Cherian 1

Tes Cherian
Professors Whorton & Epstein
ENGL 1150 & HIST 1150
Final Draft
11 October 2016
Terrorism: Rooted in the French Revolution
Terrorism is increasingly prevalent within todays society in the forms of social media,
news outlets, and word of mouth. It is a danger that has become a widespread phenomenon over
the past few years. However, people are unaware of where the foundations of modern terrorism
lie. The belief is that the French Revolution was the catalyst that began modern terrorism and it
is the reason France is incredibly susceptible to terror attacks in the present. The multitude of
terror attacks on Frances soil can be linked back to the history of words related to terrorism, the
social effects of the Reign of Terror, Lacit, the double-edged sword of citizenship, the
stigmatization of nonconforming French minorities, and modern French irreligiosity. Modern
terrorism in France is caused by the continued stigmatization of minorities, an unfortunate legacy
that the French Revolution left for modern-day France.
Although it may seem doubtful that the roots of modern terrorism can be found in the
French Revolution, the etymology and history of the words terrorist and terror make the ties
clear. The Oxford English Dictionary states that the origin of the word terrorist is " an
adherent or supporter of the Jacobins [a political group during the French Revolution], who
advocated and practised methods of partisan repression and bloodshed in the propagation of the
principles of democracy and equality" ("Terrorist"). The relationship between terrorist and the

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French Revolution is only a component of the whole picture. Another piece of the puzzle can be
found in the words of Robespierre. Maximilien Robespierre, an influential figure of the French
Revolution and the Reign of Terror, gave a clear statement of his personal definition of terror
during his speech at the National Convention

in 1794. In his book, The French Revolution, Paul

Beik has quoted Robespierre saying "Terror is only justice that is prompt, severe, and inflexible;
it is thus an emanation of virtue" (Beik 283). Robespierres words are proof that in his mind,
terror is a perfectly just way to wreak havoc in the name of justice. In todays world, this is
exactly how acts of terror are warranted by the organizations that perform them- they are seeking
justice for their disparaged brothers and sisters. In relation to Robespierres quote, Joseph
Crawfords book, Gothic Fiction and the Invention of Terrorism: The Politics and Aesthetics of
Fear in the Age of the Reign of Terror, mentions that the French National Convention on
September 5, 1793, also "voted that terror is the order of the day" (Crawford 47). This denotes
the ultimate authority the French government possessed as the order essentially allowed the
government to use acts of terror against French citizens to enforce the laws ("Terror is the
Order"). Actions of the French National Convention after voting for terror contributes to the
direct correlation between the foundations of modern terrorism and the French Revolution.
Modern terrorism can trace its roots back to the Reign of Terror as the events of that time
period demanded conformity of French citizens, which lead to the stigmatization of minorities in
France. Sans-culottes (lower-class Parisians) began to riot against the French government due to
the inadequacies of said government. Certain revolutionaries began the trend of slaughtering
people they felt opposed the actions of revolutionaries. As noted by the article Reign of Terror
in the Encyclopdia Britannica, they "[took] harsh measures against those suspected of being

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enemies of the Revolution" ("Reign of Terror"). These "harsh measures" stimulated a culture of
fear in French society during the reign. Due to the culture of fear and imminent threat of death
hanging above their heads, many citizens turned towards emphasizing conformity, lest they be
killed for disloyalty to their war stricken nation. This demand for conformity bred mistrust and
fear in minority groups as they dealt with the brunt of the Reign of Terror taking over and
erasing their culture and history.
The decades of mistrust and animosity of minorities stemming from the effects of the
Reign of Terror led to the secularism found in France today. Secularism is defined by
Merriam-Webster as "the belief that religion should not play a role in government, education, or
other public parts of society" ("Secularism"). In France, one of the most widely known forms of
secularism is known as Lacit. Lacit is a core ideal found in the French constitution that has
generated laws that do not condone religiosity which has sparked a deep hatred of France in
extremists. Aversion of secularism can be found in both Islamic and Jewish communities within
France. Carla Power describes how the secularism affects French Muslims: "Frances cherished
codes of secularism clash with the public nature of the practice of Islam," while Pierre Birnbaum,
in the book Jewish Destinies: Citizenship, State, and Community in Modern France, expresses
similar concern about French Jews: "Secularism, which is often antireligious, is perceived by
Jews today as an impediment to the expression of their identity" (Power; Birnbaum 205).
France's secularist codes are hindering people's individual freedom causing antipathy in minority
groups all around France. Secularism does not only limit the presence of religion in public, but it
also covertly detracts from the culture of minorities as evidenced by Burke as he explains the
rationale of Islamic extremists: "the role France has historically assumed as standard bearer of

