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II.WOMENSRIGHTSTOLANDANDOTHERNATURALRESOURCES
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2.1.Introduction
Thischapterexamineswomensrightsofaccesstoandmanagementoflandandothernaturalresources.Thesearemainly
determinedbytwoareasoflaw:generalcivillaw(property,familyandsuccessionlaw)ontheonehand,andagrarianandnatural
resourcelawontheother.Forinstance,evenwherelandlegislationperseisgenderneutral,womenslandrightsmaybecurtailed
bydiscriminatorynormsoffamilylaw(e.g.restrictingthelegalcapacityofmarriedwomentoadministerproperty)andofsuccession
law(especiallywherelandsalesarerareandinheritanceistheprimaryformoflandacquisition).Withinnaturalresourcelegislation,
particularattentionisdevotedheretolandlaw,bothbecauserightstoothernaturalresources(e.g.water)maydependuponland
rights,andbecauselandlegislationusuallyaffectswomensrightsmoredirectly(whileothernaturalresourcelegislationrarely
containsgenderrelatedprovisions).
Rightstonaturalresourcesareextremelyimportantforruralwomen.First,womenslivelihoodscruciallydependuponthem,
especiallyindevelopingcountries.Second,thenatureandextentoftheserightsaffectwomensbargainingpowerwithinthe
household(visvishusbandsandmalefamilymembers),aswellasinthecommunityandsocietyatlarge.Thus,whilelandreform
programmesadoptingthehouseholdasthebeneficiaryunitandissuinglandtitlestothe(male)householdheadmaystillprovide
femalehouseholdmemberswithaccesstoland,theymayunderminetheirbargainingpower(andthustheirsocialposition).
Beforestartingtheanalysis,twopreliminaryobservationsneedtobemade.First,inexaminingnaturalresourcerightsindifferent
countries,itmustberememberedthatthenatureandcontentoftheserightsmayvaryconsiderablyacrosscountries(e.g.individual
freeholdproperty,userightsinstateownedlandandlegallyrecognizedcustomaryrights).Thefocushereisonwhetherthese
rights,whatevertheirnatureandcontent,aredifferentiatedonthebasisofsex/gender.Second,evenwhereformallegislationis
genderneutral,womenmaybepreventedfromacquiringandenjoyingnaturalresourcerightsbysocioculturalpractices.
Therefore,datae.g.ontheshareoflandtitlesheldbywomenwouldprovidehelpfulinsightsontherightsreallyenjoyedbywomen.
However,systematiccollectionsofthiskindofdataareextremelyrare.Thisdifficultymaylimittheeffectivenessofthisstudyin
analysingthenaturalresourcerightsactuallyenjoyedbywomen.
2.2.Relevantinternationallaw
http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y4311e/y4311e04.htm
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Attheinternationallevel,provisionsconcerningwomensrightstonaturalresourcesareembodiedinhumanrightslaw,in
internationalenvironmentallawandinsoftlawinstruments.
Underinternationalhumanrightslaw,womenhavearighttoownandadministerpropertywithoutdiscrimination(UDHRarts.2
and17,CEDAW,art.15),andtoanequaltreatmentinlandandagrarianreform(CEDAW,art.14(2)(g)).Withinthefamily,both
spouseshaveequalrightsintheownership,acquisition,management,administration,enjoymentanddispositionofproperty
(CEDAW,art.16).Womenswaterrightsareprotectedbyarticle14(2)(h)oftheCEDAW(righttoadequatelivingconditions,
includinginrelationtowatersupply)rightstopotablewaterarealsolinkedtotherighttoadequatefoodrecognized,without
discrimination,inarticle25oftheUDHRandarticle11oftheICESCR.
SoftlawinstrumentshavebeenadoptedbythehumanrightsbofiesoftheUnitedNations.Forinstance,Resolution15(1998)of
theSubCommissiononthePromotionandProtectionofHumanRights(entitledWomenandtheRighttoLand,Propertyand
AdequateHousing)statedthatdiscriminationagainstwomenwithrespecttoacquiringandsecuringlandconstitutesaviolationof
humanrightslaw,andurgedgovernmentstoamendand/orrepealdiscriminatorylawsandpoliciesandtoencouragethe
transformationofdiscriminatorycustomsandtraditions(paras.1and3).
Asforinternationalenvironmentallaw,thepreambleoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversityrecogniseswomensvitalroleinthe
conservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversity,andaffirmstheneedfortheirparticipationinpoliciesconcerningtheseissues
(para.13).Genderspecificprovisionsarealsoembodiedinthe1994ConventiontoCombatDesertification,whichprovidesforthe
facilitationofwomensparticipationineffortstocombatdesertificationatalllevels,andspecificallyfortheireffectiveparticipationin
nationalactionprogrammesandasaninstrumentforcapacitybuilding(arts.5,10and19).Womensparticipationinnationalaction
programmesisalsorequiredbyarticle8oftheRegionalImplementationAnnexforAfrica.TheannexesforAsia,LatinAmericaand
theNorthernMediterraneandonotspecificallymentionwomen,althougharticles4and5respectivelyrefertoarticle10ofthe
Convention(whichenvisageswomensparticipationinnationalactionprogrammes).
AmongRiosoftlawinstruments,principle20oftheRioDeclarationstatesthatwomenhaveavitalroleinenvironmental
managementanddevelopment,andthattheirfullparticipationisthereforeessentialtoachievesustainabledevelopment.The
NonLegallyBindingAuthoritativeStatementofPrinciplesonForestscallsforwomensparticipationintheplanning,development
andimplementationofnationalforestpoliciesandinthemanagement,conservationandsustainabledevelopmentofforests
(principles2(d)and5(b)).Moreover,Chapter24ofAgenda21isspecificallydevotedtogender.
Womensrightstonaturalresourceshavealsobeenaddressedinsoftlawdocumentsadoptedbyotherinternationalconferences.
TheBeijingPlatformforActionenvisageslegislativeandadministrativereformstoensuregenderequalityinaccesstonatural
resources,includinginheritanceandownershiprights(para.61(b)).Similarly,theWorldFoodSummitPlanofActionaffirmsthe
objectiveofensuringgenderequalityandwomenempowerment(objective1.3)andenvisagesmeasurestoenhancewomens
accesstonaturalresources(para.16(b)).
2.3.TheAmericas
2.3.1.Regionaloverview
TheACHRstatestherightofeveryonetotheuseandenjoymentofproperty,withoutdiscriminationonthebasisofsex(arts.1and
21),andtheprincipleofequalityofrightsandadequatebalancingofresponsibilitiesofthespouseswithinmarriage(art.17(4)).
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However,inLatinAmerica,ruralwomenrarelyownandadministerland,duebothtolegalandsocioculturalobstacles.Asforlegal
obstacles,familylawmayrecognisethehusbandashouseholdheadorrepresentative(e.g.Nicaragua,article151oftheCivil
CodeDominicanRepublic,article213oftheCivilCodeHonduras,article167oftheCivilCode),andgranthimexclusive
administrationrightsoverfamilyproperty(e.g.DominicanRepublic,CivilCodeart.1421,Honduras,FamilyCode,art.82)and
evenoverthepersonalpropertyofthewife(DominicanRepublic,CivilCode,art.1428)(Galan,1998).
Asforagrarianlaw,variouscountriesofLatinAmericahavealonghistoryofagrarianreformaimedateliminatingthegreatland
concentrationandthedualisticlatifundiominifundiolandtenurestructure.Whileinsomecasesreformprogrammeshave
redistributedsubstantiallandareas(e.g.Cuba),inmostcaseslackofpoliticalcommitmenthaslimitedtheeffectivenessofthe
agrarianreform.Inanycase,mostagrarianreformshavetargetedhouseholdheadsandpermanentagriculturalworkersinformal
employmentinpractice,bothgroupsconsistpredominantlyofmen.Onlyinafewcountries(NicaraguaandCuba)havewomen
beendirectlandreformbeneficiaries.
TheNicaraguanAgrarianReformActof1981doesnotapplythehouseholdheadcriterionforlandallocation,andspecifically
recogniseswomenasdirectbeneficiariesofthelandreformregardlessoftheirfamilystatus.However,womengainedlittleaccess
tolandundertheredistributionprogrammeduetoculturalfactorsinpractice,whenlandwasrequiredbyahousehold(whichwas
usuallythecase),titlewasissuedinonenameonly,usuallythenameofthehusband/father(Galan,1998).Landredistribution
haltedinthe1990s,andalandtitlingprogrammewasadopted.Law209of1995statesthatmenandwomenhaveequalrightsto
obtainlandtitles(art.32),andallowsjointtitlingforcouples.Jointtitlingforcouples(whethermarriedornot)wasmadecompulsory
byarticle49ofLaw278(1997),wherebytitlesissuedinthenameofthehouseholdheadareconsideredasissuedtoboth
spouses/partners.Thistitlingprogrammehasledtoaconsiderableincreaseofwomenlandowners.
Inmanycountries,agrarianreformlegislationhasrecentlyevolvedtowardgreaterrecognitionofwomensrights.Forinstance,in
Honduras,whileundertheAgrarianReformLawof1974beneficiariesweremenover16andwomenwereallocatedlandonlyif
theywerehouseholdheads(art.79),Decrees129of1991and31of1992(AgriculturalSectorModernisationandDevelopment
Act)eliminatediscriminationandallowjointtitlinguponrequest.InBolivia,theNationalServiceforAgrarianReformActof1996
statesthattheServiceistoapply,consistentlywiththeConstitutionandtheCEDAW,equitycriteriainlanddistribution,
administration,tenureandexploitationforwomen,regardlessoftheirmaritalstatus(art.3(V)).InParaguay,the1992Constitution
includesamongthefundamentalprinciplesoftheagrarianreformwomensparticipationinreformplansonthebasisofequalitywith
men,andsupportforruralwomen,particularlythoseheadsofhouseholds.
Whilesystematicsexdisaggregateddataonlandreformbeneficiariesisscarce,availableevidenceindicatesthatonlyaverysmall
percentageofwomenbenefitedfromlandredistributionprogrammes(between4and15percentinChile,Colombia,CostaRica,El
Salvador,Honduras,Mexico,Nicaragua,andPeru)(Katz,1999).
Ontheotherhand,inseveralLatinAmericancountries,womenhavebeenactivelyinvolvedinsocialmovementsstrugglingfor
accesstoland,bothgeneralagrarianmovements(e.g.MovimentodosTrabalhadoresSemTerra,inBrazil)andspecifically
womensmovements(e.g.FederacindeMujeresCampesinas,inCubaAsociacindeMujeresNicaragenses,inNicaragua
FederacinHondureadeMujeresCampesinas,inHondurasAsociacinNacionaldeMujeresCampesinaseIndigenas,in
Colombia).
2.3.2.Mexico
InMexico,civillawvariesfromstatetostate.TheFederalCivilCodeof1928appliestothewholefederationformatterswithinthe
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federalresponsibility,andtotheFederalDistrict(MexicoCity)formatterswithinstateresponsibility(art.1).
UnderthisCode,propertylawdoesnotdifferentiateonsex/gendergrounds(arts.830853).Withinthefamily,thespouseshave
equalauthorityinthemanagementoffamilyaffairs,includingintheadministrationofproperty(art.168).Familypropertyisheld
undereithercommunityorseparationofproperty,dependingontheagreementreachedbythespouses(arts.178and179).Under
communityofproperty,itisthematrimonialagreementthatdeterminesthemodalitiesfortheadministration(arts.189(VII)and194).
Eachspouseexclusivelyadministershis/herseparateproperty,withoutneedfortheauthorizationoftheotherspouse(art.172).
Intestamentarysuccession,thetestatorhasnearlyabsolutefreedomofwill,andmaythereforedisinheritthespouse,exceptfora
dutytoprovideforthemaintenanceofthespousewithoutadequatepropertyandunabletowork(providedthatthespousedoes
notmarryagainandliveshonestlyart.1368(III)).Asimilarprovisionapplies,undercertaincircumstances,todefactospouses
(art.1368(V)).Incaseofintestatesuccession,thespouseinheritsinthesameamountenvisagedforachild(arts.1624ss.).
Agrarianlawincludesspecificsuccessionnorms(seebelow).
Fieldstudiesoninheritancepracticesrevealthatlandinheritancebythemaleeldestsonisverycommoninruralareas,asis
inheritancebyallmalechildren(whiledaughterstendtoinheritonlywhentheydonotreceivedowryatmarriage)(Quintanaetal.,
1998,onSierraNortedePuebla).
Asforagrarianlaws,Mexicanlegislationischaracterizedbyalongstandingagrarianreform,carriedoutunderArticle27ofthe1917
Constitution,asamendedin1992.Thebeneficiariesofthereformarecommunitybasedinstitutionalarrangements,ejidosand
comunidades[4].Thesecontrolsome50percentofMexicanagriculturalland(ThompsonandWilson,1994),andencompass
diverserealities,rangingfromcommonpropertyregimestocommunitiesallocatingparcelledplotstoejidomembers(seearticle44
ofthe1992AgrarianLaw).Thereformreacheditspeakintheperiod19341940(AgrarianCodeof1934),andsloweddownafter
the1970s(Heath,1992ThompsonandWilson,1994).The1992reforminvolvedindividualisation(allocatingplotstoindividuals
ratherthantohouseholds),privatisationandmarketliberalisationmeasures(e.g.allowingejidolandsalesandrentalsandland
ownershipbynationalandforeigncorporations).
Underthe1992AgrarianLaw,bothmenandwomenmaybeejidatarios(art.12).Therefore,despitethefactthatthelawadoptsa
masculineterminology(e.g.ejidatario),menandwomenhaveequalrightstoobtainindividuallandparcels(art.76),touse
commonlands(art.74)andwaterresources(art.52),toobtaindefinitivepropertytitleoverejidoparcels(art.82),tosignagrarian
contracts(aparceria,medieria,etc.art.79),toparticipateinejidoinstitutions(e.g.theassemblyart.22),andsoon.
However,inpracticeonlyasmallnumberofejidomembersarewomen(16.3percentin283ejidossurveyedbyKatz,1999),and
womenmembersusuallyobtaintheirstatusthroughsuccessionfromtheirhusbandsratherthanthroughdirectlandallocationunder
thelandreform(FAO,1994).Percentagesofwomeninejidoleadershippositionsareevenlowerforinstance,only4.9percentof
themembersofthecomisariadosejidalessurveyedbyKatz(1999)werewomen.Thisgenderunequaldistributionoflandrightsis
partlyduetothehistoricalevolutionoftheMexicanlandreform.The1920ejidolawprovidedfortheallocationofejidorightsto
householdheads(jefesdefamilia)althoughthisexpressionpersewasgenderneutral,thehusband/fatherwasconsideredthe
householdhead.Moreover,article97ofthe1927LeydeDotacionesyRestitucionesdeTierrasexplicitlystatedthatthoseeligibleto
beejidomembersweremenover18,whilewomencouldbecomeejidatariasonlyiftheywerehouseholdheads.Onlywiththe1971
FederalLawofAgrarianReformdidwomengainequalrightstomenforejidomembership(art.200)(Stephen,1996).
