.
Vertical machines are also available for the work that is not very long.
Drill heads
_-.f
Work table
. ......
I. DrjlJing
2..
3.
4.
5.
6.
Reaming
Boring
Count~rboring
Countersinking
Spot facing
7. Tapping
8. Grinding
9.: Trepanning.
r~
1H~pRllllNG
The chips are cleared both form the drill flutes and the job with the help
of a brush. The job is undamped from the drill vise and is cleared off a11
burrs with the help of a file,
(-i~.1.1.f.REAIo4ING
2. Reaming Operation
Drilling operation always results in oversized holes, in other words, the
size (diameter) of the hole is always some-what large than the size of
the drill employed to make the hole. Moreover the surface of the drilled
hole is rough.
Reaming operation is carried edge tool.
A reamer is a multiple cutting edge tool.
It may be made up of high speed steel or fitted with carbide cuttin g
edges on its ~ha~k.
. . '.:
A reaming cannot produce a hole in a solid job. It can accurately size
and fmish
already drilled holes.
.
Therefore, r~aming i~the operation that produces holes that are
extremely accurate and have an exceptionally fme finish.
.
If reaming operation is to be carried out on a job, the hole drilled in it is
kept slightly undersize. The drill is then sub-stituted by a suitable
reamer without changing the mounting position of the job. The speed of
the spindle is made half that of drilling and automatic feed is employed
for reaming the hole (Fig. '.11.)
thf
3. Boring
boring enlarge a hole, sizes it and finishes it.
Boring operation on a drilling machine is carried out: when a drill of a
particular dimension is not available, when a very straight, accrate hole
is desired, or when holes in castings need to be enlarged.
The boring tool is help in the boring bar which in turn is fetted into ftle
drill spindle socket. (Fig. 1:'2. )'shows boring operation.
-.
Adjustable boring, heads eliminate the need for a complete inventory of
expensive, large-size drills. When used with care- on- sturdy machines "
with power feed 'and 'rigid setups, extrem'ely accurate holes may be
machined with adjust-table boring heads.
.',
- 11~
.
F'3'
COV~!'ER
;'}.SORING
COUNTERSINKING
4. Counterboring
counterboring operation differs from boring operation in the sense that
whereas boring enlarges a hole for its full length counterboring does so
only for a small length in order to accomm~date the heads of bolts,
studs,
etc.
..'
s.
Countersinking
-
't
_,. J
14
. ......
(Fig .114-. ) shows acollntersink and (Fig 115. \) Counter.Sinking
operation.
Countersinks are made in many styles and size, and with point angles of
600 for lathe centers, 820 for flat-headed machine screws and 100. 110
and 1200
fOT
6. Spot facing
Spot facing operation provides a locally.mach.ined,flat seating around a
hol~ for nuts o~ bolt-heads being puUo:ddown onto oth+se,. rough
castmgs or forgings. The surface machmed
hola
A counterbore may be used for spot facing.
FJ:'.1.11.
TAPPlhG
should be squru;e
I
I
With
the
7. Tapping
-
Tapping operation may be carried out 01] the drill press in order-to cut
threads in drilled hole.
When large number of holes have to be tapped, hand tapping is a slow
process, and the work is expedited by driving the tap with the drilling
machine, running on slow speed. Some means are to be provided
whereby the tap drive from the machine is not solid, but incorporates a
'slipping device whichwill come into operation when the tap sticks in
hole, or reaches the bottom, and so avoid breaking the tap.
(Fig.1~"",
) shows the tapping operation. As the tap is screwed into
the hole, it cuts metal and produces internal threads. The size of the tap
is selected in such a manner that the drilled hole is smaller than the tap
by twice the depth of the thread.
8. Grinding
-
A hardened hole may be sized and fmished with the help of grinding
operation carried on a drill press.
_
.
Grinding wheel may oe attached with the drill spindle and the rotating
grinding wheel is fed into the hardened hole with the up and down
movement of the drill spindle.
9. Trepanning
-
clean cut hole in the stock and a disc of metal slightly smaller than the
hole. The disc can be used for some other purpose.
.1
. ..
..
TYPES OF DRILLS
-
Drills are fluted cutting tools which are employed to make or enlarge
holes in a job. A drill is a rotary-end cutting tool having one or more
cutting edges and corresponding flutes that continue the length of the
drill body. The flutes, which can be either straight or helical, serve to
provide passage~ .for the chips and cutting fluid. Drills having two flutes
are used for starting and making a hole whereas those with three or four
flutes are used for enlarging or finishing drilled and cored holes. Drills
are manufactured in a umber of types in order to meet different job
requirements.
- The following types of drills are in use:
(A) Flat drill or spade drill
]obbex'~ ol...
;U.
(8) Straight flute drill
pauaUe' ~hem\q o\li\l
(C) Twist drills------I
(~ Center drill
~)Multi-flute core drills
. (F) Oil hole drills
(Gj) Step drill
(H)Subland drill
():)D-bits .
I
.~.
:/
Cl eorcnce
0,
Cutting
edge angle:
..
:\
, \
~ Ci ecrcnce
Fig.$.. 2.0.
A fiat
drill.
(GJ
i~~
~Tl'Uo
~J
Twist Drill
_ Twist drills are made by forging or milling rough flutes, and then twisting to a
spiral shape. After twisting, the drills are milled to the approximate size, heat
treated and ground to exact size. Twist dri11sare most commonly used in practice
and are of fo11owingtypes (Fig -1.2.2.. ).
r---- __
OVERALL
LENGTH
tl'(j. 12-3*
.' .
- The drill has two helical flutes. Unlike the drill type (a) above, this type of
drinlhas a parallel shank (Fig. 19-lt. ) of approximately same diameter as the
curting portion of the drill. Parallel shank drills are made up to 12 mm in
diameter, whereas taper shank drills are made up to much large sizes. In other
words, small twist drills have a parallel shank. A parallel shank drill is held in
an adjustable drill chuck
Recess optional
tf'-12.lt-,:
D~~~
bog
Pllr~llef shank
60riml
fwl~t drili-
..
A stub drill as compared to jobbers or long series drills, is of sink:' is used for
providing a starting hole for drills and for drilling center holes in stock to be
held in a lathe or a cylindrical grinder (Fig
)
)
This type of drill is used for enlarfing holes that hare previously been punched
or drilled. Because of their wide use in drilling cored holes in castings they are
known as core drills. Such drills because of their construction cannot originate
a hole in the solid material. They do not have cutting edges extending to the
center of the drill. Core drills may have three or four flutes. The advantages of
a multiflute dril1include increased rate of metal removal, increased accuracy in
hoJe size and location, and improved finish.
.......
~-
......
s---.__
tiO129. 2Step
o..\'15,'J.1.
(D)
.A
Cenb e
Q1.nol
at..,'u
~t.I?-t.!!.1
a.t" 0
o \9,
~Y)O 10()
,. LI, <w,=.l
""-I,-
("..()JlO
b'=.i;OI") =l..i.It
lc Jnrov.Q.U,,[ =Y
.!l.-\<!\Jtiir
ht>~ey,r 0\....u <.\ ,==l -fo~ 0.1 Tj Lt.!1r c..o2r)t ,"02 1,<>\ et 1'1) .tit>~
-to .6~ hQ.lc\ \ 0 0. ~e.
0' o\. CCJljC)o\r:~
Zt'lr-lo~er.
(Rce..j ri(j' 12.~:) ~,
t
- - "Ll
. _
..
A subland drill is a rnultidiameter drill which can drill several diameters in-one
operation. Unlike setup drill, the subland drill ;has two separate lands each
continuous along the flute: This is a more expensive drill, but: it might be
cheaper in the long run.
E'
~~~
.~
- .
Fia- 1'31.
.'
I~!'~ 0~I
6 ( -1I~
D- 6)\:~.
) D is the
.....
--~
S hank
------
..
t~-
---.-
Body
I;
Flute Icnath---~---.I-I
Flute
_~
__
-- -.-- --_...
_-1-
<,
)'"
I
------r-ii-r----l.~H::::e,..:._:1
i.;_;_x...:::.:.ang
Ie __"___.. _
Drill axis
Body clearance
Lead of helix
.1
J
Body
/1
__
Point __ '
--- Land
.......diameter.
.._
'to
, '"
--'
+oJ
Q)
Web or core _~
thickness
0 /\
Outer corner
"""
""
Lip
length '---~
Y)\
Outer corner \
Chisel edge
Nominal
relief
angle
corner
~"""'-L-1
'
d '11
nn.
Face is that -portion of the flute surface adjacent to the lip on which the
chip impinges as it is cut from the work.
-Chisel edge is the formed by the intersection of the flanks.
Flank is that surface .on a- drill point which extends behind the lip to the
following flute.
.
_.
Flutes are the grooves in the body of the drill which provide lips, allow the
removal of chips, and pennit cutting fluid to reach the lips.
Flute Jength is the axial length from the extreme end of the point to the
termination for the flutes at the shank end o~fthe body.
Body is that potion of the drill which extends from the extreme cutting end
to the beginning of the shank.
Shank is that portion of the drill by which it is held and driven.
Heel is the edge formed by the intersection of the flutes surface and the
body clearance .
,. " Car.e or web is the central portion of the drill situated between the roots of
the flutes and extending from the point end towards the shan.1c;the point
end of the core forms the chisel edge.
\
Lands are the cylindrically ground surfaces on the lekding edges of the
dril1 flutes. The width of the land 1S measured at right angles to the flute.