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western secular liberalism has also put the nation in the spotlight France is seen as an atheist
power which is defending western ideals and, in the eyes of jihadis, trying to impose them on
the Islamic world" (Burke). Burkes reasoning explains a set of possible ideas the extremists
might hold in regards to France and their hatred of Frances values. France has upheld its
anti-religious stance to such a high standard- surpassing America- that it is detrimental to
religious minorities thus causing the hostility which leads to modern terror attacks. Imposition of
alternate ideals on an entire subculture by a country is only the start of why France is so
vulnerable to terror attacks. Reasons for Frances helplessness becomes more pronounced when
the strains on French citizenship is taken into account.
The French Revolution changed how citizenship was viewed by adding a double-edged
sword of French citizenship; this change in perspective caused an increase in desire for political
and cultural conformity by the French minorities and the pressure to conform to French norms is
the main reason for modern-day Frances susceptibility for terror attacks. In her book,
Regulating Aversion: Tolerance in the Age of Identity and Empire, author Wendy Brown
describes the meaning of French citizenship. She says, "citizenship in republican France was not
a formal category extended to an individual with rights, but, rather, involved membership in the
republic, identification with the state, and participation in French national culture" (Brown
53). French citizenships detailed definition which includes "participation in French national
culture" reveals an element of the double-edged sword mentioned previously. This social aspect
creates issues that generate disastrous results for minorities that are "not participating" in French
culture- also known as not conforming to French social and/or political standards. This is made
evident by a quote from John Bowen, author of Why the French Don't like Headscarves: Islam,

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the State, and Public Space, that states: "The candidate [Individual applying for citizenship] must
show good morals but they can also be rejected on the grounds of insufficient assimilation,
whether in their dress, their language, their travel outside of the country, or the positions they
have taken... " (Bowen 196). The desire for conformity has reached new heights with French
citizenship being denied to hopefuls due to their supposed insufficient assimilation. This is a
result of the sharp end of the double-edged sword of citizenship in France.
Due to the desired conformity of minorities by the French majority, especially with the
double-edged sword of French citizenship, minorities are stigmatized if they do not fully
assimilate into French culture. Clermont-Tonnerre, a political leader during the French
Revolution whose death brought the end of the Reign of Terror, has been quoted saying " an
honorable member has explained to us that the non-Catholics of some provinces still experience
harassment and [they are] excluded from the elections and public posts"
(Clermont-Tonnerre 86). This proves that French minorities, even after the French Revolution,
were not granted the rights they should have had. This regulation of rights is another facet of
French social and political culture that has allowed the deep stigmatization of minorities within
French culture. In the case of French Jews, this stigmatization has caused rapid assimilation,
which consists of, in the words of Wendy Brown, "[making] Jews more modern, more European,
and more free; Jews shedding archaic and tribal Jewish practices and beliefs" (Brown 53).
Forcing assimilation on French Jews prompted a greater amount of stigma associated with
'unassimilated' minorities as the Jews that were socially forced to adapt became the cookie cutter
model for minorities. However, while they were being assimilated, the connection with their
history and culture were lost- which in itself is a tragedy. Similarly, within Islamic culture, not