Decisionsonthealienationofallocatedplotsaretakenexclusivelyby(usuallymale)ejidorightholders,withoutneedforspousal
consent.Familymembershavearighttopreemption(derechodeltanto)(art.84),althoughwomenslimitedaccesstocreditmay
inpracticeconstraintheexerciseofthisright(Katz,1999).
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Therecentsubstantialmaleoutmigrationhasprovidednewopportunitiesforwomen.Insomecases,women(mainlydaughtersof
ejidatarios)haveacquiredthestatusofejidatarioandgainedaccesstoplotsduetothelackofmaleapplicants(ejidoSanFrancisco
Tecoac,inTlaxcalaKatz,1999).However,inmostcases,womenslackofformalejidotitle(usuallyremainingvestedwithmigrating
malefamilymembers)constrainstheirproductioneffort,forinstancebyhinderingtheiraccesstocredit(Katz,1999).
Theejidoassemblymayallocateland(preferablylandofbestqualityandclosetourbanareas)towomenovertheageof16,in
ordertoallowthemtorun,throughassociationscalledUnidadesAgrcolasIndustrialesdelaMujer(UAIMs),cropandlivestock
farmingandruralindustryactivities,aswellastohostinstallationsforwomensservicesandprotection(art.71)[5].TheAgrarian
LawRegulationonthePromotionoftheOrganisationandDevelopmentofRuralWomen,adoptedon5thAugust1998,governsthe
functioningofwomensassociations(e.g.itspecifiesthatassociationmembersmaybefemaleejidatariasorfamilymembersof
ejidatarios,art.10)qualifiesthelandrightsofUAIMs(e.g.thesecannotperformactsimplyingownershipoftheallocatedland,art.
14)andenvisagessupportmeasurestobeadoptedbythegovernmentandtheejidoassemblytopromotewomensproductive
activities(arts.4and6).Onlyalimitednumberofejidoshaveinpracticeallocatedlandtowomensgroups(12percentoftheejidos
surveyedbyKatz,1999).
Asforsuccessioninejidorights,the1992individualisationofejidorights(fromhouseholdstoindividuals)eliminatedtheautomatic
inheritancebyfamilymembers,withpotentialnegativeeffectsonfemalespousesandchildren.The1992Lawallowsejidatariosto
freelychooseoneheir(ejidorightscannotbesubdivided)amongthespouse(withorwithoutmarriage),achild,oranyother
person(art.17).Theejidatariomaythereforeexcludethespousefromsuccessioninhis/herrights.Wherethereisnowill,
however,thespouse(whetherwithorwithoutmarriage)isthefirstonetoinherit(art.18).
Inpractice,fieldstudiesfromtheSierraNortedePueblarevealthatasonisusuallychosenasheir,duetowidespreadsocio
culturalstereotypes.Forsomecrops(e.g.milpa,i.e.maizealoneorincombinationwithothercrops),womensinheritanceis
preventedbysocioculturalpracticesthatdonotallowwomentogrowthosecropsontheirown(whileforinstancelandplanted
withcoffeeorfruittreesmaybeinheritedbywomen).Womensageisanotherfactortakenintoaccount(youngwidowstendnotbe
designatedasejidoheirsbecauseitisfearedthattheyfindanotherpartnerandtaketheparceloutsidethepatrilinealfamily)
(Quintanaetal.,1998).Inaddition,inGuerrero,OaxacaandTlaxcala,theeldestsonisusuallychosenasejidoheir,whilewives
tendtobepreferredinQuintanaRoo,CoahuilaandSonora(Katz,1999).
Forestrylegislation(1992and1997Laws)makesnoreferencetogender/sex.TheFederalLawonWaterRightsof1998isgender
neutral(rulesonwaterrightsrefertopersonasfsicasomoralese.g.art.222).However,unequallandrightsentailunequalwater
rightsforlandirrigationpurposesmoreover,fieldstudiesrevealthatmencancircumventformalrulesandproceduresandobtain
accesstowaterthroughinformalnetworks(e.g.bribingand/ormaintaininggoodrelationshipswithwaterofficers),whilewomenare
preventedfromdoingthesamebysocialreputationnorms(Zwarteveen,1997).TheOperativeRulesonwaterinfrastructure
projects(irrigation,sanitationandpotablewatersupply),adoptedon14March2000,allocateresourcestopromotetheparticipation
ofallgroups,particularlywomen(para.B.3.a).
2.3.3.Brazil
Inthelastcentury,Braziliancivillawhashadaprofoundevolution,withconsiderableimprovementinwomenslegalstatus[6].Inits
originalformulation,theCivilCodeof1916adoptedahierarchicalmodelofhousehold:thehusbandwasthehouseholdhead,
exclusivelyadministeringbothfamilypropertyandtheseparatepropertyofthewife(art.233)thewifewaspartiallyincapable(art.
6),andneededtheauthorizationofthehusbandtocontractobligations,sellproperty,andacceptinheritance(art.242).These
normswereamendedbyLaw4121of1962(StatuteoftheMarriedWoman),whichabrogatedtheprovisionsonthepartial
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incapabilityofthewifeandreducedthenumberofactsrequiringmaritalauthorization.Thehusbandwasconfirmedasthe
householdheadadministeringfamilyproperty,althoughthisfunctionwastobeperformedincollaborationwiththewife.In1977,
legislationondivorceintroducedthepartialcommunityofpropertyregime,wherebyeachspousehasequalrightstoadminister
commonpropertyandadministershis/herseparateproperty.The1988Constitutionstatesthattherightsanddutiesconcerningthe
conjugalsocietyareequallyexercisedbythehusbandandthewife(art.226(5)),therebyrepealingalltheremainingdiscriminatory
provisionsoftheCivilCode.
AnewCivilCodewasadoptedinJanuary2002,andwillenterintoforceinJanuary2003.TheCodeprovidesfortheequalityof
rightsanddutiesofthespouses(arts.1511and1567).Thematrimonialregimeisdeterminedbyprenuptialagreements,andinthe
absenceofwhichthepartialcommunityofpropertyregimeapplies(arts.16391688).
Successionnormsdonotdiscriminateonthebasisofgender.TheCivilCodeof2002liststhesurvivingspouseamongtheintestate
heirs(providedthatthereisnoseparationarticles18291832)andamongthenecessaryheirs(arts.1845,1846and1789).Onthe
otherhand,therearereportsthatdiscriminatorysuccessionpracticescontinuetobeappliedinruralareas,particularlywithregard
totheexclusionofdaughtersfrominheritanceofland(Guivant,2001).
Brazilhasalongstandingagrarianreformprogramme,althoughlanddistributionremainsamongthemostunequalintheworld.The
programmewassetupbyLaw4504of1964(LandStatute),envisagingaprocessoflandexpropriationanddistributionbya
publicbody(IBRA,laterrenamedINCRA).Theagrarianreformhassubsequentlybeentheobjectofextremelyvastlegislation.The
AgrarianLawisnowcontainedinLaw8629of1993.Lawsadoptedinthe1990s(e.g.Laws88of1996and1577of1997)brought
amendmentstoacceleratethereformprocess.Inadditiontothefederalagrarianreformprogramme,somestatesintheNortheast
haveadoptedstateagrarianreformprogrammesbasedonthewillingsellerwillingbuyerprinciple.
Womensrightsunderthereformprogrammehaveevolved,withconsiderableimprovementafterthe1988Constitution.The
followingsectionsconsiderwomenspositionintheagrarianreform,particularlywithregardtodirectlandallocationtowomen.
Sincethematrimonialregimeapplicableinabsenceofanteprenuptialagreementsispartialcommunityofproperty,landregistered
tooneofthespousesaftermarriagelegallybelongstobothspouses.
Formanyyears,redistributedlandwasregisteredmainlywithmen.Article25oftheLandStatute,listingeligiblelandreform
beneficiaries,doesnotexplicitlydiscriminateagainstwomen.However,somecriteriaentailanindirectbiasagainstwomen.For
instance,priorityisgrantedtohouseholdheadswithmanychildrenunderthe1916CivilCode,inforceuntil2003,thehousehold
headisthehusband/father.Moreover,theterminologyadoptedismasculine(e.g.posseiros,assalariados,parceirosou
arrendatrios),althoughthisentailsnodiscriminationperse.Inlandreformimplementation,criteriaforbeneficiaryselection
includedhouseholdlabourforcesize,ageandfarmingexperiencewhilethesecriteriadidnotdirectlydiscriminateagainstwomen,
inpracticetheytendedtofavourmaleapplicants,asfemaleheadedhouseholdsareusuallysmallerandwomenfarmersarenot
consideredasprofessionalfulltimefarmersbecauseofculturalstereotyping(Barsted,2002).
Article189ofthe1988Constitutionexplicitlystatesthatbothmenandwomen,regardlessoftheirmaritalstatus,canbeallocated
propertyrightsorconcessionsundertheagrarianreformprogramme,eitherindividuallyorjointly.Therefore,genderequalitywithin
thelandreformprogrammeisnowguaranteed.Law8629of1993statesthatlandtitlesaretobeallocatedtomenandwomen,
eitherindividuallyorasjointowners(art.19).Ordinance33of2001,adoptedbytheMinisterforAgrarianDevelopment,
institutionalizesanaffirmativeactionprogrammetofacilitateruralwomensaccesstoland.
Nonetheless,inpracticelandreformprogrammesstillregisterlandmainlywiththehusband.Jointregistrationisrare,interalia
becauseasubstantialnumberofruralwomenlacksthedocumentsrequiredinordertoobtainlandtitles(identitycard,tax
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registrationnumberCPF,marriagecertificate,etc.)(Guivant,2001).The1996AgrarianReformCensusrevealedthatonly12.6
percentoflandreformbeneficiarieswerewomen,althoughwithconsiderablecrossstatevariation(Barsted,2002).Thisismainly
duetosocioculturalfactorsconcerningthegenderdivisionofroleswithinthefamily,whichinruralareasarewidespreadand
internalizedbywomenthemselves(Barsted,2002).Forinstance,thereisanecdotalevidencethatwhereplotregistrationis
requiredbyawoman,indicatingthehusbandasdependent,landreformofficerssuspecttheexistenceoflegalorother
impedimentstoregistrationwiththehusband(Guivant,2001).
Womenhaveactivelyparticipatedinagrarianmovementsstrugglingforaccesstoland.TheMovimentodosTrabalhadoresSem
Terra(LandlessWorkersMovement)isthelargestmovementstrugglingforlandreforminBrazil,includingthroughland
occupations.TheMovementhaswomenleadersatregionalandnationallevelforinstance,nineoutof21membersoftheNational
Committee,thehighestorganoftheMovement,arewomen.IthasalsoestablishedaNationalGenderCollective(previously
namedNationalCouncilofLandlessWomen)topromoteagenderapproachinitsactivities.However,womensrightstendto
receivelittleemphasisinthedemandsoftheMovement(Guivant,2001).
2.4.SubSaharanAfrica
TheACHPRguaranteeswithoutdiscriminationtherighttopropertyarts.2and14),andmandatesstatestoeliminateevery
discriminationagainstwomenandtoprotectwomensrights(art.18(3)).Ontheotherhand,differentlyfromotherinternational
humanrightsinstruments,theACHPRdoesnotexplicitlystatetheequalityofspousesduringandaftermarriage,andplaces
particularemphasisonthepromotionandprotectionofAfricantraditionalvaluesrecognizedbythecommunity(arts.17(3)and
18(2)).TheDraftProtocolontheRightsofWomeninAfrica(notyetadopted)providesfortheintegrationofagenderperspectivein
nationallegislation(art.2(1)(c)),forequalityofrightsofthespouseswithinmarriage,includinginrelationtoproperty(art.7),forthe
rightofmarriedwomentoacquireandfreelyadministerseparateproperty(art.7),forequalityofpropertyrelatedrightsupon
divorceorannulmentofmarriage(art.8(c),forequalityininheritancerights(art.21),andforwomensaccesstoland(art.15(a)).
InmuchofsubSaharanAfrica,fewruralwomenholdland.Forinstance,womenhold11percentofagriculturallandinBenin,25
percentinCongo,and25percentinTanzaniainZimbabwe,womenhold3percentofagriculturallandinthesmallholdersector
and10percentinthelargescalecommercialsector(FAO,1995).Moreover,wherewomenholdland,theirplotsaregenerally
smallerthanthoseheldbymen:forinstance,theaveragesizeofwomenslandholdingsis0.98hectares(comparedto1.76for
men)inBenin0.53hectares(comparedto0.73formen)inTanzaniaand1.86hectares(comparedto2.73formen)inZimbabwe
(FAO,1995).Thislimitedaccesstonaturalresourcesiscausedbybothlegalandsocioculturalfactors.Legalobstaclesrelateboth
tofamilyandsuccessionlawandtonaturalresourcelaw.
Asfortheformer,somecountrieshaveimprovedwomensrightsbyadoptingfamilyandsuccessionlawsabrogatingdiscriminatory
customarynorms(e.g.GhanasIntestateSuccessionLawof1985TanzaniasLawofMarriageActof1971).InEthiopia,the
RevisedFamilyCodeof2000grantsspousesequalrightsinthemanagementofthefamily(art.50(1))provides(withsome
exceptions)forcommunityofpropertyinrelationtopropertyacquiredaftermarriage,creatingapresumptionofcommonproperty
forgoodsregisteredinthenameofonespouseandrequiringtheconsentofbothspousesforpropertytransfers(arts.58,62,63
and68)andenvisagesjointadministrationoffamilyproperty(art.66).TheEthiopianCodealsoenvisagescommunityofproperty
fordefactounionslastingfornotlessthanthreeyears(art.102).InMalawi,the1995Constitutiongrantswomenequallegal
capacitytoenterintocontractsandacquireandmaintainpropertyrights,regardlessoftheirmaritalstatus.Inothercases,however,
discriminatorynormsremain.Forinstance,inLesothofamilypropertyisadministeredexclusivelybythehusband,andinShupingv.
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Motsoahaethecourtupheldthealienationofajointestatedecidedbythehusbandwithoutconsultingthewife(Ankumah,1996).