Recess is the portion of the drill body between the flutes and the shank
provided so as to facilitate the grinding of the body. Parallel shank drill of
small diameter are not usually provided with a recess.
Outer comer is the comer formed by the intersection of the lip and the
leading edge of the land.
Chisel edge corner is the corner formed by the intersection of a lip and the
chisel edge.
at
Lip clearance
angle is the angle formed by the flank. and a plane
rio-ht
angles to the drill axis; the angle is normalJy measured at the periphery Po.f
the drilL
To make sur-e that the main cutting edges can enter into the material, the
clearance .faces slope bac1..-.vards.in a curve. The clearance angle measured
at the .face edge, must amount to SO up to 80_
'i,
Point angle is the included angie of' the cone .formed by the lips.
CUTTING
IDLE
STROKE
STROK
TOOL
E'
Vertical shaper
Travelling shaper
Standard shaper
-
Ina standard shaper the work table has only vertical and horizontal
Ill()Y~IIlt!llts~
.....
The work table may not .have vertical support at....its front.
. ..
Universal shaper
-
Universal shaper has a work table which may be swiveled around two
horizontal axes and also adjusted horizontally and vertically.
As compared to standard shaper, the universal shaper can be used to
machine a wide variety of jobs.
Crank shaper
Geared sbaper
-
Hydraulic sbaper
-
Horizontalshaper
-
.I
Vertical shaper
A vertical shaper (also known as slotter) has the ram which reciprocates in
vertical plane. It possesses a rotary work table.
Vertical shapers are used to generate internal surfaces, keyways, grooves,
slots etc.
Push-cut sbaper
- Most shapers are of the horizontal push-cut type.
- Inthis type, cutting occurs as the ram pushes the tool across jhe workpiece
I
Draw-cut shaper
-
11
Draw cut shapers are used primarily in tool and die shops.
. .
Cutting is done during the return str ke as the tool is set in a reversed .
direction to that of the standard shaPfr,
.
.
Because of its heavier construction, fl draw-cut sbaper can take heavy cuts
with less vibration and strain on the Fork table.
Parts of a sbaper
- (Fig.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
5.2.. ) shows
Base
Columm or pillar
Cross rail.
Saddle.
Table.
Ram.
o;_;.
/(6
7. Tool head.
8. Drive mechanism.
TOOL HEAD
RAM
VICE
COLUMN
RAIL
B:ASE
F itj5.2.
4DD.AMP
COlllMIt ~
'IUAR
QO'iSRAI~
TAIll
salTOC YQIII"
Parts of a shaper,
171
a. Base
_ The base of the shaper supports the column or pillar which supports all the
working parts such as ram, work table, drive mechanism etc.
Base is a heavy cast iron body.
c. Cross rail
_ The cross rail carries the horizontal table slideways and is mounted on the
vertical slideways of the column.
The cross rail can be raised or lowered by means of an elevating screw in
order to compensate for different thicknesses of.work.
_ The cross rail is a heavy casting and it also carries the table cross feed
screw together with the pawl and ratchet inter mitten drive mechanism.
d. Saddle
_ Saddle is gibbed to the cross rail and supports the table. Ifthe table is
.' removed, the work can be bolted or clamped to the T-slots in front of the
saddle.
_~ Crosswise movement of the saddle causes the work table to move sideways.
e. Table
The work table is a box shaped casting with T-flots in its upper surface and
down one side (Fig .5'3. ).It also has a vee machined in the vertical
side-to carry cylindrical work.
_ The upper surface of the work table is machined in situ after assembly to
en_surethat the working surface of the table is a true datum for work setting.
_ The work table is bolted to the saddle and can be moved vertically and
crosswise with the help of saddle aile cross rail.
--------1--
"
F;~5.~"
f. Ram
-
WOlt~ tet.h\e ~
~~~Qr.
g. Tool head
The tool head slides in a dovetail at the front of the ram by means of Tbolts. It can swivel from 0 to 9 in a vertical plane. The tool head can be
raised or lowered by hand feed for vertical
on the workpiece.
The tool head holds the tooL The tool headj imparts the tool, the necessary
vertical and angular feed movements.
I
(Fig ~5.4- ~ ) shows tool head and its details,
I
The tool slide (Fig. 5It ) controls the in/feed of the cutting tool into the
workpiece. In other words, it controls the depth of cut and is adjusted by a
lead screw..
!
The dapper box allows the cutting tool to lift on the return or idle stroke so
that tool is not is not dragged back through the uncut workpiece and gets
damaged.
The tool post carries the cutting tool.
cfts
~I
1001 post
'ToeI ~Iid$-
Protractor ~I~
Otrectionof mov~ment
Cfapper
TOOl Clamping
screw
Clapper box,
pivot pin
A shaper drive mechanism changes the rotary motion of the power source.
(electric motor) into the reciprocating motion of the ram.
Metal cutting is carried out during the forward stroke of the ram only; the
return stroke of the ram does no cutting and hence is called idle stroke.
Since return stroke does no cutting, the drive system incorporates a quick
return mechanism so that the ram moves faster during return stroke in order
to minimize the idle time.
Some of the shaper drive mechanism are:
1. Slotted link quick return mechanism.
2. Whitworth quick return mechanism.
3. Hydraulic mechanism.
0
0 ..
5 -5.
ength of stroke
)~
. .J
'Cf'ankpin
Jull
"heel
(h)
(OJ
r:
I~
5-J.
~UJiti:1j
~~le
-hrne _=
-hcne --
_LA
~~l
LA,~A
Since the crank pin A rotates with uniform velocity andLAIZA is smaller,
it is obvious 1\hatthe idle return stroke is quicker than the forward cutting
stroke and hence the slotted link mechanism is known as quick return
mechanism.
(~
T ,.n::>Q..for
~ e5(u11')
<g~
t9::>.
Since is smaller than 360-~the time for cutting is more than the idle (stroke)
time and thus the name-quick return motion.
The stroke length (in mechanism) can be changed by varying the radius
AE.
Since the change in stroke length alters the cutting speed, it necessitates a
change of gear to get desired cutting speed.
CONTROL
VALVE
. THROTTLE
. VALVE
DOUBLE GEAR
HYDRAULIC
RELIEF
PUMP-
VALVE
. Jd.{1
RESERVOIR
..
.....
- - A hydraulic shaper. has the same major paps as the mechanical one.
However, the ram is drivenby a hydraulic cylinder.
The speeds of the shaper ram aridthe feeds of the work tables.are controlled
by hydraulic mechanism. A lever operates a valve'that varies the quantity of
oil delivered to the ram cylinder and thereby governs the ram speed. The
amount of cross or verticalfeed of the table is regulated by a handwheel
which affects the table feed cylinder. The return or idle stroke is faster than _thecutting stroke because ofthe
smaller area in return side of the cylinder (due to the presence of piston rod)
if a constant volume pump is used.
Comparison of hydraulic and mechanical shapers
A hydraulic shaper has constant cutting speeds and-fast returns, so that it
can make more strokes per minute at the same surface speed. The feeds are
controlled independently of the ram drive and are unlimited in number. A
...............
hydraulic shaper, though more expensive thari a mechanical shaper, IS
preferred-for faster speed and finer finish.
A mechanical shaper costs less. The flywheel effect of the bull gear
provides reserve power for heavy cuts.
..
Connecting 'ink
Rocker erm
(for diltllils cee /
fig
(b))
Ofiving disc
,-otat.a81 um.
lJpHd
Reversible paw'
~--R~tchet
w~,
~,.,,-..-
~r--
(delllchablo;
l.:vl-t
a.lho
tttrt'k. (bull)
wheel
roetent
pin
Cross teed
lead screw'
,-- __
f-'(j'5,8, g~"Q{".
t.-oD(~
El&va1iRD sbatt
~~e.:feesJ
T1QC2~'~ro.
flXlUlAW
STOP
ClAMP ~CRfW
..
GRADUATIONS
..
F iO5~.
A shaper vice.
PARALLEL STRIPS
....
'T' BOLT
5. Angle .plate
- The angle plate is made up of cast iron.
=- Angle plate is a fixture; one side of the plate is bolted to the table and the other.
side is bolted to the workpiece (Fig. 5.1 0.)
.
)~
6. Vee blocks
- Vee blocks are made up ofcast iron or steel.
"/
- Round work that is too small in diameter to be machined while resting on the
ways of the vise can be held in horizontal alignment(paraHe] with the vise table)
.by means_of V'-Qlocks(Fig. 5 11.)
.
~-----.
V ....blD~~
---'(-~.
~----~----~-----~~
.R_tiUJ-)ctFOo~'~fre.c. .._
r:;{j' 5 11.
\
Vee
b Lt>~ t.5ls-. .
The shaper tool reciprocates between the two vee blocks and thus cuts
keyway or groove on the round workpiece.
DOGS--_
WORK"
..
TABLE
A stop pin can be inserted in the slots in the table on each side of the work,
and the dogs forced against the work by tightening the stop pin screws.
Shaper operations
- Various operations which can be performed 011 a shaper are
a. Horizontal shaping (facing top job surface).
b. Vertical shaping (facing side).
c &d. Shaping of grooves, slots, steps and keyways.
e. Angular shaping (Dovetail cutting).
f. Cutting of splines and gear teeth.
g. Irregular cutting
..
Slotting
Steps
(dJ
Dovetail - female
fel
OQ\iata.u - ~I.
in
Fig. 5 J 5. Shaper operations.
3.