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only have Muslims been forced to mute their religion in the past, but they are also obliged to
fight modern stigmatization that chases their culture in France.
Frances yearning for conformity of its minorities coupled with modern forms of
stigmatization, both politically and socially, prompts the high tensions in present-day France.
These high tensions can be accredited to actions such as the ones described by the Stanford
Political Journal. "though the minorities addressed in Article 27 are not explicitly denied the
right to expressing their culture in France, they face extreme societal disapproval because French
society only truly accepts those who have embraced the French culture or at the very least hide
obvious cultural differences in public" (Stanford Political Journal). Published in 2016, the article
that houses this quote is incredibly relevant as it depicts the stigma still present in modern-day
France. In fact, in her article, Carla Powers mentions that "In 2008, a French court denied a
Moroccan woman French citizenship on the grounds that her veil and her submissiveness to her
husband were assimilation defects" (Power). Relating back to Bowens quote from earlier and
puts it in real life scenarios. Power reveals that minority conformity is not a mythical belief
fabricated by opponents of secularism, but rather, genuine stigmatism of minorities that have not
completely "assimilated". This one incident is only the beginning of a multitude that have
plagued French minorities. Frances burqa and burkini bans have caused controversy in the fight
for freedom to express individuality- especially with French Muslims who are only practicing
their faith. These acts illustrate several modern forms of the ostracism of minorities in France.
To conclude, the disastrous effects of the French Revolution on present-day France is
evident in the etymology of terrorism, the lasting consequences that the Reign of Terror gave rise
to, French secularity, the positives and negatives of French citizenship, the necessary conformity

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of French minorities and the consequent stigmatization, and examples of modern French laws
pitted against religion. Not only can the origins of the word terrorist be traced back to the French
Revolution, but the origins of mistrust and xenophobia in French society can too- specifically to
the Reign of Terror. This xenophobia rears its head as Lacit which has also created severe
drawbacks for French minorities in the form of citizenship, conformity, stigmatization, and
secularistic laws. Without a doubt, present-day France is still reeling from the aftershocks of the
French Revolution. With a constant target on their back, courtesy of disgruntled minorities, it is
in Frances best interest to develop ways to counter the deep stigma that follows minoritiesespecially religious minorities- in France. By slowly dissipating the social stain on French
minorities, this will allow better connections between citizens and it will relieve much of the
tension found in France. It is disappointing watching a powerful country being weakened by
deep-rooted xenophobia in todays globalized world.

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Works Cited
Beik, Paul. The French Revolution. Harper and Row, 1970.
Birnbaum, Pierre. Jewish Destinies: Citizenship, State, and Community in Modern France.
Translated by Arthur Goldhammer. Hill and Wang, 2000.
Bowen, John Richard. Why the French Don't like Headscarves: Islam, the State, and Public
Space. Princeton UP, 2007.
Brown, Wendy. Regulating Aversion: Tolerance in the Age of Identity and Empire. Princeton
UP, 2006.
Burke, Jason. "Why Does France Keep Getting Attacked?" The Guardian. 15 July 2016. Web.
Accessed 18 September 2016.
ClermontTonnerre, Stanislas. "Speech on Religious Minorities and Questionable Professions"
The French Revolution and Human Rights: A Brief Documentary History. Bedford, 1996.
Crawford, Joseph. Gothic Fiction and the Invention of Terrorism: The Politics and Aesthetics of
Fear in the Age of the Reign of Terror. Bloomsbury, 2013.
Power, Carla. "Why There's Tension Between France and Its Muslim Population." Time, 18
January 2015. Web. Accessed 26 September 2016.
"Reign of Terror". Encyclopdia Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 03 October 2016.
"Secularism." Merriam-Webster. Web. 2 October 2016.
Stanford Politics. "France's Attitude Toward Minorities Is Increasingly Unstable." Stanford
Political Journal, 13 January 2016. Web. Accessed 18 September 2016.
"Terror Is the Order of the Day" CHNM George Mason University. Web. Accessed 02 October
2016.

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"Terrorist" OED Online. Oxford University Press, September 2016. Web. 4 October 2016.