Asfornaturalresourcelegislation,forlongthismadenoexplicitreferencetogender.Sincethe1990s,however,someAfrican
countrieshaveexplicitlyincludedgenderequityinlandlegislation,e.g.byexplicitlystatingtheprincipleofgenderequalityinland
rights,abrogatingdiscriminatorycustomarynorms,improvingthepositionofwidowsinintestatesuccession,presumingjoint
ownershipoffamilyland,outlawinglandsaleswithoutconsentofbothspouses,strengtheningdivorceesrightstofamilyland,and
ensuringwomensrepresentationinlandmanagementbodies.
Forinstance,theEritreanLandProclamationof1994explicitlystatestheprincipleofnondiscriminationinlandrights(arts.4(4),
6(8)and11(3)),andregulateswomenslandrightswithinsuccession(art.12),marriage(art.15)anddivorce(art.16).Underthe
MozambicanLandActof1997,bothmenandwomenmayhaveuserightsinstateownedland,andsuccessioncannotdiscriminate
ongroundsofsex(arts.10(1)and16(1)).NigersRuralCodeof1993recognisestheequalvocationofcitizenstoaccessnatural
resourceswithoutsexdiscrimination(art.4).
UndertheUgandanLandActof1998,customarylandrightcertificatesaretobeissuedrecordingallinterestsinlandnotamounting
toownership,includingcustomaryuserights(usuallyenjoyedbywomenintheirhusbandsland)(sec.6(1)(e)).Moreover,while
decisionsonlandadjudicationaretobemadeaccordingtocustomarylaw,decisionsdenyingwomenaccesstoownership,
occupationorusearenullandvoid(sec.28).SpecificprovisionsensurewomensrepresentationintheUgandaLandCommission
(atleastonemembersection48(4)),inLandDistrictBoards(atleastonethirdofthememberssection58(3))andinparishlevel
LandCommittees(atleastonemembersec.66(2)).Whileselling,leasingorgivingawaylandrequirestheconsentofthespouse
(sec.40),aclauseintroducingpresumptionofspousalcoownership,initiallyincludedintheActpassedbytheParliament,was
excludedbythePresidentfromthegazettedtext.
TheTanzanianLandActof1998includesamongitsfundamentalprinciplesthefacilitationofanequitabledistributionofandaccess
tolandbyallcitizens(sec.3(1)(c)sec.3(2))explicitlyaffirmstheequalityofmensandwomenslandrights.Spousalcoownership
offamilylandispresumed(sec.161).Consentofbothspousesisrequiredtomortgagethematrimonialhome(sec.112(3)),andin
caseofborrowerdefaultthelendermustserveanoticetotheborrowersspousebeforesellingmortgagedland(sec.131(3)(d)).
Moreover,afairbalanceofmenandwomenistobeensuredintheappointmentoftheNationalLandAdvisoryCouncil(sec.17).
Asthislegislationhasbeenenactedonlyrecentlyorisstillintheprocessofbeingenacted,itisstillprematuretoassessitsreal
impactonwomenslandrights.Insomecases,lackofresourcesseverelyconstrainstheimplementationofadoptedlegislation(e.g.
UgandasLandAct).Otherrecentlandlegislationdoesnotcontainprovisionsongender.Forinstance,Law98750(1998)ofCte
dIvoire,whilestatingthateverypersonmayaccessland,makesnoreferencetogender.
DifferentlyfromLatinAmerica,landownershipinsubSaharanAfricaisgenerallynotstronglyconcentrated.Importantexceptions
nonethelessexist,andlandredistributionprogrammeshavebeenadoptedforinstanceinZimbabweandSouthAfrica.Womens
rightsundertheSouthAfricanprogrammeareanalysedbelow(sec.2.4.4).
Legislationconcerningnaturalresourcesotherthanlandusuallydoesnotexplicitlyaddressgenderissues,althoughsome
exceptionsexist(e.g.SouthAfricaswaterlegislation).
Judicialdecisionshavealsoplayedanimportantroleindeterminingwomensrightstonaturalresources.Onthepositiveside,
discriminatorynormshavebeeninvalidatedonconstitutionalgrounds.InNigeria,followingacaselawmodifyingdiscriminatory
customarynorms[7],theEnuguDivisionoftheCourtofAppealinvalidatedcustomarynormsprovidingforinheritancebymalefamily
membersonly(Mojekwuv.Mojekwu,1997,7NWLR283)andsubjectinginheritancebydaughterstotheirundertakingtoremain
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unmarried(Moujekwuv.Ejikeme,2000,5NWLR402bothcasesarequotedinCRLP,2001).InTanzania,theHighCourt
invalidatedcustomarynormspreventingwomenfromsellingland(Pastorycase,seebelow,Box1).InthePastoryandtheEjikeme
cases,thecourtsexplicitlyreferredtotheCEDAW.
Ontheotherhand,theSupremeCourtofZimbabwehastraditionallyadoptedarigidanddiscriminatoryinterpretationofcustomary
law,applicableincommunalareas.InJenahv.Nyemba(SC4/86),theSupremeCourtstated:forAfricanlawandcustomproperty
acquiredduringamarriagebecomesthehusbandspropertywhetheracquiredbyhimorhiswife(quotedinGopalandSalim,
1998:7).Relyingonaconstitutionalprovisionexemptingsuccessionlawandcustomarylawfromtheprincipleofnondiscrimination,
theCourtrecentlyupheldacustomarynormexcludingwomenfromintestatesuccession,awardingheirshiptothesecondmale
childinsteadoftheeldestfemalechildongendergrounds(Magayav.Magaya,1998,SC210/98,commentedinColdham,1999).
CustomarylandtenureremainswidespreadinAfricaevenwherelandownershipisformallynationalisedorprivatised.Customary
rulesareextremelydiverse.Whilelandtraditionallybelongstothelineageandaccesstoitisusuallydeterminedbygroup
membershipandsocialstatus,customarytenureencompassesverydifferentinstitutionalarrangements,rangingfromcommon
property(usuallyforgrazinglandandforests)tohouseholdfarmingonplotsallocatedbythegroupauthority(mainlyforarable
land).Wherelandisallocatedtohouseholds,householdsrightsvaryfromplacetoplace:inmostcases,theserightsareinheritable
butcannotbesold(especiallytooutsiders),althoughcertaintransactionsaregenerallyallowed(gifts,loans,etc.)andsome
systemsallowlandsales.InAfrica,patrilinealsystemsprevail,wherebywomenslandrightsarelimitedmainlytoavoidlosingfamily
landuponwomensmarriageoutsidethefamily.Rightsinarablelandareusuallyallocatedtothemalehouseholdhead,while
womenhavesecondaryrights,i.e.cultivationrightsobtainedthroughtherelationshipwithmalefamilymembers(husbandsand
malerelatives).Plotscultivatedbywomen(mainlygrowingfoodcrops)areoftenlessfertilethanthosecultivatedbymen(mainly
growingcashcrops).Moreover,womensinheritancerightsareseverelylimited,notonlyinpatrilinealsystems(whereproperty
devolvesalongthemaleline,totheexclusionofwomen),butalsoinmatrilinealsystems(wherealthoughpropertytracesthrough
themotherslineandwomenhavegreaterrightsthanunderpatrilinealsystems,landcontrolusuallyrestswithmalefamily
members).However,aslandownershipistraditionallyvestedwiththelineage,strictlyspeakingneithermennorwomencan
inheritlandbothhaveuserights,althoughwomensrightsareweakerthanmensastheformersrightsaremediatedthroughand
dependentuponthelatter(Gluckman,1969Bruce,1993LastarriaCornhiel,1997KevaneandGray,1999b).
Withpopulationpressures,culturalchange(e.g.thespreadofIslam)andagriculturalintensificationandcommercialisation,many
customarysystemshaveevolvedtowardsgreaterindividualisation.Familycontroloverlandhasweakened,andthecontentofthe
rightsvestedinmalehouseholdheadshasbroadened,becomingincreasinglyinheritableandtransferable.Inthiscontext,womens
secondaryrightshavetendedtoerode,whiletheveryrationaleofwomenslimitedrights(retaininglandunderfamilycontrol)has
faded.Thisprocessoftenureindividualisationanderosionofwomensrightshasinsomecasesbeenacceleratedbyland
registrationandtitlingprogrammes(LastarriaCornhiel,1997KevaneandGray,1999b).
Ontheotherhand,womenenjoyimportantnaturalresourcerightsundercustomarylaw.Forinstance,womenstreerightsoften
includetherighttocollectfruitandfuelwoodfromtreesplantedinmensfieldsorinmencontrolledcommons(e.g.Rocheleauand
Edmunds,1997,ontheLuoofKenya).
2.4.2.Kenya
Kenyanpropertylawdoesnotdiscriminateonthebasisofsex/gender.Moreover,undertheContractAct,womenhavecontractual
capacitytoacquireandadministerproperty.Familylawvariesaccordingtoreligiousbelonging(MarriageActMohammedan
Marriage,DivorceandSuccessionActHinduMarriageandDivorceActAfricanChristianMarriageandDivorceActcustomary
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marriagesarerecognizedundersection37oftheMarriageAct)[8].However,thepropertyprovisionsarecontainedintheMarried
WomensPropertyActsof18701884,whichareEnglishstatutesnowhavinggeneralapplication(I.v.I.,[1974]EA278).Under
theseActs,amarriedwomanhastherighttoownproperty,andcansueherhusbandtoprotectherrights.
UndertheLawofSuccessionActof1972(intooperationin1981),femaleandmalechildrenhavethesamesuccessionrights,and
widowshavealifeinterestintheintestateestate(whichtheylosewithremarriage).However,inheritanceofagriculturallands,
cropsandlivestockcontinuestobegovernedbycustomarylaw(sec.33),accordingtowhichwivesanddaughtersusuallydonot
inheritfamilyproperty(GopalandSalim,1998Mackenzie,1998).Inruralareas,itiswidespreadpracticeforfatherstoleaveland
totheirsons,intheexpectationthatdaughterswouldbecaredforbytheirhusbandsthispracticewasupheldbythecourtsinthe
NjeruKamangacase(SuccessionCaseNo.93of1991,unreported,quotedinCRLP,1997).
LandtenureinKenyaencompassesindividualprivateproperty,groupprivateproperty,stateproperty,andlandheldintrustbythe
state.Asforprivateproperty,landownershipbywomenisrare.StudiesfromKajiado,Kisumu,Mombasa,andMurangafoundthat
themajorityofwomendonotownanyland(GopalandSalim,1998).
Aconsiderableamountoflegislationgovernstrustland,whichaccountsforsome90percentofthetotalland.Intheseareas,land
titlesarevestedwithcountycouncils,whicharetogiveeffecttolandrightsexistingundercustomarylaw(althoughtheycanalso
allocatelandtononresidentsandpersonswithoutcustomarytitle)(Constitution,Sections115120TrustLandActof1963).
Moreover,alandtenurereformtoconvertcustomaryrightsintofreeholdwasadoptedbythecolonialauthorityandcontinuedbythe
postindependencegovernment(SwynnertonPlanof1954RegisteredLandActof1963LandAdjudicationActof1968).Under
thesenorms,landhasbeenregisteredsystematically(i.e.notuponapplicationbylandholders)inthreephases:adjudication,i.e.
ascertainmentofexistingcustomarylandrightsconsolidation,i.e.aggregationoffragmentedholdings(withlandholdersexchanging
dispersedforcontiguousplots)registration,i.e.recordingoftitlesoverconsolidatedplotsandtheirconversionintofreehold.Asfor
grazingland,theLand(GroupRepresentatives)Actof1968allowstheregistrationofcollectiveproperty(rangingfromfamiliesto
tribes)throughthecreationofgrouprancheshowever,manygrouprancheshavesubsequentlybeendivided.Implementationof
theSwynnertonPlanisstillunderway.
Thesenormsdonotformallydiscriminateagainstwomen.Forinstance,theRegisteredLandActdoesnotexcludewomenfrom
possibletitleholders,andusesgenderneutralwordslikeproprietor.However,thelandtenurereformhasaffectedwomensland
rights.Thereformintervenedinacontextwherecustomarylawwasevolvingtowardsincreasingindividualisation,withanerosion
ofwomenscustomarylandrights[9].Inthiscontext,theimplementationofthelandregistrationprogramme,carriedoutinaperiodin
whichgenderwasnotinthedevelopmentagenda,acceleratedtheindividualisationprocessandfurthercurtailedwomensland
rights.First,landadjudicationcommitteesweremaledominatedinLuoland,forinstance,alladjudicationcommitteememberswere
male(Shipton,1988).Moreover,althoughalllandrights,includingundercustomarylaw,hadtoberecordedduringadjudication
(LandAdjudicationAct,sec.23),adjudicationcommitteeslackedskillsandtimetodoso.Registrationwasusuallymadetomale
householdheads,therebyunderminingwomensunregisteredsecondaryrights.InKanyamkago,forinstance,only7percentofthe
plotswereregisteredtowomenasjointorexclusiverightholders,and4percenttowomenasexclusiveowners(Shipton,1988).
WidespreadnonregistrationofwomensrightsisalsodocumentedfortheKikuyu(Mackenzie,1998)andtheMaasai(Galaty,
1994).
Althoughsomejudgementshaveprotectednonregisteredrightholdersbygivingeffecttoorcreatingtrusts(e.g.Muguthuv.
Muguthu[10]),thedominantjudicialinterpretationisthatregistrationextinguishesallnonregisteredrights(Obierov.OpiyoEsiroyov.
Esiroyo[11]).Thenegativeeffectofregistrationfortheholdersofsecondaryrightswasaggravatedbytheexemptionofthefirst
registrationfromcourtrectificationongroundsoffraudormistake(RegisteredLandAct,sec.143(1)).Moreover,section144(1)(b),
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grantingarighttoindemnitytopersonsdamagedbyregistrationmistakesoromissionswhichcannotberectified,explicitlyexcludes
mistakesandomissionsinthefirstregistration[12].
Furthermore,insomeareasconsolidationoffragmentedlandholdingsunderthelandtenurereformcurtailedtherelatively
independentmanagerialcontrolthatwomenexercisedoverthedispersedfamilyplotstheycultivated(Fleuret,1988).