Horizontal shaping
Horizonta1 cutting is most commonly carried out on a shaper to obtain: flat
surfaces. (i=-iv-, 5 ~:::.)
The job is held in the vise and an appropriate tools is held in the tool head
of the shaper. The 1ength and position of the stroke are adjusted to machine
the whole length of the shaper, The length and position of the stroke are .
adjusted to machine the whole length of the job. Cutting speed and feed are
then adjusted, depending upon whether it is a roughing or finishing cut. The
proper inclination of the tool and the depth of cut is also set cross feed to
the table is given initially by hand till the cut starts and then the power feed
is employed. After the tool has cut the full width of the job, shaper is
stopped an the job is inspected. For further removing of the material,
another depth of cut is set and the above said procedure is repeated.
1
..J..
....
j
Work
feed
Work
fe~
WOrk
>=
F \.'Ct'5 13
Toe
----~--
SHAPING A VERTICAL
SURFACE
Horizontal ehapinz,
The clapper box is swivelled away from the face of~e work to be cut.
The tool is fed downwards by rotating the down feed screw by hand at the
end of return stroke. The feed is about 0.25 mID.
On the return stroke the too] swings away from the work and gives
clearance, which prevents the work from being scored.
Vertical cutting is carried out in order to make groves, keyways, parting off
and squaring up the ends and shoulders.
I~.
TOOl
feed
............. WOrk ..
~'.'
..
SHAPING GROOVES
Keyway~ slots and recesses may be shorter than the full length of the job.
In such cases, a hole is drilled at the closed end. This is necessary to
prevent chips piling up and possibly breaking the tool. A flat nosed tool is
employed for cutting keyways.
- For shaping angular faces, the swivel head is set to the required angle.
I
. Head ~et to
reqUIred Clngle
"
hoot
"
r'eed
'.
Work
.
- In (Fig. 5~.'+-. ) note the position of the clapper box, this is swung away from
the face to be machined. The tool feed is applied by the slide hand wheel.
. The angular shaping is carried out in order to machine inclined'surfaces, beveled
Surfaces,.dovetails etc.
IS
The index plates is used for cutting equally spaced splines and gear teeth.
The index plate has a number of holes that is evenly divisible by the
required number of angular positions that are necessary to machine the
sp Iines or gear teeth.
The first spline or gear tooth is cut on the workpiece held between centers
exactly in the way, a.keyway is cut. After this, the workpiece is rotated by
the required amount using the index plate. The index plate is then locked by
engaging the index pin with the corresponding hole in the circumference of
the index plate. Now the second' spline is cut. This procedure is repeated till
splines or gear teeth. have been cut on the whole. circumference of the
workpiece.
Separate tools are used for cutting splines and gear teeth on the worpiece.
>
19. )
Before cutting an irregular shape, the same is scribed on the surface of the workpiece.
After the workpiece has been secured in position on the shaper, the operat.Qr,"byskilful
manipulation of the vertical and horizontal feeds, guides the cutting too! so that it will
follow the layout lines.
Contour shaping is also carried out this way.
Sbapercutting t~Ols
. .
,> >:. ~haper cutting tools are single point tools similar to lathe tools and ar~ frequently held!
<; in the same type of holders. Shaper tools can be ground off-hand when It IS necessary to .
apnmptrv
~ntl tliffprpnt
<;:h~npr tnnk
A - CUTllNG
ANGl E
B-LiPANGLE
C - END RELI EF
. (0)
("'
.'
.-
t-'a52.olb) SkpQ.J
.. . ......
~1)~.
Shaper tools are of two basic kinds: forged tools:and tool bits. Tool bits are
more widely used than forged tools because of their economy~cutting life
and the case with which'they are-sharpened,
.'
Shaper tool bits may:.be made up
high speed steel, cast alloys or
cemented carbide. Since high-speed steel has greater impact toughness than
cast alloy or cemented carbide, tool bits made of high-speed steel are used
most often.
Shaper tools may be further classified as:
1. Roughing tools and finishing tools.
2. Straight and cranked neck tools.
3. Left hand and right hand tools.
4. Round nose, straight nose and flat nose tools.
5. Slot cutting (parting oft) and side recessing tools
of
For rough cuts, a roughing tool is used which is without back rake angle.
Side rake .anglevaries from 1.0to .~Oo(smaller angle being for hard metals
-~
and larger angle for. soft metals). Side clearance varies from 5 to 6 and
end clearance .angle is from 3 to 8. ..
. .:
.
The finishing tool .is normally given the -front and side clearance between 20
to 4. a back rake.of about 2 is provided. ....
A right hand tool is fed towards the operator and a left hand tool away from
the operator. .
_
.
'A round nose tool is used for roughing and finishing the sides and bottoms
of grooves, keyways etc. .
A swan necked tool is used for finishing cast iron as it avoids any
possibility of chatter etc.
.
Shaper tools for cutting steel have. a side rake angle of 10-200 and a back
rake angle of 2-8 for cutting cast iron, a side rake angle of 3-10 and a
back rake angle of 0-3 is employed.
1.
2.
3.
4.
The cutting speed at which metal may be removed with a shaper depends
principally on :
The type of material being cut,
The amount of material being removed at each cut,
The kind of tool material e.g. high speed steel or cast alloy, and
The rigidity of the machine.
Given below are the values of cutting speed
metals/alloys using high speed steel cutting tool.
Material
Aluminum
Brass
Mild steel
Cast iron, soft
Tool steel
for shaping
different
61
61
24.4 - 30.5
18.3 - 21.3
15.2-18.3
Cutting speed on shaper may be defined as the average speed of tool during
the cutting stroke and depends primarily onthe number of ram strokes per
minute and the length of the stroke.
Let
L = Length of stroke in metres
N = Number of strokes per minute
Thus the distance moved by the shaper tool per minute
. == LN metres
.
. ... ,. (a)
Since shaper works only during the cutting stroke and does no cutting du~ng
the return or idle stroke, the ratio of cutting speed to return speed ente!s mto
~t}"'D~e.
Q....t.UJf)
_-.
2-
t\;e
nroe
~t\~
lE)tcM
.;:;.
me
ffi
:d- - '\BI
-n
From (a) and (b) we fmd that the time actually spent in cutting LN-m is only
3/5 min and not I min because no cutting is done during the return or idle
stroke. Thus in 3/5 minutes the tool cuts LN metes length and therefore in 1
minute the tool will cut 5LN
............
(c)
From (c), the number of strokes/minute for a desired cutting speed is then
N
-
-=.
c;l~~~~
L-"
=.."
~bLC.C5.
~.
T -:::
(~J
_ _ _
:3,t
"-I
Problem. Calculate the cutting speed of the shaper when it makes strokes/minute,
each 30 em long. Assume cutting stroke return stroke ratio of 3/2.
Solution.
N = 60 stroke/min.
==-EQ_
-::....0-.3401.
'0'0
=-30.06 m1min.
o
00
(Ans.
10.42 mlmin)
Shaperfeed
.. Feed per stroke on a shaper is comparable to the feed per revolution on a
lathe.
-
e.
Coarse feeds for roughing range up to 25 mm per stroke and for finish _cuts
to 0.125 to 0.37? mm per stroke .
..Depth of cut.
Depth of cut may be defined as the thickness of metal removed in one cut.
Depth of cut is the distance through which the shaper tool digs into the
meta] during the- cutting stroke.
Depth of cut can be quite heavy: roughing cuts up to 6.35 mm deep are not
unusual.
.
..
L be the length of stroke (m) of shaper (including too] clearance at each end
of stroke).
Vc Be the cutting speed in m/min
V,)3e the return speed in m1min
jBe the feed per cycle in m.
J) ;JllencetroOfQU~
Machining'time
.
.
l L)
e.h.. __
\
. ~I~~
~c ~-
V4
- -lD
.
.. Thus, total time
-t ~~
fOT
Vf2>
- -
one cycle,
-@
.
Now, shaping width W = width of the workpiece + distance
.-thetool moves on either side of
-fhe workpiece ensure that the
full width of the workpiece has
been machined.
The number of cycles* required to machine the workpiece
~:~~.'(o~et
I .RQ)-u.lf)<S\~1
i
~T
Example. Calculate the time to machine 25.0 rnm long plate ]00 mm wide. Too!
clearance at each end of stroke is 30 mm and 20 mm respectively. Cutting speed is
10 m1minute and return speed is 20 rn/min. feed is I mm per cycle and the distance
the tool moves on either side of the work in width direction is 10 mm each.
..
v~ ~1 o
V~ :::.2-0
fn) ) to.)
iI).
riD ~CDIf).
2.~
(DOD
= 5.4
mins (ANS.)
IbDt>
(b
G0
tOQOX\O
if _3_D,()~.~
':LV
i \ OOt) '"
. Housing
.,
Housing
T661head
--
_,_
Feed
Motion
(a)
Block diagrarn
showing the basic components
of a double-housing planer.
Crossrail
Tool head
-
_,_
Feed
Motion
Block diag ram
of an open-side planer.
. ......
Tool holder
Workpiece
'"
Depthof cut
, (t)
1HOXO
TOOL FEED
back and forth across the work, whereas it is reverse in a planer: In a planer,
the tool is stationary
and the W.orkpiec{f
travels back and forth under the
.
tooL
:I!
2. A planer is meant for much large jobs than can be undertaken on a shaper.
Jobs as large as 6 metro wide and twice as long can be machined on a
planer.
I
7. Most planers differ from shapers in that they approach more constant
velocity cutting speeds.