Ontheotherhand,somewomengainedfromregistration.Forinstance,widowssometimesregisteredlandintheirname,instead
ofreturningittothedeadhusbandsfamilyundercustomarylaw(Shipton,1988).Moreover,thereisevidencethatwomens
customarysecondaryrights(e.g.accesstomensfieldstoharvesttreesandgrazelivestock)arestilldefactorecognized
(RocheleauandEdmunds,1997).Inaddition,theestablishmentofa(genderneutral)landmarketenabledwomentopurchaseland
ona(formally)equalpositiontomen,abolishingcustomarylimitstowomenslandrights.Indeed,therearereportsofwomenwho
havepurchasedland,bothasindividualsandingroups,andregistereditintheirname(Fleuret,1988Mackenzie,1993and1998
RocheleauandEdmunds,1997).However,womensconstrainedaccesstocapital(credit,employmentintheformalsector,etc.)
limitedtheirabilitytogainaccesstolandthroughpurchases(Mackenzie,1993and1998).
TheoperationofLandControlBoardsisalsorelevantforwomenslandrights.UndertheLandControlActof1967,land
transactionsrequiretheapprovalofthecompetentLandControlBoard,whichdecidesonthebasisofeconomicandsocialcriteria
(e.g.preventionofuneconomicsubdivisionandoflandlessness,respectively).Ontheonehand,theConstitutionstatesthatthe
principleofnondiscriminationbypublicauthoritiesdoesnotapplytotheactivityofLandControlBoards(sec.82(6)(b)).Asforthe
compositionoftheBoards,nowomenrepresentationisspecificallyrequired,andmorethanonehalfoftheboardmembersmust
beownersoroccupiersofagriculturallandwithintheprovince(LandControlAct,Schedule,art.1)giventhelittleshareofland
ownedoroccupiedbywomen,thisprovisionmayconstituteindirectdiscrimination.
Ontheotherhand,LandControlBoardshaveinmanycasesprotectedwomenslandrights,e.g.byhearingtheviewsofthe
spousebeforeapprovinglandtransactionsandbyrefusingapprovalfortransactionsthatignoredunregisteredlandinterests.This
mechanismreducedthenegativeeffectsoftheimmunitytochallengeformistakeorfraudenjoyedbyfirstregistrationsunder
section143(1)oftheRegisteredLandAct.However,manytransactionsareinpracticecarriedoutevenwhenLandControlBoards
refuseapproval(Coldham1978aGopalandSalim,1998).
Overall,womenslandrightsinKenyaarelimited.Theextentoftheserightsisdeterminedbytheinterplayofcustomaryand
statutorylaw.Customaryrulesareinvokedbywomentochallengeregistrationbenefitingexclusivelymen,andbymentolimitthe
rightsacquiredbywomenunderstatutorysuccessionlaw(Mackenzie,1993)[13].
Waterrightsarelinkedtolandtenure.Undersection27(a)oftheRegisteredLandAct,registrationvestsinthetitleholdernotonly
absoluteownershipoftheland,butalsorightsappurtenantthereto,includingwaterrights.UndertheWaterAct,water
ownershipisvestedinthestate,andindividualscanonlyhaveusufructrightsobtainablethroughapermitissuedbythecompetent
ministry.However,itisusuallylandownersthatapplyforpermitsforirrigationpurposes,andsomedomesticusesbyriparian
landownersdonotrequireapermit.Therefore,thegenderbiasedlanddistributionentailsunequalwaterrights(Tororietal.,1996).
Undercustomarylaw,althoughwomenusuallycannotplanttrees(e.g.amongtheLuo),theyhaveotherwellestablishedtreerights
(e.g.therighttoharvestfuelwoodandfruitfromcommunalandmenownedland).Theserightsarehighlydifferentiatedonthe
basisofage(witholderwomenusuallyhavingstrongertreerights)and,inpolygamoushouseholds,ofmarriageorder.For
instance,amongtheLuoofSiayaDistrict,whilecitrustreesareownedbymen,thefruitsbelongtothefirstwife.However,womens
customaryrightsofaccessandcollectionincommonpropertylandsarebeingerodedbyagriculturalcommercialisationprocesses,
involvingprivatisationofthecommonsusuallytobenefitmalehouseholdheads(RocheleauandEdmunds,1997).
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2.4.3.BurkinaFaso
FamilyandsuccessionlawisembodiedinthePersonsandFamilyCodeof1990.Withsomeimportantexceptions,thisisinspired
bytheWesternmodeloffamily(andofwomenspositiontherein).Thus,article234prohibitslevirate(i.e.forcedremarriageofthe
widowwiththeheirofherdeceasedhusband).AnimportantexceptiontotheWesternmodelisthepermissionofpolygamythis
wasprohibitedintheoriginaldraftcode,butwassubsequentlyallowedfollowingintensepopularpressures(Cavin,1998).The
matrimonialregimeiscommunityofpropertyincaseofmonogamy,andseparationofpropertyincaseofpolygamy(art.309).Sex
discriminationwithinmarriageisprohibitedbyarticle23oftheConstitution.
Thesurvivingspouseisamongtheintestateheirs,entitledtoasharevaryingaccordingtowhetherornottherearedescendants
(arts.742744).Incaseofpolygamy,thesamerulesapply,andthesurvivingwivesdividethewidowsshare(art.745).Children
inheritwithoutdiscriminationbasedonsexororiginoffiliation(art.733).However,daughtersoftenvoluntarilyrenouncetotheir
statutoryinheritancerightstolandandlivestockinfavouroftheirbrothers,onwhosesupporttheyfrequentlydepend(Puget,1999).
Asforgeneralpropertylaw,article15oftheConstitution,guaranteeingtherighttoproperty,makesnodistinctiononthebasisof
sex/gender.ThenormsoftheCivilCodeconcerningproperty(arts.544ss.)aregenderneutral.
BurkinaFasohashadseveralagrarianreformsinthelasttwodecades(1984,1991,and1996).UnderLaw14/96of1996,land
ownershipisvestedwiththestate(arts.24),butcanbetransferredtoprivatepersons(art.5).Underthelaw,menandwomen
haveequallandrights.Stateownedlandisallocatedtophysicalpersonswithoutdistinctionbasedonsexormaritalstatus(art.62).
Article68,concerninglandalienationtoprivatepersons,doesnotexplicitlystatetheprincipleofnondiscriminationbutisgender
neutral.Atvillagelevel,landismanagedbycommissionsvillageoisesdegestiondesterroirselectedornominatedsuivantles
ralitshistoriques,socialesetculturelles(art.46)therearereportsthatvillageinstitutionsareinpracticedominatedbymaleelites
(EngbergPederson,1995Pander,2000).The1996Lawalsocontainsgenderneutralnormsonpropertyrightsingeneralandon
waterresources.
TheForestCodeof1997containsnogenderspecificprovisions.Customarydomesticuserightsinpublicforests(generally
harvestingoffruitsandfuelwoodbywomen)arerecognized(art.55ss.).
Thus,legislationdoesnotformallydiscriminateagainstwomen.Inruralareas,however,itiscustomarylawthatisinpracticemostly
applied.HerefollowsabriefdescriptionofthecustomaryrulesoftheMossi,themajorityethnicgroupofBurkinaFaso.UnderMossi
customarylaw,landownershipbelongstotheancestors.Landisallocatedbythechief(chefdeterre),whoistheintermediary
betweentheancestorsandthealive.Onlymencanbechiefs.Womendonothavedirectlandrights,butaccesslandthrough
husbandsandmalerelatives.Everymanhasadutytomarryandallocatehiswifeapieceoflandforherownagriculturalactivities.
Womencontrolthecropstheygrow(althoughthesemustbeusedtomeetthehouseholdsubsistenceneeds)andashareofthe
cropsgrownthroughtheirlabourintheirhusbandsfields.Awidowmayreturntoherfamilyoforigin,andbeallocatedlandthere
marryayoungerbrotherofthedeceasedhusband(levirate)orremainaswidowwiththeinlawfamily.Inthelattertwocases,the
widowmaintainsaccesstoherhusbandsfamilyland.Thedegreeofwomensfreedominleviratechoicesvaries,rangingfrom
quasicompulsoryremarriageinsomegroupstoaconsiderablefreedomtochooseinothersinurbanareas,womenincreasingly
refuseremarriage.Levirateisformallyprohibitedbystatutorylaw(PersonsandFamilyCode,art.234).Divorcedwomenareto
marryagain,soastogainaccesstothenewhusbandsland,andcanbetemporarilyallocatedplotsbytheirfamilyoforigin.
Moreover,womenmayborrowlandfrompersonsoutsidethefamily,althoughtheyhavenosecuretenureandtheiruserightsare
limited(e.g.theycannotplanttrees).Women(wivesordaughters)usuallydonotinheritland,althoughinsomeregionstheyenjoy
greaterinheritancerights.EvenMuslimwomen,whounderSharialawaregenerallyentitledtohalftheshareofmen,tendtowaive
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theirrightsinfavouroftheirbrothers.Populationpressuresandincreasinglandscarcityarefurtherweakeningwomenslandrights:
forinstance,therearereportsofhusbandsnotallocatingplotstotheirwivesbecausetheydonotownenoughland(Cavin,1998
KevaneandGray,1999aPander,2000).
Fieldstudiessuggestthatsomepublicirrigationprojectsentailedreallocationsoflandandwaterrightsthatdisadvantagedwomen.
InComoProvince,forinstance,whilemencontrollandontheuplandsandgrowgroundnutsandcotton,womenhavelandrights
inthebasfonds(lowlands)andcultivaterice.Whilelandchiefsaremen,landcumwaterauthoritiesinthebasfondsareoften
women.Inthiscontext,awaterinfrastructureproject(OprationRiz,19791993)wasundertakenunderLaw29of1963,
empoweringthegovernmenttoexpropriateexistingresourcerightsandreallocatelifelongtenancyrightsovertheimproved
resource.Inthefirstphasesoftheimplementation,theprojectreliedonmalechiefsandonamalebiasedinterpretationof
customarylaw.Aftertheconstructionoftheinfrastructure,improvedbasfondplots(andrelatingwaterrights)wereallocatedto
(male)householdheads,ignoringwomenspreexistingrights.Insubsequentphasesoftheproject,thisgenderbiaswasremoved:
womenparticipatedinthedecisionmakingprocessandobtainedlandcumwaterrights(vanKoppen,1998seealsoKevaneand
Gray,1999aPander,2000)[14].
2.4.4.SouthAfrica
ThepropertyrelatedprovisionsofSouthAfricanfamilylawwereamendedinthe1980sand1990stoimprovewomensposition.
Forcenturies,RomanDutchcommonlawgrantedthehusbandamaritalpower,wherebyheexclusivelyadministeredfamily
propertyand,unlessotherwisespecifiedintheantenuptialcontract,theseparatepropertyofthewife.Maritalpowerwas
progressivelyrestrictedbystatutorynorms(e.g.theMatrimonialAffairsActof1953).UndertheMatrimonialPropertyActof1984,
thespousescanchoosethematrimonialregimetheyprefer(communityofpropertyseparationofpropertypartialcommunityor
accrualsystem,wherebypropertiesremainseparatedduringmarriage,butthespousesshareaccrualsuponterminationof
marriage)intheabsenceofexplicitchoice,communityofpropertyapplies.Underthisregime,thespousesequallyownand
administercommonpropertymaritalpowerisabolished.TheGeneralLawFourthAmendmentActof1993repealedthelast
survivingnormsonmaritalpower[15].
Womenmarriedundercustomarylawhavelongbeendiscriminatedagainst.Undersection11(3)oftheBlackAdministrationActof
1927,customarywiveswereconsideredminorssubjecttotheguardianshipoftheirhusbands.Thisnormwasrepealedbythe
RecognitionofCustomaryMarriagesActof1998,whichgrantscustomarywivesfullstatusandcapacity,includingthecapacityto
acquireassetsandtodisposeofthem,toenterintocontractsandtolitigate(sec.6).Customarymarriagesenteredintoafterthe
commencementoftheActcreateacommunityofpropertyregime,unlessthespousesagreedifferently(whileexistingmarriages
remaingovernedbycustomaryrules)(sec.7).
Statutorysuccessionlaw(MaintenanceofSurvivingSpouseActof1990andIntestateSuccessionActof1987)recognises
womensinheritancerights.However,customarylawandregulationsmadeonthebasisofcustomarylawundersection23ofthe
BlackAdministrationActseverelyrestrictwomenssuccessionrightsbyprovidingforinheritancebytheeldestson(principleof
primogeniture).AconstitutionalitychallengetotheseruleswasrejectedinMthembuv.LetselaandAnother[16].Thisdecisionwas
affectedbythefactsofthecase:thedaughterofthedeceasedhadbeenexcludedfrominheritancebecauseshewasconsidered
illegitimate(ratherthanbecauseofhersex),andthedeceasedhaddiedbeforetheInterimConstitutioncameintoeffect.Therefore,
whilethejudgeoffirstinstanceexplicitlyrejectedtheconstitutionalitychallenge,theCourtofAppealdidnotexaminetheissueof
genderdiscriminationbecauseitdeemeditacademicforthepurposesofthecase.Ontheotherhand,thePromotionofEquality
andPreventionofUnfairDiscriminationActof2000prohibitsnormsandpracticesunfairlydiscriminatingagainstwomeninthe
inheritanceoffamilyproperty,aswellas,moregenerally,anytraditional,customaryorreligiouspractice,whichimpairsthedignity
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ofwomenandunderminesequalitybetweenwomenandmen(secs.6and8(c)and(d)).
SouthAfricanlandlawischaracterizedbytheRomanDutchcommonlawtradition,bythelegacyofapartheidandbythepost
apartheidlandreformefforts.Sections6and8(e)ofthePromotionofEqualityandPreventionofDiscriminationActof2000prohibit
anypolicyorconductthatunfairlylimitsaccessofwomentolandrights.Section25ofthe1996Constitutioncommitsthe
governmenttoalandreformtoenablecitizenstogainaccesstolandonanequitablebasis.Thegovernmenthaslauncheda
comprehensivelandreformprogrammebasedon:
Landrestitution,providingforrestorationoflandconfiscatedaftertheNativesLandActof1913andsubsequent
legislation,whichrestrictedAfricansaccesstolandto13percentoftheterritory,orforprovisionofalternativelandor
paymentofcompensation
Landredistribution,basedonthewillingbuyerwillingsellerprincipleandonstatefundedgrants
Landtenurereform,toincreasefarmerstenuresecurity,bothforfarmworkersandlabourtenantsinwhiteowned
farmsandforfarmersintheformerhomelands.
GenderequityisoneofthefundamentalprinciplesofSouthAfricaslandreform(WhitePaperonLandPolicyof1997andLand
ReformGenderPolicyof1997).Torealisethisprinciple,theWhitePaperenvisagesseveralinstruments,includingtheremovalof
legalrestrictionsonwomensaccesstoland,gendersensitiveparticipatorymethodologies,provisionoffinancialassistancefor
women,registrationofredistributedlandinthenameofwomenandpriorityforwomenapplicantsforgrants(paras.4.11,4.22,
etc.).CriticismofthegenderapproachoftheWhitePaperincludesthefactthatwomenaretreatedasadistinct,homogeneous
disadvantagedgroup,ratherthanasahighlydifferentiatedgroupcrosscuttingdifferentclasses,andthelackofgenderspecific
targetstoassessprogressinlandreformimplementation(HargreavesandMeer,2000Jacobs,1998aRSA/CGE,1998).
Asfortherestitutioncomponentofthereform,theRestitutionofLandRightsActof1994isnondiscriminatory(e.g.undersection
2(1)(a),arightholdermaybeaheorashe).However,restitutionisunlikelytosubstantiallybenefitwomen,asitwasmenwho
ownedandweredispossessedofmostland,andwhothushaveclaimsundertheAct(RSA/CGE,1998).Aprovisiondirectly
benefitingwomenissection3oftheRestitutionofLandRightsAct,whichallowslandclaimsbypersonswhoregisteredlandto
nomineesbecausetheywerepreventedfromregisteringitintheirownnamebyraciallydiscriminatorylaws.Inparticular,section
11(3)(b)oftheBlackAdministrationActpreventedblackwomenmarriedundercustomarylawfromholdingproperty.InHadebev.
HadebeandAnother(LCC138/99,14June2000),ablackwomanhadpurchasedlandbutregisteredittohersonasanominee
becauseofsection11(3)(b)oftheBlackAdministrationAct(andofsimilarprovisionsoftheNatalCodeofBantuLaw).Afterthe
enactmentoftheRestitutionofLandRightsAct,shebroughtaclaimbeforetheLandClaimsCourttotransferthepropertyintoher
name.TheCourtarguedthattheraciallydiscriminatorystatutoryprovisionswereinconsistentwiththeprincipleofequalitystatedin
theConstitution,andorderedthepropertytransferinfavourofthewoman.
LandclaimsundertheLandRestitutionActmayalsobefiledbycommunities.Thesetendtobeviewedashomogeneousentities,
ignoringdifferentiatedinterestsalonggenderlines,andtobedominatedbymen(Daniels,2001).Inthisregard,theLandClaims
Courtmayimposeconditionstoensurethatallthedispossessedmembersofthecommunity,thusincludingwomen,haveaccessto
thelandorthecompensationonanondiscriminatorybasis(RestitutionofLandRightsAct,sec.35(3)).Moreover,theLandClaims
Courtmayadjustthenatureoftherightspreviouslyheldbytheclaimant(sec.35(4))presumably,constitutionalprinciples,
includinggenderequality,aretobetakenintoaccountintheseadjustments.However,therearesomereportsofexclusionof
womenmarriedoutsidethecommunity(RSA/CGE,1998).
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Undertheredistributioncomponent,bothwomenandmencanpurchaselandthroughaSettlementandLandAcquisitionGrantof
R16000.Becauseoftheirlimitedaccesstocapital(creditandformalemployment),womenmayfacedifficultiesinpurchasingland
inthemarketassistedlandredistributionprogramme.CommunalPropertyAssociations,establishedundertheCommunalProperty
AssociationsActof1996,canprovideausefullegaltoolforgrouppurchasebywomen.Whileanecdotalevidencesuggeststhat
womenarelessinformedaboutthelandreformprogrammethanmen(Badenetal.,1999),availabledatashowsasubstantial
participationofwomenintheredistributionprogramme.ThedatabaseoftheDepartmentofLandAffairsreportsthat47percentof
thebeneficiariesoftheprojectscompletedorunderwayundertheredistributionprogrammearewomen(quotedinWalker,2000)
however,thedatadoesnotallowtodistinguishbetweenwomenindividualbeneficiariesandjointbeneficiaries(couples),norto
understandwhowouldinpracticecontrolthelandregardlessoftheformalbeneficiary(Walker,2000).
Thelandtenurereformaimsatincreasingtenuresecurityinteraliabyprohibitingevictionofpersonsoccupyinglandwiththe
consentofthelandowner(ExtensionofSecurityofTenureActof1997,ESTA)andofholdersofpermissionstooccupyissuedby
thestateunderapartheidlegislationapplicabletothehomelands(InterimProtectionofInformalLandRightsActof1996,applicable
pendingmorefarreachinglegislation).Theterminologyadoptedinthislegislationisgenderneutral(e.g.occupierunderESTA)or
nondiscriminatory(rightholdersarereferredtoasheorshee.g.ESTA,sec.6(1),andtheInterimProtectionofInformalRights
Act,sec.2(1)).UnderESTA,criteriafortheallocationofsubsidiesforlandacquisitionanddevelopmentincludetheapplicationby
occupierswhoarespousesofoccupiersagedover60(sec.4(2)(e)).Theoccupationrightsoflabourtenantsfamilymembersare
protectedbytheLandReform(LabourTenants)Act1996.Inaddition,thepreambleofthePreventionofIllegalEvictionfromand
UnlawfulOccupationofLandAct(1998)statesthatspecialrecognitionshouldbegiventotherightsandneedsofvariousgroups,
includingfemaleheadedhouseholds.Finally,theCommunalPropertyAssociationsActof1996createsnewformsofcollective
landholding,enablingcommunitiestoownandmanagepropertythroughassociationsendowedwithlegalpersonality,andrequiring
suchassociationstocomplywithseveralprinciples,includingnondiscriminationonthebasisofsexandgender(sec.9).
Notwithstandingthisnondiscriminatorytenurereformlegislation,socioculturalpracticesoftenpreventruralwomenfromholding
landtitles(RSA/CGE,1998).Intheformerhomelands,customarylandtenureisapplied.Undertheserules,womenarerarely
allocatedplotsbychiefs,andusuallygainaccesstolandonlythoughtheirfathersandhusbands.Landcultivatedbywomenisoften
thepoorestandmostinaccessibleone.Widowshavenorighttoremainintheirdeceasedhusbandsland(Bob,1996Levinetal.,
1996RSA/CGE,1998Badenetal.,1999).However,thereisconsiderablevariation,dependingontheregionandthepolitical
alignmentofthechiefs:forinstance,inNorthwestProvince,someANCalignedchiefshaveallocatedlandtomarriedwomen
(thoughnottosinglewomenwithchildren)(Jacobs,1998a)ontheotherhand,muchmoreconservativepracticesarereported
fromKwaZuluNatal(Badenetal.,1999).
Inaddition,PilotLandReformprogrammesexplicitlyrequirewomensparticipationinprojectplanning.FieldstudiesfromWestern
Cape,NorthWestProvinceandMpumalangasuggesthoweverthatwomensparticipationisinpracticelimited,bothinthenumber
ofmembersinmanagementcommitteesandintheextenttowhichfemaleelectedmembershavetheirvoiceheardinmeetings.
Someexceptionsnonethelessexist:inMpumalanga,fouroutof15membersoftheManagementCommittee,includingthe
chairperson,arewomen(Jacobs,1998a).
TheNationalEnvironmentalManagementActof1998(NEMA),whichisSouthAfricasframeworkenvironmentallaw,includes
ensuringequitableaccesstoenvironmentalresources,aswellastakingspecialmeasurestoensureaccessbycategoriesof
personsdisadvantagedbyunfairdiscrimination,amongtheNationalEnvironmentalManagementPrinciples(sec.2(1)).TheAct
alsomakesprovisionfortheestablishmentoftheNationalEnvironmentalAdvisoryForuminappointingitsmembers,theminister
musttakeintoaccountthedesirabilityofappointingcertaincategoriesofpersons,includingwomen(sec.4).
Withregardtowater,thereportoftheSouthAfricanCommissionforGenderEquality(1998)founddefactosex/gender
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discrimination,andstated:rightstowaterareintrinsicallylinkedtolandrights.Thereforecontrol,accessandqualityofwater
inequitablyresidewiththoseenjoyingriparianrightsandlandownership.Thismeansthatruralwomen,whohistoricallydonotown
landandwhosetraditionaldutyistoensurethatthehouseholdissuppliedwithwater,beartheburdenofhavingtotravellong
distancescarryingheavyloadsofwater.ThewaterregimehassignificantlychangedundertheNationalWaterActof1998,which
hasplacedallfreshwaterresourcesunderthetrusteeshipofthestate(sec.3).Whileseekingtoprotectwaterresources,theAct
simultaneouslyseekstoredresstheinequitableaccessto,andcontrolover,freshwaterresources.Indeed,itspurposesinclude
promotingequitableaccesstowater,redressingtheresultsofpastgenderdiscrimination,andensuringappropriategender
representationinthecompetentinstitutions(sec.2).Theneedtoredresstheresultsofpast...genderdiscriminationmustbe
takenintoaccountintheissuanceoflicences(sec.27(1)(b)),intheallocationoffinancialassistance(sec.61(3)(c)),andinthe
performanceofthefunctionsofthecatchmentmanagementagencies(sec.79(4)(a)).Themembersofthegoverningboardof
catchmentmanagementagenciesareappointedbytheresponsibleminister,whomayalsoappointadditionalmemberstoachieve
sufficientgenderrepresentation(sec.81(10)(b)).
Asforforests,althoughtheForestActof1998doesnotspecificallymentiongender,someofitsprovisionsarerelevant.Theguiding
principlesenshrinedinsection3includethepromotionoffairdistributionoftheireconomic,social,healthandenvironmental
benefits,andtheadvancementofpersonsorcategoriesofpersonsdisadvantagedbyunfairdiscrimination.Moreover,community
forestagreementsbetweenthestateandlocalcommunitiesmustnotdiscriminateunfairly(sec.31).Inaddition,theNational
ForestsAdvisoryCouncil,providingadvicetothecompetentminister,includesrepresentationofcivilsociety,particularlycategories
ofpersonsdisadvantagedbyunfairdiscrimination(sec.34).
Finally,inrelationtomarinelivingresources,theMarineLivingResourcesActof1998,whilenotspecificallymentioninggender,
requirestheministertohaveregardtonewentrants,particularlythosefromhistoricallydisadvantagedgroups(whichwouldinclude
women),intheallocationoffishingrights.
Box1.ThePastorycaseinTanzania
AlandmarkcaseonwomenslandrightsistheTanzaniancaseEphrahimv.PastoryandAnother(HighCourtofTanzaniaatMwanza(PC),
CivilAppealNo.70of1989,reportedin1990LRC(Const)757andinPeter,1997:387398).Inthiscase,adiscriminatorycustomaryland
tenurerulewasinvalidatedbecauseofinconsistencywiththeConstitutionandwithinternationalhumanrightslaw.Customarylawisformally
partoftheTanzanianlegalsystem:inMaagwiKimitov.GibenoWerema(CourtofAppealofTanzania,CivilAppealNo.20of1984),thecourt
stated:thecustomarylawsofthiscountryhavethesamestatusinourcourtsasanyotherlaw,subjecttotheConstitutionandtoany
statutorylawthatmayprovidetothecontrary.
ThefactsofthePastorycaseareasfollows.AHayawomanwhohadinheritedlandfromherfatherundertestamentarysuccessionsoldit
outsidetheclan.Amaleclanmemberbroughtanactiontodeclarethesalevoid,aswomencouldnotselllandunderHayacustomarylaw(as
codifiedintheDeclarationofCustomaryLawof1963,LawsofInheritance,sec.20).
TheHighCourtinvalidatedthediscriminatorynormonthebasisoftheprincipleofnondiscriminationonthebasisofsex,affirmedinarticle
13(4)oftheBillofRights(introducedbytheFifthConstitutionalAmendmentActof1984andbytheConstitution(Consequential,Transitional
andTemporaryProvisions)Actof1984)andininternationalhumanrightstreatiesratifiedbyTanzania(CEDAW,ICCPR,andACHPR).The
CourtstatedthatHayawomencouldselllandonthesameconditionsasHayamen,andheldthedisputedlandsalevalid.
Interestingly,asimilarcasebroughtbeforetheadoptionoftheBillofRights(Lutabanav.Kashaga,1981TLR122)hadbeendecided
differently.Inthatcase,theCourtofAppealheldthatwomenonlyhadalifeinterestininheritedland,andthereforecouldnotsellorbequeath
it.
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2.5.NorthernAfricaandtheMiddleEast
SomecountriesarenotpartiestotheCEDAW(e.g.UnitedArabEmirates),whileothershaveratifieditwithreservationsforthe
applicationofSharialaw,eitherasgeneralreservationsorwithregardtospecificarticles,particularlyarticle16onfamilyrelations
(Egypt,Kuwait,Libya,MoroccoandSaudiArabia).TheArabCharteronHumanRightsrecognisestherightofeverycitizentoown
privatepropertywithoutdiscriminationbetweenmenandwomen(arts.25and2),butitisnotinforce.
Atnationallevel,familyandsuccessionlawsusuallyfollowSharianorms.ThestatusofwomenunderSharialawvaries
considerablyaccordingtothecountryandtheprevailingschoolofjurisprudence.Forinstance,womenenjoygreaterrightsunder
theHanafischool(traditionallybasedinKufa,Iraq)thanundertheMalikischool(traditionallybasedinMedina).However,generally
speaking,Sharianormsareusuallyinterpretedsoastovestfamilydirectioninthehusband/father(e.g.verse34ofSuraanNisaa
oftheQuran).Womensinheritanceshareisusuallyhalfthatofmeninasimilarsuccessionposition.Forinstance,daughters
usuallygethalfofwhatsonsget.Ifthereismorethanonewidow,theymustdividethewidowsshareamongthem.Restrictionson
womensinheritanceareusuallyjustifiedonthegroundthatmalefamilymembershaveanobligationtoprovidesupporttofemale
members,whilethelatterhavenoobligationtosupportothers.However,womenareoftenleftwithoutadequateenforcement
guarantees(Hussain,1999GopalandSalim,1998).Inareaswhereinheritanceisthemainformoflandacquisition,discrimination
ininheritancerightsseverelyaffectswomensaccesstoland.Moreover,therearereportsofruralwomenrenouncingeventotheir
limitedinheritancerightsinfavourofmalerelatives(Baden,1992).
Somecountrieshaveenactedcodesorlawsthat,whileincorporatingSharianorms,improvethepositionofwomen(e.g.Tunisia).