8. Because of better rigidity of planer, as compared to that of a shaper, planer
can give more accuracy on machined surfaces.
Types of planers
Planers may be classified in a number of ways, but according to general
construction, there are the following types:
l, Double housing planer
2. Open side planer
3. Pit type planer
4. Edge or plate type planer
5. Divided table planes
I
,-
-..,
Housin
ejSS-raiI
-~
I-~
_1
Jt
.
~
Cross-rail" ~.
Tool Heads
11
-i
I:
Table
Bed
+-t
I
Planer.
Side
Tool
Head
,..---
HOU5INGS---..
OVER. AR~
SUPPORl
lABlE
bED
1. Bed
.' .
2. Worktable
I
- The table is a heavy rectangular casting which carries the work past the
cutting heads. It travels on vee or flat ways of the bed.
The.tablesis driven either by a very long hydraulic cyclinder or by a pinion
gear driving a rack which is fastened under the center of the table. The
motor driving the pinion gear is of riverside type with variable speed.
- The upper surface of the table bas T slots in it to facilitate the clamping of
. the work or vises and special fixtures with T-bolts. The top surface of the
table also has accurate holes for supporting the stop pins etc.'
- The side of the table has a groove for clamping planer reversing dogs at
different positions.
In some planers, hydraulic bumpers are fitted at the end of the bed to avoid
the table from over-running.
3. Column or housing
-
The frame of the planer is the same hollow-box type used on large milling
machines. The frame is basically two heavy columns fastened at the bottom
to the machine bed. This creates a very strong, rigid Structure which will
handle heavy loads without deflection.
On a double housing planer, two housings or columns rise vertically at the
sides of the machine. They support the cross-rail and house the elevating
screws and controls for the machine.
4. Cross-rail
The cross-rail is a heavy box or similar construction. It is mounted 'in a
horizontal position on the vertical ways of the housing, If slides up and
down on vee or flat ways, controlled by hand or by power~perated screws:
. These cross-rails are so heavy that they are counter-weighted, with either
cast-iron weights or hydraulic fyclinders, in order that they may be moved
easily and positioned accurately. After being positioned., they are clamped
in place,
The purpose of the cross-rail, 'is to carry the vertical tool-heads which by
means of feed screws may be moved from left to right.
It is very essential that the cross-rail, when clamped, be parallel to the table
for obtaining accurate machined surfaces.
5. Saddle
I
The sat:lcfle is fitted to the ways of the cross-rail. On its front surface are '.:
ways to which the tool-head is fitted together with avertical movement of
the toolhead. There are two saddles one for the left toolhead, the other for ..'
the right toolhead. Each one may be operated independently of the other.
!
6. Tool head
". -
The tool head is attached to the saddle which contains the tool post which,
in Iturn, holds the cutting tool. The tool post is hinged to the head so that on
the return movement of the table the cutting tool will be raised and ride on
the top of work. This saves the cutting edge of the tool from being damaged
and permits the automatic traverse feed to operate without interference,
A feed screw is provided to move the toolhead with respect to work. The
toolhead can be swiveled for taking angular cuts.
There are four toolheads, two in vertical, position on the cross-rail, and the
other two known as side toolheads mounted one each on the two columns
below the cross-rail (Fig 52tr )
Introduction:
A planer driving mechanism provides the longitudinal to and fro motion of
the planer worktable. The following methods are employed for the said
purpose.
1. Open and cross belt drive.
2. Hydraulic drive.
-' . A planer feed mechanism .provides downfeed and crossfeed to 'the'planer
tool. The downfeed is applied when machining an angular or vertical
surface and crossfeed is applied when machining horizontal surface. The
feed is provided intermittently and at the end of the return stroke as in a
shaper, The feed may be given by hand or by power. The methods
employed for power feed are:
1. Friction disc mechanism
2. Electrical drive
3. Hydraulic drive.
.
.' .
- . The worktable of the planer can be driven by one of the three methods...
I. Rack and spur gears
2. Spiral rack and worm
3. Crank.
1. Open and crossbelt drive mechanism with rack and spur gears
- (Fig. 5 2-5.) shows this mechanism.
"
OOIV Plil1~
...1.1SHIFTIR
.'.
TIGHT
P(}'un 5 --
lOOSEPUUfY".-!lAl. GEA:t
2ND INTIR~OIAT
1ST .tc1"[J(MEOJAl' .
1Jf1
~{~fr)
Crossed belt is used for forward or cutting stroke and the open belt for return
motion. "The open and crossed belt drive ~echanism permits operation of the
gear train in such a mennerthat the. table will travel slowly on the cutting
stroke and travel faster on the return stroke.
.
For obtaining continuous forward and return motion of the planer table,
both the open and crossed blets run continually, and are shifted back and
forth by the belt shifter which is linked to the reverse lever.
During cutting stroke the crossed belt is on the tight pulley the open belts
is on the loose pulley and the position is reverse during the return stroke.
Belt shifter, reverse lever and the trip dogs are responsible for relative
shifting of belt automatically at the end of each stroke, without stopping the
machine. Trip dogs are provided, each at both ends of the planer table. At
the end of each stroke, trip dog meets against the reverse lever, actuates the
belt shifter and thus the table movement is reversed.
2. Hydraulic drive
A hydraulic drive system of planer provides a wide range of cutting speeds.
The hydraulic drive system of a planer is similar or that used in a shaper
(Refer Fig . .5. "f.
) but with certain modifications because of the
follo_'ing reasons:
1. Stroke length of a planer is much longer than that of the shaper.
2. Higher cutting and return speeds very much stress the oil pipe lines
during the time of reversal. More than one cylinder may be
employed in some cases to eliminate this difficulty.
(Fig. 5 2. ) shows a hydraulic system to accurate the worktable and tool
travel of a planer.
CUT
a.
WORK HOLDING
DEVICES
..
Planer vise
. BlOCk
Step block
Offsef Clomp
',r-
F)(j5-)_!f
~~~
ht)~'~~~'Q?-i-
f}
. ....
_ Planer vise may be employed for holding small jobs, but it is not much
used, since if a job is small enough to be held. in this way, it is of a
convenient size for the shaping machine and should not be wastefully
taking up capacity greaterthan is necessary. Sometimes, for planning the
edge of a long strip, two vises may be used in line for holding the work,
_ The most common way of holding work is to clamp it directly to the table
of the planer. The table has T-slots cut on its surface to accommodate Tbolts. Many styles of clamps are-available to suit particular situations. The
clamp transmits the clamping force to the workpiece. It must be situated
parallel to the clamping surface. Thus the bearing surface is made large
enough. The T-bolts should be iocated close to the workpiece so that a large
clamping for is effected by the lever. Clamp shown at 'D' is offset or
cranked clamp. This is advantageous at the end of a workpiece.
_ Planer screw jack is used to support the overhanging position of the
. workpiece so that it does Dotbend or distort.
Step blockhelp in supporting workpieces of different heights.
- .Angle 'plates can support L-shaped workpieces.
Stops stop the workpiece from changing its position under the thrust of cut.
- Vee blocks can be used for holding circular jobs.
\
PLANER OPERATIONS
The following operations can ~e carried out on a planer:
1. Planing of flat horizontal surfaces
2. Planing vertical surfaces. .:
3. Planing at an angle
4. Planing curved surfaces:
5. Planing a helix.
6. Planing slots and grooves.
7. Gang or multiple planning.
\
!
For doing above planer operations one has to adjust the cutting tool in a
proper position regard to that of the workpiece and then the necessary
motion is to be imparted to the tool so as to cut either in the horizontal
direction or vertical direction or along a curved path.
(Fig. f5 '00. ).shows how a circular surface is cut~planer.
Gang or multiple planning ensures a uniform product and greatly reduces
the rime required for machining.
"tt530.Planing
a curvedsurface.
When a number of duplicate parts have to be planed, much time can often
be saved by arranging the castings in a straight row along the platen of the
planer, so that they can be planed at the same time.
Solution.
Hencetotalcuttingtime=(a)(b}==453 OJ37
= 62 min. .
.....
Since the return speed is double the cutting speed, the return time will be half of
the cutting time.
Hence total time required for planning the job will be 62 min + 31 min == 93
minutes. (Ans).
Example. A piece of work ~.6~.76em l06.68 em require three cuts. The cutting
speed of the machine is 121~.2 em/min and the return stroke 182&.8em/min. The
first and second cut have a feed of 6.35 nun per cutting stroke and the last 12.70
mm per cutting stroke. Find how long the job will take to complete, allowing 15
minutes for adjusting tools and neglecting overrun of the table.
(ADs. Cutting time 126 min, Return time 84 min, Total time for planning job 225
minutes).
6
Milling Machines
1
Introduction
"Milling" is the name given to the machining process in which the removal of
metal takes place due to the cutting action of a revolving cutter when the work is
metal fed past it. The revolving cutter is held on a spindle or arbor and the work,
damped on the machine table, fed past the same. In doing so, the teeth of the
cutter remove the metal, in the from of chips, from the surface of the work to
produce the desired shape.
Working principle in milling
..The working principle, employed in the metal removing operation on a milling
machine,' is thatthework is rigidly clamped on the table of the machine. or held
between centers, and revolving multiteeth cutter mounted either on a spindle or an
arbor. The cutter revolves at a fairly high speed and the work fed slowly past the
cutter, as shown in (Fig. G -1). The work can be fed in a vertical, longitudinal
or cross direction. As the work advances, the cutter-teeth remove the metal from
the work surface to produce the desired shape:
.-
ARBOR
CUTTER
.. I
..