InTurkey,wherethelegalsystemisexplicitlysecular,theCivilCodeof2001hassignificantlyimprovedthepositionofmarried
womencomparedtotheprevious1926CivilCode.UnderthenewCode,thehusbandisnolongerthehouseholdhead(art.186),
andmenandwomenhaveequalstatuswithinmarriage(art.188).TheCodehasalsointroducedtheregimeofcommunityof
propertywithequalsharesforthespouses,butonlywithregardtopropertyacquiredafter1January2003.
Verylittledataisavailableontheamountoflandownedbywomen.However,reportsindicatethatlandownershipbywomenis
rarethroughouttheregion,althoughgreatintraregionalvariationexists.Womenown28.6percentofthelandinJordan,4.9
percentintheUnitedArabEmirates,and0.4percentinOman.Evenwherelandisownedbywomen,womensplotsareoften
smallerthanmens,andremainunderthecontrolofmalefamilymembers(FAO,1995b).
2.5.2.Tunisia
Withinthiscontext,Tunisiahasaparticularlyadvancedlegislation.ThePersonalStatusCode1956(asamendedin1981and1993)
codifiesSharialawontheonehandandimproveswomenspositionontheother[17].Whilethehusbandisthehouseholdhead(art.
23(4)),bothspousesaretocooperateinthemanagementoffamilyaffairs(art.23(3)).Thematrimonialpropertyregimehaslong
beenseparationofpropertyLaw9891(1998)allowsspousestooptforthecommunityofpropertyregime,entailingthatcommon
goodsmaybetransferredonlywiththeconsentofbothspouseslackingthisoptioninthematrimonialcontract,separationof
propertyapplies.Thehusbandhasnocontrolovertheseparatepropertyofthewife(Code,art.24).Conjugalobligationsaretobe
fulfilledaccordingtocustoms(art.23(2)),whichmayreflectstereotypedgenderintrahouseholddivisionofroles.
SuccessionlawisbasedonSharialaw(particularlytheMalekitetradition),whichseverelylimitswomensinheritancerights.
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Widowsanddaughtersareamongthenecessaryheirs(hritiersrservatairesart.91).Generallyspeaking,womeninherithalfof
theshareinheritedbyequallyrelatedmen.Forexample,awidowgetsaquarteroftheestateiftherearenochildren,andaneighth
iftherearechildren,whileawidowergetsahalforaquarteroftheestate,respectively(arts.9395).Incaseofonlychild,thesonis
universalheir(art.114),whilethedaughterisentitledtohalftheestate(art.93).Moreover,somefamilymembershave
inheritancerightsonlyiftheyaremale(e.g.uncleandcousins,art.90).
Thenegativeeffectsofthediscriminatorysuccessionnormsonwomenslandrightsareparticularlyacute,asinheritanceisthe
primarymeansofacquiringlandrightsinTunisiaforinstance,avillagelevelstudyintheSidiBouZidregionfoundthatinheritance
accountedforover70percentoflandacquisitionsinmostcoveredvillages,andinsomecasesevenfor100percent(e.g.inMliket).
Thestudyalsorevealsthatcustomaryrulesexcludingwomenfrominheritancearefollowedinruralareas.Therefore,where
womenmarryoutsidetheclan,theydonotclaimtheirstatutoryinheritancerightsoverland,asthiswouldbeperceivedas
inappropriateandasanoffencetotheirmalefamilymembers(Ferchiou,1985).
Propertylaw(CodedesDroitsRels)andcontractlaw(CodedesObligationsetdesContrats,particularlyarticle3)aregender
neutral:menandwomencanequallyacquireandownproperty.
ThemajorfeaturesofTunisianagrarianlegislationinclude:theabolitionofthetraditionalhabouslandtenureregime(Decrees31
May1956and18July1957,asamended,lastlybyLaw200024of2000)theregulationofprivatepropertyofagriculturallands
andthetransfertothestateofvacantlands(Law645of1964)theregulationofcommonpropertylands(Law6428of1964,as
amended)theregistrationofrurallandtitles(DecreeLaw643of1964,asamended),andtheprotectionoflandoccupationby
farmersexploitingordevelopingtheland(miseenvaleur)(Law7453of1974,asamended,lastlybyLaw200010of2000)and
therealisationofanagrarianreforminirrigatedlands(e.g.Law5863of1958,asamended,fortheMedjermaValley).This
legislationisgenderneutral,andappliesequallytomenandwomenfarmers.However,inpracticefewruralwomenownland,both
becauseoflegalobstaclescontainedinotherareasoflaw,particularlysuccessionlaw,andbecauseofculturalfactors.
2.6.Asia
TheAsiancontinentincludesextremelydifferentenvironmental,political,social,culturalandeconomicrealities.Naturalresource
legislationisalsoextremelydiverse,encompassingstateownership(VietNam[18]),ownershipbypeasantcollectives(post1978
China),comprehensiveagrarianreformprogrammesinvolvingtransitiontomarketeconomy(CentralAsia),privateownership(e.g.
Philippines),andsystemsinfluencedbyIslamiclaw(e.g.Pakistan,Bangladesh).InSouthandSoutheastAsia,ownercultivation
andtenancy(particularlysharecropping)aredominant,althoughplantationsarealsopresent.Thisdiversityisreflectedinagreat
intraregionalvariationinwomensrightstonaturalresources.
Insocialistcountries,legislationgrantingfarmerslanduserightsonstateorcollectiveownedlandusuallydoesnotdiscriminate
againstwomenhowever,entrenchedcustomarynormsandpatriarchalcultureconstrainwomensaccesstoland(e.g.onViet
Nam,Hood,2000).
InsomeCentralAsianstates(e.g.KyrgyzRepublicandUzbekistan),theholderoflandrightsisthehousehold,andlandtitlesare
issuedinthenameofthehouseholdhead(usuallytheeldestman).Therefore,womenhaveaccesstolandonlythroughtheir
husbandsand/ormalerelatives(GiovarelliandDuncan,1999).
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InsomepredominantlyMuslimcountries(PakistanandBangladesh),Sharianormslimitingwomensinheritancerights(usuallyto
halfofmensshare)areincorporatedintostatutorylaw(e.g.forPakistan,theWestPunjabMuslimPersonalLaw(Shariat)
ApplicationAct1948).
Asforwaterresources,insomecountrieslegislationconcerningmanagementofirrigationinfrastructurebywateruserassociations
explicitlyreferstogender.Forexample,theNepaleseIrrigationRegulationof2000requiresthatexecutivecommitteesofwater
userassociationsincludeatleasttwowomen(outofninemembers)(art.3(1)),althoughfieldstudiesrevealthatwomens
participationinwaterusersassociationsisinfactverylow(Zwarteveen,1995)[19].
Inmostcountries,theenforcementofstatutorylegislationisscarce,especiallyinruralareas,andcustomaryandreligiouslaware
mostlyapplied.CustomarylawsystemsareextremelydiverseinAsia.Insomecases,theyarepatrilinealandpreventwomenfrom
gainingdirectlandrights(e.g.thecustomarylawsystemsofthePunjab).Inothercases,womencanown,inherit,acquireand
disposeofpropertyintheirownright(e.g.inmatrilinealandbilateralsystemsinThailandandthePhilippines).
2.6.2.India
InIndia,personallawvariesaccordingtoreligiousbelonging[20].Whilereformshavebeenbroughtabout,particularlytoimprovethe
positionofwomen,statutorylawmainlyreflectsreligiousnorms.HindusaregovernedbytheHinduMarriageActof1955andthe
HinduSuccessionActof1956.MuslimsaregovernedbytheMuslimPersonalLaw(Shariat)ApplicationActof1937andthe
MuslimWomens(ProtectionofRightsonDivorce)Actof1986.ChristiansandParsisaregovernedbytherelevantfamilylaws(the
ChristianMarriageActandtheParsiMarriageandDivorceAct,respectively)andbytheIndianSuccessionActof1925(as
amendedin1991).AllIndianscontractingorregisteringmarriageundertheSpecialMarriageActof1954aregovernedbythisAct
andbytheIndianSuccessionAct[21].Article44oftheIndianConstitution(includedamongtheDirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicy)
statesthattheStateshallendeavourtosecureforthecitizensauniformcivilcodethroughouttheterritoryofIndia,therebyending
theregimeofdifferentiatedpersonallaws.InSarlaMudgalandOthersv.UnionofIndiaandOthers,aSupremeCourtjudge
directedthegovernmenttoadoptauniformcivilcodeinordertocomplywiththeConstitutionandtheCEDAW[22].However,no
suchactionhasbeentakenyet.GiventheimportanceofreligiousnormsinIndiaspersonallaws,itisworthbrieflyreviewingsome
keynormsaffectingwomensrights.
TraditionalHindulaw(codifiedinlegaltreatisestheshastrasbetween200BCand300AD)wasdividedintwomainlegal
doctrines,Dayabhaga(mainlyappliedinBengalandAssam)andMitakshara(appliedintherestofthecountry).Underthe
Mitaksharasystem,propertywasdividedintwocategories:jointfamily(coparcenary)property,belongingtotheextendedfamily,
andseparateproperty.Onlymalefamilymemberswerecoparcenersinjointfamilyproperty,whilewomen(wivesandunmarried
daughters)hadarighttomaintenance.Separatepropertyentailedfullownershiprights,andwasheldbymen(intheabsenceof
maledescendants,womencouldonlyinheritusufructrights).TheDayabhagasystemdidnotenvisagejointfamilyproperty.
Propertybelongedtomenindividually,and,intheabsenceofmaledescendants,womencouldinheritlifelonguserights.Under
bothsystems,womencouldownproperty(stridhan,acquirede.g.throughpurchases),althoughitiscontroversialwhetherland
couldbeheldbywomenasstridhan.WomenhadwidercontrolpowersunderDayabhaga(includingtherighttosellandgift)than
underMitakshara.Inpractice,theshastraswerenotfollowedliterally,andlocalcustomarylawwasappliedinstead.Whileinsome
areascustomaryandshastricnormsconverged,inotherstheydifferedandwomenenjoyedgreaterrights,especiallyinmatrilineal
communities(e.g.amongtheGaros,landtracedthroughthefemaleline,andwhilethehusbandadministeredtheland,hecouldnot
alienateitwithoutspousalconsent)(Agarwal,1994).
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Inthe20thcentury,Hindulawwascodifiedintostatutorylaw.Inthisprocess,womenspositionhasbeenconsiderablyimproved[23].
TheHinduSuccessionActof1956appliestoHindus,Sikhs,JainsandBuddhistsofallIndianstatesexceptforJammuandKashmir
(secs.1(2)and2(1)heretheJammuandKashmirHinduSuccessionActof1956applies),andcoversboththeMitaksharaandthe
Dayabhagasystems.TheActgrantsinprincipleequalinheritancerightstomenandwomen.Incaseofintestatesuccession,the
widowandchildren(bothsonsanddaughters)haveequalrightsinthefirstlineofsuccession(classIheirs,secs.9and10).Asfor
coparcenaryproperty,relevantMitakshararules(seeabove)apply,unlessthereareclassIfemaleheirs(inwhichcasethe
inheritancenormsoftheActapplysec.6).Inanycase,womensinheritancetransfersfullpropertyrights(notjustusufructrights).
Somegenderinequalitiesremain.First,Mitaksharacoparcenaryruleslimitingwomensrightsarerecognized,althoughwiththe
importantexceptionconcerningfemaleclassIheirs(sec.6).Second,incaseoftestamentarysuccession,theActgrantstestators
absolutefreedomofwill(i.e.nonecessaryinheritanceshareisreservedforfamilymembers)thisprovisionisinpracticeoftenused
todisinheritwidowsanddaughters(Agarwal,1994).Third,theActexplicitlycoverslandownership,butexemptsceilingandanti
fragmentationlegislationandlandtenancyrights(sec.4(2))bothbeforeandaftertheAct,statesadoptedinheritancenorms
specificallyconcerningsuccessionintenancyrights,severalofwhichdiscriminateagainstwomen(e.g.thePunjabTenancyActof
1887andtheHimachalPradeshTenancyandLandReformAct1972Agarwal,1994).InMadhuKishwar&Ors.v.StateofBihar
(19965SCC125),theconstitutionalityofsections7,8and76oftheChotanagpurTenancyAct1908ofBihar,limitingsuccessionin
tenancyrelationshipstothemaleline,waschallengedbeforetheSupremeCourt.TheCourtheldthattheseprovisionsviolated
womensrighttolivelihoodrecognizedinarticle21oftheConstitution.Whilenotstrikingdowntheprovisions,theCourtdeclared
thatfemaleheirsofthetenanthavearemedyundertheConstitutiontocontinueholdingthelandsolongastheyaredependenton
it,andcalledthestateofBihartoamendthelaw.DissentingRamaswamyJ.arguedthattheprovisionswereinvalid,relyinginter
aliaontheCEDAW.
Ontheotherhand,somestateshaveadoptedlegislationcomplementarytotheHinduSuccessionAct,furtherimprovingthe
positionofwomen.Forinstance,theKeralaJointHinduFamilySystem(Abolition)Actof1976abolishedcoparcenaryproperty,
subdividingtheestates,whileinAndhraPradeshandTamilNaduunmarrieddaughtershavebeengivencoparcenaryrightsequal
tosons(Agarwal,1994).
Thepersonallawofpersonsbelongingtoreligiousminoritiesdiffers.TheMuslimPersonalLaw(Shariat)ApplicationActof1937
statesthatfamilyandsuccessiondisputesbetweenMuslimsaretobedecidedaccordingtoSharialaw,supersedinglocal
customarysuccessionnorms(sec.2).Thus,differentlyfromthecodificationofHindulaw(whichcodifiesreligiouslawandatthe
sametimeimprovesthepositionofwomen),the1937ActmerelyreferstoSharialawbylegislativerenvoi.Inheritanceof
agriculturallandisexplicitlyexcludedfromthescopeoftheAct(sec.2),sothatstatutoryandcustomarylandlawapplyhowever,
somestateshaveextendedtheActtoagriculturalland(e.g.TamilNaduandAndhraPradeshin1949andKeralain1963).
Generallyspeaking,underSharialawwomensinheritanceshareishalfofwhatamaninthesamesuccessionpositioninherits
(e.g.theshareofadaughterishalfthatofason,andtheshareofthewidowishalfthatofawidower).Theimpactofthe
recognitionofSharialawonwomenspositionvariesacrossregions.WhileIslamiclawrestrictswomensinheritance(withnegative
effectsonwomensrightsinmatrilinealcommunities,e.g.theMappilasinKerala),itdoesentitleswomentodirectinheritancerights
(albeitlimited),improvingtheirpositioninpatrilinealcommunitieswherewomenhadnoinheritancerightsatall.However,this
positiveeffectisneutralisedinthosestateswhereagriculturallandisstillgovernedbycustomarysuccessionnorms(Northwest
India),wheregenderinequalitiespersist(Agarwal,1994).