"
in
Production
milling machines
They are also manufacturing machines but differ from the above described
machines in that they do not have a fixed bed. They include the fonowing
machines:
(a) Rotary table or continuous type.
(b) Drum type, and
(c) Tracer controlled.
In the coming articles you will find a brief description of all the above types of
milling machines. Detailed description will, however, confine to the column and
knee typ~ milling machines only as they are the most commonly used machines in
tool rooms and machine shops,
oyer. it. is moved by hand to feed the work.: This machine is specially usefu1 in
pr()~ticing small components like hexagonal Sf square heads on bolts, -cutting slots
longitudinal, cross and vertical (up and down) but cannot be swiveled, FOr giving
vertical movement to the table the knee itself, together. with the whole unit above
it, slides up and down along the ways provided il; front of the column. For giving
cross movement to the table, the saddle is moved towards or away from the
column along. with the whole unit .above it. A brace is employed to provide
additional support and rigidity to the arbor when a long arbor- is used. Both hand and
power feeds can be employed for the work.
.
BRACE
. ...
COLUMN
......
KNEE
SCREW
J.A. CK
~.ASE
Fig.~\
2,
'
In derives its name from the vertical position of the spindle. This nkchine is available in
both types; the fixed bed type as well as column and knee type. Principle parts of the
latter type are illustrated by means of block diagram in{Fig. 6.3.) and (Fig. 6.4.). It carries
a vertical column on a heavy base. The overarm in this machine is made integral with the
column and carries a l~ousing atits front This housing, called head, can be of fixed type
(Fig. 6.3.) or swiveling type (Fig. ), In fixed type, the spindle always remains vertical
and can be adjusted up and down. In' swiveling type, the head can be swiveled to 'any
desired angle to machine the inclined surfaces.
FiXED
HEAD
....._...-SPINDLE
~..HIt---
CUTTER
COLUMN
JACK
Fig.
b'OJ
Vcrticalmi!ling
machine
SWIVELLING
HEAD
..
",""-A-A.--,rh::=-_ SPIN 0 L E
!
~~=CUTTER
.::;.
WORK
..-. .......
,-....__.-1' AM. E
COlUWN
I -
SADDLE
{/
The knee carries an enclosed screw jack, by means of which it is moved up and
down along the parallel vertical guideways provided on the front side of the
column .. The- saddle is mounted on the knee and can' be moved, along the
horizontal guideways provided on the knee towards or away from the column .
.This enables the table to move in cross direction. The table is mounted on
at
SCREW
ARM
SPINDL E
HEAD
(ADJUSTABLE)
I
FI XED
BED
I
C01.UMN
~_-----~_-_ll
1
----Fig.
-,---:8~.:..A~S::_-~Eo
c .s.
4 ADJU,STA~BlE
5 PIN D L t;
HEAD
L
r~~
S'P! N D l ~ 5
feu!
TfR\
lo;::;--]JI
I, ~
~
0\
\
W,) R K
L T.A.BLE
.I!
I
-
<:)
..\.\
I~~
nl;!c{:illl..
'=qAOJUSTA_BL_I=
_L_,
,S
PIN 0 i
r.
HE.l\O
"
-T~it
,
--1
~ I
FI X F.: 0
BED
COLUMN
t~-~----~--~----~--------
Triplex-head
..
This particular type of fixed bed milling machine enb!es machining of surfaces
lying in different planes. As usual,' it consists of a fixed bed carrying the, table
which has a longitudinal movement only. The spindle carrier carries a horizontal
spindle. An automatic cycle; operated either hydraulically or electrically,
synchrpnises the vertical movement of the spindle carrier and longitudinal
movement of the table, such that it enahles machining of surfaces which lie in
different places, blind or hidden portions and curved profiles, etc. in all other
respects it resembles the fixed bed type plain milling machine .
fixed bed type milling machines. Because of their planer type construction, they
are frequently known as plano-miHs. A typical type of plano-mill is shown by 8
block diagram in (Fig. 6 <::J-. ). It consists of a fixed bed, carrying the table, which
has a longitudinal movement only. Two vertical columns, one each on the two
sides of the bed, carry a milling head each. A bridge or cross-radii is fitted, as
shown across the column or housing, as they are better known in this cross-rail can
be raised or lowered to suit the height- of the work. Two vertical milling are fitted
on the cross-rail, which can travel along it. The two side miJIing heads can move
up and down along the respective housings.
the four cutters can be operated
simultaneously to machine four surfaces on the work at a time.
An
/
.........
"
.....,._
CROSS RAIL
..l_
VERTICAL
HEAD
HEAD
.::rr
.J::r'
I-
o
rt-~ ..,
MOTOR
MILLING
HEAD
j
po,
.....
g
~
MIL LING
fIillllJj
SIDE OR
HORIZONl'AL
.....
VERTICAL
MILLING
~MOTOR..
jor""
..l_
tI1L11 111
."
MIll_lNG CUTTE~.
.
TA8lf
. ... .'
~
CROSS
RAil.
. $lor
~
.-t::::::
OR
HORIZOHTAl
Mllqt'f(;
. HEAD
1 .1
0
"".
COlVNN
"'XED lED
t=H
..
......
....
"
MOTOR
"
COlUlIafH
t
~
I. ~
MOTO R
The main difference between ~ planer and this machine is in table movement. The'
table in this machine moves 'slow.and provides feed only while that in a planer'
moves faster and provides the cutting speed to the operation.
_
The work can be machined in four different ways, according to requirements, .as. "
follows:"
"
1. By moving the table, the cutters rotating in position.
2. By keeping the table stationary and feeding the cutters by moving th_e,;:', "
milling heads.
, ,,::j, .. _,';
3. By moving the table and the mi11ingheads simultaneously.
',_"
flf{ji,{(Lf
4. By keeping the table stationary, moving the cross-rail downwards and illgFf:i~
side cutters up and down.
,:f, .
These milling machines are constructed for very heavy-duty work where general,IY.:",
flat surfaces are to be machined. The milling heads mounted on these machines "'.
can be of fixed type or swiveling type, the latter type facilitating machining' ~'(:<;,:_::'l.
inclined surfaced also. Number of these heads depends upon the number 'of'" -:.,.
, surfaces to be machined at a time. Sometimes a single hotiiontalarbo.r is mounted
on these machines to carry several cutters for gang mil1ing.
z
... .
1 I
MOTORS
SPINDLE
CARRIER\
RF:VOLViNG
CUTTE:RS
REVOLVING
CIRCULAR -.
TABLE
side of the machine. It is reckoned that this machine gives a production double that
of a rotary table machine.
r- -- MOTORS-----~
z;:L======-'
- I
...........
. .
ROUGHING CUTTERS
~....
jl'ORUM
""
SPINDLE..-g
HEAD
~
~~
~~~n
~--~
,_
..._____,
t-s...._P,......
NO-..JUL_:~
HEAD
r::
II-
SPINDLE
HEAD
COL UMNS
___,.j
_ji_Lj_LrC~~~J
___
BASE
Fig.
. FINISHING J
CUTTERS
. r~~
r __~~~_L~
~JU'_
!--
l~ .. _"""""""-
SPINDLE.
~ HEAD
I-
Ge
. ... ...
CROSS
TRt.LER
PAIL
HEAD
COLUMN-.......
CONTACT FINGER
.._.;.._
CUTT~R
WOk~PIECE.
'1,---
. TABLE
..
>
CUTTER
.+,,"
.
...........
-+f=~;=.~l
\,;
I~:+<'
-+(-i- -) ..
)'f_/'
WORK _./
Fig. blJ,
l'
.1
('---_.
. ". . ....."
It derives its name from the planetary (circular) Path that is cutter or cutters
adopt during the operation. These machines are available in both horizontal and
vertical spindle types. A special feature of these machines is that, contrary to the
normal method, the work is held stationary while the revolving cutters move in. a
circular path to machine the surface either separately or simultaneously, as
desired, Special use of these machines is in machining heavy or delicate type of
work, which cannot be rotated and fed against the cutter. The operation is also
called. Plana-milling.
_
Another specific use of this type of machine is in simultaneously milling external
and internal threads of different pitches or milling threads in different holes.
Whose centres lie on a circle; in a single setting without disturbing the work piece.
This operation is usually termed as p}aaa:.tlirearling.
.
..
..
~ F: PT.!"i OF CVT
..
r-
OF- CUT
Fi?t._s_13. Pll~te, ~
, DEPTH
plwle:t1
>7 G"6)jUi1f~
OVER ARM.
- ~YOKE
,,11'
,,-
BRACE
./
\
ARBOR
..
~.
CUTTER
.#
WORK
COLUMN
0 1
.SADDLE
___.
ITABlE
L--";:';'~----__"
1I
'I
I
I
KNEE
J
J~ .
,I
\
SCREW ......
. JA CK
BASE
_" ..
.Fig.
6'Ir. Main
machine.
machines essentially consist of the following main parts {See Fig. (;-1 't-).
1. Base. It is a heavy casting provided at the bottom of the machine. It is
accurately machined on both the top and bottom surfaces. It actually acts as
load bearing member for an other parts of the machine. Column of the
machine is secured to it. Also, it carries the screw jack which supports and
moves the knee. In addition to this, it also serves as a reservoir for the
coolant.