Christians,JewsandParsis,aswellasIndianscontractingorregisteringcivilmarriageundertheSpecialMarriageActof1954,are
governedbytheIndianSuccessionActof1925,asamendedbytheIndianSuccession(Amendment)Actof1991.Nogender
discriminationiscontainedintheAct.However,therearenorestrictionsontestatorsfreedomofwill,whichallowstodisinherit
widowsanddaughters.
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Inpractice,womenareoftenpreventedfromexercisingtheinheritancerightsrecognizedbystatutorylaw,andcustomarylaw
remainswidelyappliedinruralareas.Inmanycases,womenvoluntarilyrenouncetotheirstatutoryrightsinfavourofmalefamily
members(brothers,etc.),pressuredbysocioculturalfactorsandbytheireconomicandotherdependenceontheirkin.Indeed,
factorslikeearlymarriage,marriageexogamy(ofteninvolvingmarriagesbetweenspousesfromverydistantareas)andpatrilocal
residence(i.e.thewifesmovingintoherhusbandsfamilyhouse)makewomenvulnerabletoilltreatmentbytheirhusband,and
thusdependentontheirfamilys(especiallybrothers)support.Socioculturalfactorsincludetheideathatitwouldbeshamefulfor
womentoclaimtheirrights,andthepracticeoffemaleseclusion(purdah)(Agarwal,1994).
Asfornaturalresourcelegislation,theIndianConstitutiongrantsstatesexclusiveresponsibilityonland,water(exceptforinterstate
rivers)andfisheries(exceptforactivitiesoutsidetheterritorialwaters)(Article246andSeventhSchedule,ListII,entries1721)
therefore,naturalresourcelegislationvarieswidelyfromstatetostate.Landreformprogrammeswereadoptedbymoststatesto
redistributeland(throughforfeitureoflandexceedingspecifiedceilingsandlanddistributiontolandlessworkersorsmallholders),to
abolishlandintermediaries,toconsolidatefragmentedlandholdings,andtoregulatetenancy(fromregulationofthecontractual
termstotenancyrightsregistration).Thedegreeofimplementationofthereformvarieswidelyaccordingtothestateandtothetype
ofreform.Somefeaturesofthelandreformprogrammesaregenderbiased.
Landceilinglegislationmaycontaindiscriminatorynormsonthecalculationoffamilyland,onsurplusforfeitureandonallocationof
forfeitedland.Asforcalculation,legislationusuallyfixesalandceilingforeachhouseholdofuptofivemembers,allowsadditional
landforlargerhouseholds,andconsidersadultchildrenasseparateunits.However,inmanystates(e.g.BiharandAndhra
Pradesh)onlyadultsons(notdaughters)canbecountedasseparateunits.Keralaisanexception,inthatitallowsbothunmarried
adultsonsanddaughterstobeconsideredasseparateunits(Agarwal,1994).In1972,theConferenceofChiefMinistersonLand
Reformsissuedfederalguidelines(NationalGuidelinesonCeilingonAgriculturalHolding,publishedinBehuria,1997)toadopta
uniformdefinitionoffamilyforthepurposeoflandceilinglegislationinthedefinitionadoptedbytheguidelines(guidelineII),gender
inequalitieswereremoved.However,landceilinglegislationcontinuestovaryacrossstates.Discriminatorynormsonfamilyland
calculationareexemptedfromconstitutionalitychallengesunderarticle31BandtheNinthScheduleoftheConstitution.For
instance,inAmbikaPrasadMishrav.theStateofUttarPradeshandOthers(19803SCC719),theSupremeCourtrejectedonthis
groundachallengeoftheUttarPradeshImpositionofCeilingonLandHoldingsActof1960onsexdiscriminationgrounds(for
instance,adultdaughterswereexcludedfromthedefinitionoffamilyandnoadditionallandovertheceilingwasallowedontheir
accountsec.5(3)oftheAct).
Asforsurplusforfeiture,landholdingsofbothspousesaresummedtogetherforthepurposesoflandceilings,andincaseof
surplusofficershaveconsiderablediscretionindecidingtheareatobeforfeitedinpractice,thisisusuallydoneinconsultationwith
thehusband,andoftenleadstoforfeitureofthewifesland(Agarwal,1994).InKunjalataPurohitv.Tahsildar,Sambalpurand
Others(AIR1986Orissa115),awifeappealedagainstthedecisionofalandrevenueofficertoincludeherseparatepropertywithin
familylandandforfeititafterhavingconsultedthehusbandalone(undertheOrissaLandReformsActof1960)thecourtaccepted
herargumentthatpriornoticeoftheproceedingshouldhavebeengiventoherasthepersoninterested,andquashedtheorder
oftherevenueofficer.
Asforallocationofforfeitedland,althoughthewordingoflegislationisusuallygenderneutral,landredistributionprogrammes
mainlytargeted(male)householdheadsasrecipients[24].Effortshavebeenrecentlymadetoredressthisgenderimbalance.The
SixthFiveYearPlan(19801985)envisagedeffortstogivejointtitlestospouses,althoughthispolicywasnotconfirmedinthe
SeventhFiveYearPlan(19851990).TheEightPlan(19921997)calledstatestoallocate40percentofforfeitedlandtowomen
individually,andtoallocateremaininglandtobothspouses(jointtitles).TheNinthPlan(19972002)devotesanentiresectionto
womenslandrights,anddirectstodistributelandtitlesmainlytowomen,bothindividuallyandcollectively(throughwomens
groups)(Agarwal,2001).
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Genderbiasesexistalsoinlandtenancyreforms.Forinstance,intheOperationBargainWestBengal(tenancyregistration
programmeimplementedinthelate1970sundertheWestBengalLandReformsActof1955,asamendedin1971and1977),land
wasmainlyregisteredtomen.Althoughsinglewomenhouseholdswereintheoryentitledtohavelandregisteredintheirnames,
veryfewdidso.AstudyfromavillageinMidnapurdistrictfoundthatonlyeightoutof18singlewomenreceivedland,thatnojoint
titleswereissuedtocouples,andthatinnineoutoftenfemaleheadedhouseholdslandwasregisteredwiththesons(quotedby
Agarwal,2001).
Genderedlanddistributionhasimplicationsforrightsoverothernaturalresources.Forinstance,waterrightsareusuallylinkedto
landholding(whetherasownerornot).Commonpropertyresources(grazingland,forests,etc.)weretraditionallymanagedby
panchayat(i.e.villagelevel)institutionsandaccessedbyallcommunitymembers(includingwomen,whohavetheprimary
responsibilityforwater,fuelwood,fodderandfruitcollection).Traditionally,panchayatbodieswereusuallylimitedtouppercaste
men.TheConstitutionhasdemocratizedtheseinstitutions,providingfordirectelectionandreservingonethirdoftheseatsto
women(arts.243Cand243D).Moreover,newinstitutionsforsustainablenaturalresourcemanagementhavebeenestablished.
TheNationalForestPolicyof1988andtheCircularNo.621/89P.P.(1990)oftheMinistryofEnvironmentandForestsgovernjoint
forestmanagement,wherebyforestsaremanagedonthebasisofagreementsbetweenthestateforestdepartment,thevillage
communityandavoluntaryagency/NGOactingascatalyst(1990Circular,sec.3(i))thecompetentvillageinstitutionmaybethe
panchayat,avillagecooperative,oravillageforestcommittee(1990Circular,sec.3(iv)).Therearereportsthatculturalfactors
(e.g.femaleseclusion,lowconsiderationofwomensideas,etc.)oftenhinderameaningfulparticipationofwomeninpanchayats
andotherparticipatoryinstitutionssuchasvillageforestcommittees(Agarwal,1994andOgra,2000).Forinstance,astudyonjoint
forestmanagementinKarnataka,GujratandHimachalPradeshfoundthatwomencommitteemembersoftendidnotattend
meetings,andevenwhentheydid,theydidnotspeakormerelyactedasspokespersonsoftheirhusbands(Ogra,2000).
2.6.3.ThePhilippines
Philippinepropertylaw(embodiedintheCivilCode)aswellasfamilyandsuccessionlaw(FamilyCode)aregenderneutral,and
menandwomenhaveequalpropertyrights[25].Assetsacquiredduringcohabitationwithoutmarriagearejointlyowned,andcanbe
encumberedordisposedofbyonepartneronlywiththeconsentofthepartner(FamilyCode,art.147).Withinmarriage,the
propertyregimeisdeterminedbythemarriagesettlementinabsencethecommunityofpropertyregimeisapplied,withboth
spousesjointlyadministeringfamilyproperty(FamilyCode,arts.75and96).However,incaseofdisagreement,thehusbands
decisionshallprevail,subjecttorecoursetothecourtbythewifeforproperremedy,whichmustbeavailedofwithinfiveyearsfrom
thedateofthecontractimplementingsuchdecision(art.96).Thewiferetainsexclusivemanagementrightswithregardtoher
exclusiveproperty,withoutneedforherhusbandsconsent(art.111).Marriedwomenmaymakewillswithouttheconsentoftheir
husband,andtherebydisposeoftheirseparatepropertyandshareofcommunityproperty(CivilCode,arts.802and803).Incase
oflegalseparation[26],thetermsofthedissolutionofcommunitypropertyaredeterminedbyguilt,notbygender(FamilyCode,art.
63(2)).Successionlawisgenderneutral,andwidowsarenecessaryheirsofthedeceasedspouse(CivilCode,art.900).
However,familyrelationswithintheMuslimcommunityaregovernedbytheCodeofMuslimPersonalLaws[27].UnderthisCode,
wivesneedtheconsentoftheirhusbandtoacquirepropertyduringmarriageandtouseland,andinherithalfoftheshareinherited
bymeninasimilarsuccessionposition.Moreover,inpractice,Muslimwomenhaveevenlesserrights,asthemanagementoffamily
landisundermenscontrolandwomenhavelittleornoindependentlandownership(JuddandDulnuan,2001).
ThePhilippineshasalonghistoryofagrarianreformprogrammes.TheComprehensiveAgrarianReformLaw(CARL)of1988is
themostrecentone.Thelawprovidesforacomprehensivelandredistributionprogrammehowever,fundingconstraintshave
hindereditsimplementation,andtheimpactofthelandreformhasbeenlimited(Deiningeretal.,2001).UndertheCARL,women
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rurallabourershaveequalrightstoownlandandtoparticipateinadvisoryanddecisionmakingbodies(sec.40(5)).Womensright
toequaltreatmentinagrarianreformandlandresettlementprogrammesisconfirmedbysection5(2)oftheWomenin
DevelopmentandNationBuildingActof1992.
However,womenhavelongbeenindirectlydisadvantagedinthelandreformprogramme.Whilepermanentfarmworkers(whoare
mostlymen)ranksecondinthepriorityorderforbeneficiaries,immediatelyafteragriculturallesseesandsharetenants,seasonal
farmworkers(mostlywomen)rankthird(CARL,sec.22).Forinstance,in1993,thelandoftheMenziAgriculturalCorporationwas
distributedundertheCARLtothepermanentfarmworkersoftheplantation,whohadcreatedacooperativeallthebeneficiaries
weremen,withtheexceptiononlyoftheplantationnursewomenseasonalworkerswereexcluded(Rimban,1999).
WomenspositionhasbeenimprovedbyadministrativeguidelinesadoptedbytheDepartmentofAgrarianReformtoimplementthe
genderequalityprovisionsoftheCARL,namelyMemorandumCircular18of1996andAdministrativeOrder1of2001.Underthese
guidelines,nosexdiscriminationcanbemadeinbeneficiaryselection,andlandtitlesaretobeissuedinthenameofbothspouses
(whetherlegallymarriedornot)whenbothspousesarejointlyworkingandcultivatingcommontillage.Moreover,theconsentof
bothspousesisrequiredforlandsales,mortgagesandallothertransactionsinvolvingwaiverofrights(documentssummarizedin
JuddandDulnuan,2001,andinRimban,1999).
TheIndigenousPeoplesRightsActof1997recognisesindigenouspeoplesancestralrightsoverland(e.g.byprovidingforthe
applicationofcustomarylandtenureintheancestraldomainsection2(b)).Atthesametime,itguaranteesgenderequalityandthe
humanrightsofindigenouswomen(secs.2(d),21and26),balancingtherecognitionofindigenouspeoplesautonomywiththe
protectionofuniversalhumanrights(includingwomensrights).
Forestsareownedbythestate(ArticleXII(2)oftheConstitution),andaregovernedbytheRevisedForestryCode,asamended.
TheDepartmentofEnvironmentandNaturalResources,inchargewithforestmanagement,adoptedAdministrativeOrder9629
(1996),providingthatcontractsconcludedwithpersonsoccupyingforestlandsmustbesignedbybothspouses,andAdministrative
Order9855(1998),subsequentlyamended,integratinggenderintonaturalresourcepolicies,programmesandactivities(Juddand
Dulnuan,2001).Waterlegislationisgenderneutral.
Asforfisheries,agenderdivisionoflabourusuallyexists,wherebymenareinvolvedindeepwatersfromboats,whilewomenare
mainlyinvolvedinshallowwaterfishingandfishmarketing(FAO,1996).TheFisheriesCodeof1998includessupportforwomen
fishersamongitspolicydirections(sec.2(e))andamongthefunctionsoftheBureauofFisheriesandAquaticResources(sec.
65(m)).RepresentativesofwomenfishersareincludedinmanagementcouncilsliketheMunicipal/CityFisheriesandAquatic
ResourcesManagementCouncils(sec.75(g))andtheIntegratedFisheriesandAquaticResourcesManagementCouncils(sec.
78(9)).
ThePhilippinesadoptedanadvancedlegislationconcerninggeneticresources(ExecutiveOrder247of1995),subjectingbio
prospectingtospecifiedprocedures.TheOrderisgenderneutral(e.g.thebioprospectorisaperson,entityorcorporation,sec.
3).Bioprospectingwithinancestraldomainsrequiresthepriorinformedconsentofindigenouscommunities,grantedinaccordance
withcustomarylaw(ExecutiveOrder247of1995,sec.2(a)IndigenousPeoplesRightsAct,sec.35)whileundersomecustomary
legalsystemswomenmaybediscriminatedagainst,genderequalityandwomensrightsinindigenouscommunitiesareguaranteed
bytheIndigenousPeoplesRightsAct(secs.2(d),21and26).