2. Column. It is a very prominent part of a milling machine and is produced
with enough care. To this, are fitted all the various parts and controls, On
the front face of the column are made the vertical parallel ways in which
the knee slides up and down. At Its rear side, it carries the enclosed motor
drive. A cover
. is provided on this side, which can be
..opened to enable accessibility to thedrive~
Topofthe column carries
dovetail horizontal ways for the over 8011.
cast
..
'
either side. Cross feed is provided by moving the saddle and "verticalfee<f
by rasing or lowering the knee. Both hanJ feed and power feed can be
employed for all these movements, When power feeds are employed the .
adjustable stops should be used to.trip out the same at the correct moment..
In addition to the above feeds, most of the moern milling machines carry
mechanisms to provide rapid traverse in all the three directions to effect
saving in time. In universal milling machines the table is made to have a
graduated circular base resting on the saddle. Such a table can be swiveled
in a horizontal plane around the centre of its base and the graduations_on' the latter help in adjusting the required swivel.
..," ,
6. Overarm. It is the heavy support provided on the top of both plain and ".
universal milling machines. It can slide horizontally, along the ways,.
provided on the top of the column, and adjusted to a desired position order "
to provide support to the projecting arbor by accommodating its free end in
the yoke. Iffurther support is needed, to have additional rigidity, braces can
be employed to connect the overarm and the knee. Such a requirement is
always tllere whenmanycutters are employed simultaneously.
. .....
Up or Conventional Milling. In this method of milling the cutter rotates in a
direction opposite to that in which the work is fed (see Fig. J; 15.
)
Down or Clim b Milling. In this method the direction of rotation of the cutter
coincides with the direction of work feed, as shown in (Fig. 6-16 _
)
_.,
-_/',,~" -
_"
/'
j/
//
~CU11
- --......_~
""'.//, '
\\
--
. : ~_ ~_
~
<,
"
ERS ~
/
,
........_
_ ',,-
/:
"
;' I\..
: !
I I,
_- -
Ij
./
WORK
WORK
TA8LE
-r ABL
...
The ~.bove relative directions of movements of the cutter and work should be
noted at the point of contact between the two. On comparing (Fig
)
you win find that the shape of chip (shaded area between points A and B) removed
by the cutter in both the cases is the same, but an important difference is that in
conventional milling., as the cut proceeds, the chip thickness increases graduaUy ;
as from A to B Against this, the chip this thikness decreases in case of climb
milling. In other words we can say that chip thickness in con ventional milling, is
minimum (zero) at the start of the cut and maximum at the end of the cut, whereas
in climb or downmiJIing, it is a reverse case, i.e., maximum in the beginning ad
zero at the end.
The selection of a particular method, of the above two, depends upon the nature of
work. The fonner method i.e., conventional milling is commonly used for
machining castings and forgings since this method enables the cutter to dig-in and
start the cut below the hard upper surface. The second method i.e., climb mining is
particularly useful for finishing operations and small work, such as slot cutting,
milJing grooves, slitting, etc. it gies a better surface finish but it should be ensured,
be before employing this method, that there is DO backlash in the feeding
mechanism of the table and the work is rigidly held.
Milling operations
. . ..
ear.
SLAB MILL
. Fig. G f
'J.
..
2. Face Milling. This milling process is employed for machining a flat surface which is at right angles to the axis of the rotating cutteT- The cutter
used in this operation is the face milling cutter (See Fig - G. lB
) .
CUTTER
....
F!g.
3. Angular
4.
FOIfTTl
.surfaces which are of irregular shapes. The cutter used, called a form
milling. cutter, will have the shape of its cutting teeth. conforming to. the
profile,. of,..the surface to be produced. {See Fig. G 2D
)."
. .
.CONVEX
CUTTER
(76
Fig. 6'.:2. i Straddle milling.
s.
"
fl)
Mill
CurttR_
",,'lAIN SlOT~
_----I
..
WOHK
I
WORK
I
1
FI:~tSHEDJ
''T- SLOT
"\
iT-SLOT
CUTTER
"
fig
C 51 ARTlN G MILLING
(b)
OF T - SLOT)
Work having milled plain slots. (b) Milling T-.<;lots with T-slot milling cutter.
ROUGH MACHINED
RECTANGULAR
SLOT
I
(0)
ROUGH
MACHINED
DOVETAIL
SLOT
Fig 6.-'--'T.
C) t.. MOll"
L mg a Do
. vetail. slot
(a) Rough
( b)
00
(c)
En1 mill. Then the slot is milled to the required shape by using a special cutter a
T-srot cutter for T-slot and a Dovetail milling cutter for dovetail slots. The
operation of finish mi1ling aT-slot is shown in (Fig
). Production of
a Dovetail slot in three stage is shown in (Fig
)~At(a) is shown a
rectangular slot produced through rough machining means of a plain milling
cutter. The required angles of the dovetail are then rough machined by means of a
from angle cutter and a rough machined dovetail slot obtained, as shown at
(Fig:
'
). The slot is sinally finished by machining the base and sides of
. the slot with the.help of dovetail milling cutter.
~
l'
Keyway Milling
Milling of a keyway is a commonly performed operation on a milling machine in
which a groove is milled, usually on shafts and spindles. This groove is known as
key seat. The groove can be open or closed, depending upon the type of key to be
used and the position in which. it is to be used (Fig
). Shows the
three common forms of key seats the three common forms of key seats. At (a} is
shown a woodruff key seat milled with a woodruff keysear cutter. It is a closed groove with a rounded bottom. At (b) is shown a plain.keyseat milled with a single.
plain or side .milling cutter. It is an open groove. At (c) is shown the operation of
milling a keyseat for a sunk key with the help of an endmill cutter. It is a closed.
groove with rouned ends. This type of key seat can be produced anywhere along
the length of the workpiece. Same is the case with woodruff key seat.
WOODRUFF
KEY SEAT
KEYWAY
(CLOSED)
extends beyond the jaws of the vice. In other cases, the workpiece may be clamped
directly on the machine table using suitable job holding devices. An important
precaution in this case is to keep the line of cutting in the centre of aT-slot and
running along its length. This will allow the slitting saw to project safely into the
free space in the slot to prevent its teeth from being damaged. A parting off
operation, being performed by means of a slitting saw, is shown in (Fig
)
SlITT ING
SAW
COLLAR
Fig.
Side Milling
In this operation, a side milling cutter is used to machine a flat vertical surface on
a side of the workpiece. When two paral1eJ vertical flat surfaces are required to be
machined, the usual time saving prefaces simultaneously, The space between the
two cutters can be easily adjusted as per requirement by using the spacers. This'
operation is then known as 'straddle milling' and is already explained.
.End Milling
In.this' operation, an end mill cutter is used to machine and produce a flat surface
or apair of parallel flat surfaces. When the operation is -performed at the -end of a
workpiece, as shown in (Fig
ja single flat surface is' produced. If
however, the operation in sucha way that cutting of metal takes placeon both
sides of the cutter, two parallel flat surfaces are produces; as happens in milling a
plain slot, as described in .
the surfaces produced may be horizontal,
vertical or inclined with respect to the top of the machine table. For producing a
horizontal surface, the axis of rotation of the cutter has to be horizontal, for
vertical surface it remains vertical and for inclined surface it is to be set at proper
inclination with the table top.
Profile Milling
It is the operation in which the profile of a template or the shape of the cavity of a
rnaste.r~dieisduplicated onthe work surface. The movement of the cutter is guided
by a tracer control unit which carries a contact finger. This finger runs in contact
with the 'outline to be duplicated and the trace} mechanism
. guides. the .tool
.
movement accordingly.
Gear Milling
1"
.:
These heads, as already described, help in changing the angular position of the
component in relation to the cutter. With their use, it is possible to divide the
periphery of the workpiece into any number of equal parts. These heads are
generally of the following three types:
1. Plain dividing head.
2. Universal diving head.
3. Optical dividing head.
Out of these, the last one i.e., the optical dividing head is the most precision
attachment and is therefore, used for very precision indexing work for checking
the indexing accuracy of t-heother 1ypes of dividing heads. 11sdetailed description
I
I
1
1
i
i
,
!
iI
1
is beyond the scope of this small chapter. The other two types of the dividing
heads will now be discussed in detail.
INDEX
PLATE
CARRIER
t
CENTRE
HANDLEVER FOR
',-LOCKINf. THE C PINOLE
FiB'
~~2- %.
)<w't
,~tc~ ,
The dividing head spindle and the other on the tailstock (Fig, b'2.%.
). The
hand lever is used for locking the spindle in position. In operation, a lug engages
the desired slot of the indexing plate. By means of this dividing head 2,3,4,6,8,12
and 24 divisions can be obtained when 24 slots plate is used and 2,3,4,6, and 12
divisions when a 12 slots plate is used. The plate, together with the spindle, can be
rotated hy means of the handle provided on the left side of the dividing head.
Another useful from of the plain dividing iread . is the one used in simple
indexing (Fig. G. 29.
). It consists of'a cast body, carrying the spindle. On the
front .end of the spindle are _mounted ,the carrier and the centre. On its rearside is
mounted the index plate, which is having-different hole circle on its face and teeth
on its periphery; The plate gets movement through a worm by rotating the handle.
The crank, carrying the pin, is mounted on a bolt .about which it can be swing to
any desition to bring the pin in front of the desired hole. Usually, plates having 3
circles .16, 42 and 60 or 24, 30 and 36 holes are provided on these heads. Other
plates of different hole circles may also be available in the market. The job is held
between centres are usual:
SPINDLE
LOCK LEVER
INDEX
PLATE
CARRIER
CRANK
PIN
CRANK
Fig.
6:~
_.
, BRACKE'T
..
.'
CENTRE
ARM
INDEXING
FIg.
b,.60 Universal
PLATE
dividing head.
, ~ L.
Is the worm drive, which consists of a worm and worm wheel. Details of this
internal mechanism are shown in (Fig t G 31.
). The dividing head
.......
WORM
WHEEL
CRANK
PIN
WORM
.SHAFT
Side
View
<,
CARRIER
As: described. above, the dividing head provides support to the job, holds it in
position and. rotates -it.through a desired augle after each cut is over. The index
crank is rotated to provide the rotary motion to the job and the index plate enables
this rotation to take place always through a desired angle. When the crank is
.rotates which, in tum, rotates the, worm wheel. Since this wheel is mounted
directly on the spindle the latter rotates alongwith the tormer. The job, being
secured to the spindle by means of a suitable holding device, also rotates as the
spindle rotates. The angle through which the job will rotate, for each revolution of
the crank, depends upon the velocity ratio between the worm and worm-wheel. This ratio is usually 40 to I, i.e., for 40 revolution of the worm, or of the crank, the
job will make one revolution. Obviously, if the worm is single start the wheel will
have 40 teeth along its periphery. However some dividing heads carry a different
velocity ratio of these two and the same should be known before performing the.
actual indexing operation.
A set change gears can be incorporates to connect the worm shaft and the spindle; -These g~~rs-are mounted on the left hand side of the dividing head, as shown in
(Fig. G. 00.
).The index plates, which are normally two or three in number,
are p:ovided with a number of circles on each face. Each of thes~ circles carries a
definite number of holes on them. The standard brown and sharp index plates have
the following circles:
No.1. 15,16,17,18,19,20.
No.2. 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33.
No. 3. 37~ 39, 41, 43, 47, 49.
Some German made dividing heads, which are now quite commonly supplied with
. a large number of milling machines manufactured in our country, are supplied
with a set of 3 index plates carrying hole circles as follows:
I
f)n".L
<1'" JJL.Ve
T~
49.
N(). L
"-\1\)3
'
41, 47.
This obviously, provides a much wider range for indexing as compared tv the
brown and sharp type.
!
Some dividing heads, used for simple indexing, are provided with a single plate
only, It carries holes on its both sides as follows:
IDoe-xing l\iethods
By indexing we mean division of the job periphery into a desired number of equal
divisions. It is accomplished by a controlled movement of the crank such that the
job rotates through a definite angle each cut is over. The following methods of
indexing are commonly used:
I
1. Direct-indexing
2. Plain carsimple indexing
3. Compound indexing.
4. Differential indexing
5. Angular indexing.
i
Now we will discuss these methods of indexing in detail in the fourthcoming
articles.
!
Direct indexing
It is the simplest case of indexing in which a plain dividing head dividing head,
shown in (Fig. (b. -2-t::J-. ) is used. As indicated there, the index plate is directly
mounted on the spindle and rotated by hand. It can used only when the number of
divisions to be obtained is suchtharthe number of slots on the periphery of the
index plate is a multiple of the former, The indexing ratio is obtained by;
Required ratio =
"-\
'1
Where,
N = No. of slots on the periphery of the index plate.
And
n = No. of divisions required to be obtained.
.
For example, if the circumference of a job has to be divided into 6 equal divisions
and the index plate has 24 slots, then the required ratio will be:
=
~=}i_
If>
i.e., the index plate will be required to move through 4 slots after each cut is over.
Alternatively; the plain indexing head, shown in (Fig
) can also be used
for direct indexing. For this, the worm will have to be kept out of mesh with the
worm wheel and the ratio obtained in the same way as above. For example,
suppose we have to divide the circumference of a job into 10 equal divisions. We
select the 60 holes circles and calculate the movement of crank pin as follows:
..The required movement ~
o. ....
This method if indexing is used when the direct method of indexing cannot be
employed for obtaining the required of division on the work. For example, if the
work is required to be divided into 22 equal divisions the direct indexing cannot be
used, because 22 is not divisible into any of the hole circles on jhe .direct indexing
plate. For such cases, simple indexing can easily be used.
For this, either a plain indexing head (Fig
) or a-universal dividing head
can be used. This method of indexing involves the use of the crank, worm, worm
wheel and indexing plate. As already described, the worm wheel carries 40 teeth
an~ the worm is single start. The worm wheel is directly mounted on the spindle .
.'
R~fer to (Fig. b' 3 1. ). You will find thatwhen the crank pin is pulled putwards
-and the crank is rotated, the worm will rotate which
turn, will rotate the worm
wheel, and hence the spindle and the work. Since the worm has single start thread
and the worm wheel 40 teeth, with one turn of the crank (i.e., of the worm) the
worm wheel will rotate through one pitch distance, i.e., equal to 1/40 of a
revolution. Similarly 2 turns of crank will make the work to rotate through 1120
and 3 turns through 3/40 of a revoiution. Thus, the crank will have to be rotated
through 40 turns in order to rotate the work through one complete tum. The holes
in the index plate serve to subJivide the rotation of the index crank.
N ow suppose we want to divide the work into a number of divisions, the
corresponding crank movements will be as given below:
L:
.:t.3?2-
!I!!_ = 10 turns
'r
= 4 turns
Crank movement
40
turns
divisions, then the
, ':/-
.i3;::: J E3 turns.
Now, in the obtained results, the whole number indicates the number of full turns
the turns the crank has to move through, and the fraction represents the part of the
tum that the crank has to make; in addition to the above, in order to make the work
to rotate through one required division, I. e., 17/23 of a revolution. In the fraction,
......'the numerator.denotes
the numberof'holes to be moved and the denominator the
.
number"of holes on the circleto be used. Thus, for the above indexing, for each
division on the job, the crank will make' one complete revolution and will move
further through 17 holes on 23 holes circle.
"
To set the
spacing on the index plate, and avoid error and confusion in counting
the hole every time, the sector arms should by used. These arms can by set such
that they will contain between them only as' many holes on a particular circle as
are required. This spacing can be maintained for as many operation as desired. For
giving full tum to the crank, the pin can be withdrawn from the hole and the crank
turned. For the remainder, the pin should be moved from one arm to the other and
then "engaged: "After engaging the pin the arms can. he moved further to set the
spacing for the next-operation,
Now, let us solve a few examplesto.make the method more clear. Take into
account the brown and sharp plates for all these examples.
Example It is required to divide the periphery of a job into 60 equal division.
Find the crank movement
Solution.
Required movement
=~
bO
!:_
3
2- - ~
0
3-
Example
X ~
.e
;:'"
I 2_-
I%"
j
J \ 12- ho~~ b n I ~ rwiej C!., ~e
Required 35 divisions on a plate. Find the indexing movement.
Solution. -
-. - _.:
-It~
:3:5=- 1- =
Required movement
Now
g- -
=F
r ~
- 1.. ~
- 1.
6 -- --0
~- --:3--Tt
J(
(.ptw-e
f}D.2)
In case of fractions, you will find from the above two examples that itis just a hit
and trial method. The endeavour should be to multiply the denominator by such a
number that the resultant will give you one number or the other on anyone of the
3 plates. Multiply the numerator also by the same number and you will get the
result.
Compound Indexing
This method of indexing is employed when the number of divisions required is
outside the range that can be obtained by simple. It involves the use of two
separate simple indexing movements and is performed in two stages:
1. By turning the crank a definite amount in one direction in the same way an
in simple indexing
2. By turning the index plate and the crank both, either in the same or reverse
direction, thus adding further movement to or subtracting from that
obtained in the first stage.
Principle of compound indexing
The principle of compound indexing can be best illustrated by taking a concrete
- example. Let us consider that the crank is turned 3 holes on a 18 holes circle and
the index plate and dank
both turned. further 5 holes on 20.' holes circle On account
I
of these two movements the worm will be turned through."
r--
:)
1" __
5
j::: --
2-0
12- I
Since 40 turns of thel worm turn the work through 1 revolution .
\%
..1
J 2-.
i .e
36 ~5
-::.
e_
'YeJ(<>W.t>'1]
revolution
12-)('tfy
direction and then index along with the crank, turned 2 holes on 20 holes circle in
a direction opposite to the former. On account of these two movements the worm
6b~
Now, the corresponding movement of the work will be.
x__L
--;:=.- _L_
o t-
_ s-
- ~5
to
22-5:_j
and
Now, suppose the above expression, comes to the form llX, where X may be and
number. If a and b denote the numbers of holes on the two circles, then the
required indexing movement will be given by:
:A. _ ~
c;.o
cr ~
-:x.
C\'
The positive part of the two indicates the movement of the crank in one direction
and the negative part denotes the movement of plate and crank in the opposite
direction. It is always advisable to keep the backward, motion as smaller of the
two.
"
,
2nd Cbeck .
After finding the above two expressiolis, check that the algebraic sum of the two
movements, L e., of the crank in one direction, and that of the crank and plate in
.the opposite direction, should be equal to 40/N, where N is the number of
divisions required. Or, we can say that, if the correct result is obtained, then: ..
!<
---0...
+ -'A.
!.Lt)
)~
__,
__;_--N
Solution:
Suppose, we select circles of29 and 33 holes.
Putting the relevant factors in the form of the above stated expression
and
3~~9~~X2
. ..
~ ...
i.e.. we get unity in the numerator, indicating that the circles, se1e
tedare correct.
IID_
33;
2.~
or-
33
3.2-~
~
\\0
.-.~
- 3.!L
83
3..!J- - 3 ~
35
2-9.
29
Since, there are 3 common complete turns in each case they cancel out, leaving the
required movement as:
23 _ _!J_
__
."
OY
II
33
33
3
2-3.
~ 2
'I
Since we keep the forward motion of the crank as larger than the hackward motion
of the plate and crank path, we adopt the first expression for the required indexing
movement.
i.e., the movement
2:3
11
23
6~
iI
or, in more elaborate terms, we can say that the wore will be indexed through 1/87
of a revolution each time as the crank is moved forward 23 holes on 29 holes
circle and plate and crank backward 11 holes circle.
Now applying the second check.
----
t'NO
Solution.
Ito
Required movement
5 !
Let us try circ1es of 17 and 18 holes,
The first expression
..3)\ r q..x__
fo-x.
~x_)i-
-1
24-0.
X 3, X. ~
!-.~
__...2l:tD .....
DY" .:L[pn.
tg-
t:}
2lj-v
18-
1~.
142 -3._
I~
. 18
:::..
~
J
I 12 o r-
";:f-
/ CZ5
E _L
J
'is
1 !f-
tr-!1=
I
I f5
IfD
5)
!fa
--- ---N
The dividing heads are supplied with standard sets of change gears. Change gears
supplied with Brown & Sharpe dividing heads are the following:
24(2 Nos.), 28, 32,40,44,48,.56,64', 72, 86, 100.
In addition to this, some dividing heads. are provided with the following gears also:
A6, 47,52,58,68,
76, 84. .
.
The German made universal dividing heads, referred to in article 6.51, are
provided with the following set of gears.
24(2), 28, 32, 40, 44, 48(2), 56, 64, 72, 86, 96, 100.
Both simple and compound gear trains are used in differential indexing. Figs.
t;. 3Z.and~-33 show the simple and compound trains of gears respectively. In
these gear trains the first driver is always mounted on the main spindle of the
dividing head, i.e., the same spindle on which is mounted the worm wheel inside
and the job at the other end. The last driven is mounted on the worm spindle
which drives the index plate. The simple train consists of only one driver and one
driven, connected together through one or two idle gears. The compound train
consists of two driYen; and two driven whe'els. Thejirst driven and second driver
gears are mounted on a stnd, incorporated between the dividing head spindle and
the worm spindle. Idle gear may' or may not- be itseo. If it is used, it should be
incorporated between the second driver and second driven. The motion in indexing
is so transferred that when the crank is rotated the worm wheel, and hence the
spindle, is rotated in the usual way. This, in turn, rotates the first driver. The
motion is transferred to the last driven gear
the way shown in (Figss. bO'l.~
This, through the worm spindle, is ultimately transferred to the index plate. The
direction of rotation of the index plate depends upon the type of gear train
employed and the number of idle gears used therein. In the given diagrams the
directions of arrows indicate the directions of rotation of respective gears. The
index plate is required to be rotated in the same direction as the crank if motion is
to be gained and in reverse direction if the same is to be lost.
.
in
..:DIVIDfNG
.HE-AD
SPINDL E
1
I
rWORM
SPINDLE
.,'t_
DRIVEN
Fig. C;;;=S;;. Sirnnte
tr a in
.1
,.
c;,3:
/: DIVIDING
HE AD
SPINDLE
1~1139
STUD
.> FIRST
DR/YEN
FIRST
DRIYER
ExaDlple. Find the gear combination and indexing movement necessary for J 39
divisions.
Solution.
I
For this, let us select 8 number slightly greater or smaller than the given numbkr,
such' that
selected number can be easily iodelCedilirough simplp indexing. let
113 Select tnt new number as 140.
!lie
=:
2. -... --b
,....--
::;. 2 I
Now, if the index crank is turned fOf a revolution 139 times, it wil! make:
2.1
21
revolutions.
Whereas, for one complete tum' of the job it should make 40 complete revolutions.
Obviously, the job would not be, thus, indeXed thrciugh exaclly 139 equal
divisions. The total movement done by the crank is short of the required 40 turns
by:
This fraction is to be gained by the movement of the plate. In order to gain the
movement the plate will have to be turned .in the same direction as the crank. Also~
in order that the divisions are equal, this movement is to be gained gradually such
that a certain amount of it is added equally to the crank movement in all the 139
movements of the latter, so as to make it complete 40 turns at the end of these
movements. This will be done by employing a suitable gear train.
b:_
.2~3
o-\,;v~
.... 31-)t~~
~O"; v-e..n.
If-8 A 56.
.3)<.:}- -
40 --
Simple indexing
12
2\
1-0
!.
~ '1-0. ~_:t_,_
. ....
5
_ LLI_
:r
-<>:
---J
qe., 1-
r
r
turns of the crank are to. be lost through the plate movement.
If..
J 2. __ 4% _
~ l)' )' v QX-.
*ow the gearing Td t l O
-::..
r-r__, _, '
T
2-'8"
en 'lei)
01
Solution .
. Say, we select 120 divisions.
Simple indexing
~b
-_
i.e., ~
1.
= 39
revolutions.
<3
--
--
0-\ ir';
if
e__~
c:>'hn'v~
Results:
1. Driver 24 teeth; driven 72 teeth.
2. Simple train with one idler.
3. Crank movement: 6 holes on 18 boles circle .
. ....
Solution.
SUppose we select 240 divisions.
Simple indexing
Ltv
__,
t"'),
"
.L-l-f-u
."
2. It f
..~
~3
!;
..
C;
3.2-X2-4
.:Do;v~~
r;;;I-f- v: =t ~
1)0)'y e.n~
Results:
:.
2.
3.
4.
fOT 51
divisions.
Solution,
Suppose we select 50 divisions.
Simple indexing-
=-
1r0
-5~
-=-
it
. !b
2:0
-z;
5) X _!t_
5
40!t_
/.e. !t -tWf)
) ~
j-ktn fU&,"O
Results:
1. Driver 32 teeth; FoUower 72 teeth.
2. Simple train with one idler.
3. 'Crank movement: 8 holes on 18 holes circle.
\
Angular indexing
We have 'seen, during our above discussions, that 40 turns of crank of crank make
the work rotate through one complete turn. That is, 40 turns of make the work
rotate through 3600. Therefore, for each one turn of the crank the work
..I
3~o
4-D
__a,v.
<:
Again if it is moved 2 holes on .this circle, i.e., 2/18 or 1/9 of a turn, the work will
rotate through 9/9 = 1.
.
Similarly, if the crank is moved only one space on 18 holes circle, the job will
rotate through
Thus, we conclude that:
jui'
-_ J).D'oit'~~
1J)'veo~ .
III
c_",\
"
-~
~.
;,.-b
1 turn of crank will rotate the work through 90~ 119 rum through 1.0 2/9 tum
through 2, 3/9 through 3 and so on.
..... .'"
*'(5
.'
CJ~j_It~~~
.~~
I_
e ."e.<fui~dJ,
~
,,'
.:
i.~~@
=:
..
$.~~_,'
..,.
Now! the simple indexing method can be easily used indexing when
third and two-third degrees are involved. .
,_....
';~':ii;;
111, h~ii!:'QQe-'<
. =,
.
,.-'"
l
..
~~
Solution.
Crank movement
3L
2-
--
~
~
z:
. .. ..
Ig-
e.
-)
:;}
lb-z: _ sz:
:::
Crank movement;:"::J
I' <6 .
i.e., 1 full tum and 13 holes on 18 holes circle.
"
".
Crank movement
'61".1-
-;::_
_, -::;:.
. CJ
94L'2:t
Solution.
Crank movement
i.e.,
:::.
s. u.
Itt 2:::3
.~ ~
_--
~.~
.. ~-r
Solution.
I-~~.
,
<
f<
l\
E3
.' .
1 ---... .
)~.
'
..
.....
. ..
~--:
"
"
-._.-.~
of:,
~~-:~
=.'.
~~1- '\~':.:
._~:".,A
3 -
) C)
b~ 2-
6 --)Z2
}<i- .
_'-''<..,'':',;,
&~.
"! .
In th~1e' cases, when th~ angle does not include half, one-third or two-third of a
_:~-;-;:;.,(;!egree.
it is advisable to convert it into minutes or seconds, as the case desires, and
~~~:~lhen
find the movement by dividing
by 540 or 32400 respectively as one tum of
_ ,
!)
oB:crankrotates tlre work through 9 or 9 60 = 540 minutes or 540 X.60 = 32400
seconds.
Solution .
. ..
...~.:.~
...
r,
""
GIven angle = 34 12
:..._
= 123120..seconds.
-~..lr'~
'"
Crank movement
1(;
-'. I ~3.1~O
=
...-
02-Lt-oo
9-!}
r~
.~
0 ~g 3b r::f-
01
Ql__
+u--rD
c?3 2.1-toQ
i
Obviously, it is not possible to perform this indexing opera11ionwith any' of the
standard index plates. For such angles, we have to reduce the fraction obtained for
crank movement to such an approximate figure that its denominator represents any
one circle on the standard index plats. For reducing the a;bove faction to the
required approximate value we have to use the 'continued fraction ~.
. 1fraction
. idex pate
I
acuon O.
0.8367 asC6367 . If an In
W e can express t he decima
jv,fjOO
Having 10000 holes-circle could be available, the required crack movement could
easily be obta-ined by moving the same 8367 spaces on the circle. But, you know
that no standard index plate has such a circle. As such we have to reduce this
expression into a common fraction having small numerator and denominator and
rI
...
f