Inruralareas,customarylawisapplied.Thisvariesconsiderablyacrossregions.Muslimgroups,concentratedintheSouthofthe
country,arepatrilineal,andinheritancefollowsthemaleline.However,manyethnicgroupsfromtheNorthandthecentreofthe
countryhavebilateralinheritancesystems,wherebyinheritancefollowsboththemaleandthefemaleline.Thesesystemsdonot
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discriminateagainstwomen.Bothmenandwomencanholdland.Bothspouseshaveexclusivemanagementrightsovertheir
individualproperty(e.g.amongtheIlocano).Wherethehusbandadministersfamilyproperty,hemustrequiretheconsentofthe
wifeforlandtransfers(e.g.amongthePangasinense).Successionnormsadopteithertheprimogenituresystem(wherebylandis
inheritedbytheeldestmaleorfemalechilde.g.amongtheIfugao)ortheequalsharingsystem(wherebyallmaleandfemaleheirs
inheritequallye.g.amongthePangasinense).Thesurvivingspouse,maleorfemale,maynotinherit,butholdslandasatrustee
forthechildren(e.g.theKalinga)(JuddandDulnuan,2001).
Box2.TheDhunganacaseinNepal
InthecaseMiraDhunganav.Law,JusticeandParliamentaryAffairsMinistry[4S.Ct.Bull.1],thepetitionerchallengedsection16ofNepals
NationalCivilCode.Thisprovisionseverelylimiteddaughtersinheritancerights,byentitlingthemtoainheritanceshareonlyafterthey
reachedunmarriedtheageof35,andbyprovidingforlandrestitutiontothefamilyiftheysubsequentlymarried.TheSupremeCourt,while
recognisingthatthenormdiscriminatedagainstwomen,didnotinvalidateit,butdirectedthegovernmenttoamenditinthelightoftheequality
provisionenshrinedintheConstitution(art.11).
Followingintenselobbyingactivitiesbywomensorganizations,in1996thegovernmentintroducedaCivilCodeAmendmentBillinteralia
recognisingdaughtersequalrighttoinheritparentalproperty.However,theBillconfirmsthenormwherebywomenlosethelandtheyinheritif
theysubsequentlymarry.DebatesovertheBillswerestalledforyears.InMarch2002,theBillwasfinallyapprovedbytheParliament.
2.7.ThePacificregion
LandandfishingrightsinthePacificislandsaredeterminedbyamixtureofstatutoryandcustomarylaw,asstatutorylawusually
recognisescustomaryrights.ThesehaveevolvedasaresultofstateformationandofthespreadofChristianity,commerce,
monetarization,andeducation.Statutorylawoftenincorporatesasimplifiedandstandardisedversionofanoriginallycomplexand
extremelydiversecustomarylaw.Inthiscontext,womenspositionvariesconsiderablyacrosscountries.Matrilinealsystems(with
landrightstracedthroughthefemalelinebutexercisedmainlybymen)prevailinmostofMicronesia(Nauru,Palau,etc.)andin
partsofMelanesia(partsofVanuatuandtheSolomonIslands).PatrilinealsystemsprevailinmostotherPacificcountries(IPS,
1986).
WomenhaveparticularlywellestablishedlandrightsintheCookIslands.Here,colonialauthoritiesestablishedaLandCourtto
applyandformalisenativecustom.Thecourthasadoptedaprogressiveinterpretationofcustomarylaw,e.g.grantingwomen
inheritancerightsequaltomen(James,1986).
Ontheotherextreme,womenslandrightsareparticularlyrestrictedinTonga,wheretheConstitutiondoesnotexplicitlyprohibitsex
discrimination,wherethe1882LandAct(asamendedin1978and1984)recognisescustomarylandtenure(wherebyonlymen
havedirectlandrights,whilewomenacquirelandrightsthroughhusbandsandmalefamilymembers)andgrantsarighttoplots
onlytomaleTongansover16,andwheretheConstitutionprovidesforinheritancebytheeldestmalechild(onlyiftherearenomale
childrendoestheeldestfemalechildinheritsection111).Thecaselawincludesbothcasesrestrictingwomenslandrights(e.g.on
widowsimpossibilitytoleaseinheritedallotments,Tuinukuafev.Tuinukuafe,LandCourt,Case6/66),andcaseswherecourts
haveprotectedwidowsfromevictionbymalemembersofthedeceasedhusbandsfamily(e.g.Faokulav.Kalamintoni,1974
TuihaateihocaseallcasesquotedinMoengangongo,1986).
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IntheSolomonIslands,theCustomsRecognitionActof2000providesfortherecognitionandenforcementofcustomarylawwith
regardtoland,fisheriesandwater,exceptwherethiswouldbeinconsistentwiththeConstitutionorwithstatutorylaw,wouldresult
inaninjustice,orwouldnotbeinthepublicinterest(secs.6and8).
2.7.2.Fiji
TheConstitutionofFijiexemptsfamilyandsuccessionlawfromtheapplicationofthenondiscriminationprinciple(sec.38(7)).
UndertheMarriedWomensPropertyActof1892(Cap37),marriedwomenmayacquire,holdanddisposeofproperty(sec.3).
Fijianfamilylawisundergoingaprocessoflegalreform.In1999,theFijiLawReformCommissioncompletedareviewoffamily
law.Inthesameyear,theCabinetapprovedtheCommissionsreportanddirectedtheAttorneyGeneraltodraftnewlegislation.At
themomentofwriting,thelegalreformprocesswasstillunderway.
Widowsandwidowershaveequalrightstointestatesuccessionsonsanddaughters,andbrothersandsistersalsohaveequal
successionrights(Succession,ProbateandAdministrationAct,sec.6).Incaseoftestamentarysuccession,thesurvivingspouse
andthechildrenarenotnecessaryheirs,andmaythusbedisinherited.However,unmarrieddaughtersanddisableddaughters
incapableofmaintainingthemselvesmayobtainacourtordertomakereasonableprovisionforthemaintenanceifthetestatorhas
notdonesodaughterslosetheirrighttomaintenanceuponmarriageorcessationofdisability(Inheritance(FamilyProvision)Act,
sec.3).
Asfornaturalresourcelegislation,theConstitutionlimitstheprincipleofgenderequalitytoallowlawsprovidingfortheapplication
ofFijian,RotumanandBanabancustomarylandandfishingrights(sec.38(8)(i)).Moreover,landlegislation,includingtheNative
LandsActandtheNativeLandTrustAct,enjoysaparticularconstitutionalprotection,requiringbillsamendingprotectedActstobe
adoptedthroughaspecialprocedure(Constitution,sec.185).
FijianlandtenurelegislationreflectsinterethnictensionsbetweennativeFijiansandIndoFijiansforthecontrolofagriculturalland.
About83percentofthelandiscommunallyownedbynativeFijians(nativelands).ThecolonialNativeLandsActof1905,stillin
force,statesthatnativelandsareheldbynativeFijiansaccordingtonativecustom(sec.3)andcreatestheNativeLandsand
FisheriesCommissiontoadministercustomaryrights.TheActisgenderneutral.Women,aswellasmen,areregisteredatbirth
withtheCommissionasmembersoflandowningclans.However,whilecustomarylandtenurewascomplexandextremely
diverse,theCommissionadoptedasimplifiedversionofthecustomarylawfollowedinTaiveluprovince,andextendedittothe
wholecountry.Underthissystem,landisownedbyclans(mataqali)headedbymalechiefsonlymenhavedirectlandrights,while
womencultivatetheplotsoftheirhusbandsand/ormalefamilymembers.Matrilinealsystemsgrantingwomengreaterrights,
followedinsomeareas(MacuataProvince),weresuppressedwiththisstandardisationofcustomarylaw(Bolabola,1986).
Allleases,licences,andtimberconcessionsonnativelandsaremanagedbyaNativeLandTrustBoard,establishedbytheNative
LandTrustActof1940tomanagenativelandsonbehalfofFijians.TheBoardcollectsproceeds(rents,royalties,etc.)and
distributesthemtothechiefsthesearemainlymen,althoughtherearealsosomefemalechiefs(1percentofthetotal)benefiting
fromBoardfinancialtransfers,especiallyinformerlymatrilinealareaslikeMacuata(Bolabola,1986).Nosex/genderdiscrimination
ismadewithregardtoaccesstoleasesandlicences(sec.8).However,leasesonnativelandsareinpracticemainlyheldbymen
(Bolabola,1986).
Crownlands(some7percentoftheland)areadministeredbytheDepartmentofLands,MinesandSurveys(CrownLandsAct).
VeryfewwomenhaveobtainedleasesonCrownland.Moreover,veryfewwomenholdfreeholdtitles(Bolabola,1986).
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FisherieshaveaparticularimportanceintheFijianeconomy.TheFisheriesActestablishesalicencesystem,andonlylicence
holderscanfishinFijianwaters(sec.5).Section13recognisescustomaryfishingrights,administeredbyaNativeFisheries
Commission(secs.14ss.).TheActisgenderneutral,although,asfortheterminology,referenceisusuallymadetothe
fisherman.However,thereisinpracticeawidespreadgenderdivisionoflabour,wherebymenfishindeepwaterfromboatsand
canoesandwomenharvestthereefs,shoresandswampsandcleanandmarketfishcaughtbythemandbymen.Non
governmentalorganizationssuchasWomeninFisheriesNetwork(WIFN)carryoutactivitiesfortheempowermentofwomen
fishers(training,support,etc.)(GoF,1999).
Womensparticipationinnaturalresourcemanagementremainsverylow.Atpolicylevel,postBeijingpolicyinstrumentsenvisage
assistanceforwomenintraditionalfisheriescommunities,considerationforwomenstraditionalresourceuseneedswithin
environmentalimpactassessment,etc.(GoF,1999).
2.8.Europe
Article14oftheECHRprohibitssexdiscriminationintheenjoymentoftherightsandfreedomsrecognizedintheConvention.The
rightofeverypersontothepeacefulenjoymentofhis[sic]possessionsisprotectedunderarticle1ofProtocolItothe
Convention.
InmostEuropeancountries,normsonpropertyrightsareenshrinedincivilcodes,aswellasinspeciallegislation.Theseusuallydo
notrefertogender(e.g.FrenchCivilCode,art.544).
FamilylawhasevolvedthroughoutEurope,passingfromwomenssubordinatedpositiontoequalityofrightsanddutiesofthe
spouses.TheFrenchCodeNapoleon(1804),whichprovidedthemodelforthecivilcodesofmanyEuropeancountries,isan
interestingexample.Initsoriginal1804text,itadoptedapatriarchalmodeloffamily[28].Subsequentlegislation(1938,1942,1965,
1970,1975,etc.)grantedequalrightsanddutiestobothspouses[29].
InCentralandEasternEurope,property,familyandsuccessionlawusuallydoesnotdiscriminateagainstwomen(e.g.Romania,
Articles16,41(2)and42oftheConstitutionandtheFamilyCode,arts.1,2,25,26and30Croatia,theLawonPropertyandOther
Rightsof1996,art.1,andInheritanceLawof1955,asamendedin1978).Asforagrarianrelations,acomprehensiveprocessof
liberalisationtookplaceinthe1990safterthedemiseofcommunism,andlandreformprogrammeshavebeenadoptedinseveral
countries.LandreformsincludelandrestitutiontothosedispossessedduringtheSovietera,statelandallocationand/or
privatisation(e.g.Latvia[30]),combinationsofboth(e.g.CzechRepublic[31]Estonia[32]),anddistributionofsharesofstateor
collectivefarmsamongstateemployeesandcollectivemembers(e.g.Russia,Ukraine).Thislandlegislationusuallydoesnot
discriminateagainstwomen,whocanbenefitfromlandreformprogrammes,receivesharesofrestructuredstateandcollective
farms,andpurchaseandleaseland.However,whiledataonthepercentageofwomenactuallyacquiringlandrightsarerare,there
arereportsthatmenarethemainbeneficiariesoflandreformprogrammesandholdmostoftheland(FAO,1996).
2.8.2.Italy
Generalpropertyandcontractlaw(containedintheCivilCodeandinspeciallegislation)isgenderneutral:womencanacquire,
ownandadministerpropertyonthesameconditionsasmen(althoughtheterminologyiseithergenderneutralormasculinee.g.
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proprietario,art.832).
WomenspositionwithinthefamilyhasdeeplyevolvedsincetheCivilCodeof1942wasfirstadopted.Initsoriginaltext,theCivil
Codevestedthedirectionoffamilyaffairsinthehusband.Marriagepropertyrelationsweregovernedbytheseparationofproperty
regimethewifeadministeredherseparateproperty,unlessshedelegatedthehusbandtodoso(art.212),andthehusband
exclusivelyadministereddowry(arts.182and184).
The1948Constitutionstatestheprincipleofgenderequalitywithinmarriage,althoughwithinthelimitsdeterminedbylawto
guaranteetheunityofthefamily(art.29(2)).ManyprovisionsoftheCivilCodewereinconsistentwiththisprinciple.Inmorethan
oneoccasion,theConstitutionalCourtintervenedontheissueofgenderequalityinmatrimonialrelations.Forinstance,inanobiter
dictumofJudgment187(1974),theCourtcalledforthelegislatortoreformthefamilypropertyrulesembodiedintheCivilCode
theCourtarguedthatundertheregimeofseparationofpropertythecontributionofwomensdomesticworktothehousehold
economywasnotadequatelyprotected,asitwasdifficulttoevaluateinmonetaryterms.
In1975,areformoftheCivilCode(Law151)wasadoptedtobringfamilylawinlinewiththeconstitutionalprinciples.Underthe
amendedCivilCode,marriageestablishesacommunityofproperty,unlessthespousesagreedifferently(art.159).Thespouses
haveequalrightsinthemanagementoffamilyaffairs.Familypropertyisadministeredbyeitherspouseinthecaseofordinaryacts
andbybothspousesforextraordinaryacts(e.g.sale)(art.180).Incaseofdisagreement,distanceorotherimpedimentofone
spouse,thejudgecanauthorisetheotherspousetoperformtheact(arts.181and182).Upondivisionoffamilyproperty,each
spousereceivesanequalshare(art.194).Thenormsonpropertyadministrationandonequalityofsharescannotbederogatedby
matrimonialagreements(art.210).Wherethespousesoptfortheregimeofseparationofproperty,eachspouseexclusivelyowns
andadministershis/herseparateproperty(arts.215and217).
Wherenowillexists,thewidow/erisamongtheintestateheirs(arts.565and581ss.).Nodiscriminationonthebasisofgenderis
madeamongthechildrenandbetweenbrothersandsisters(arts.566and570).Incaseoftestamentarysuccession,thewidow/er
andthechildren(bothsonsanddaughters)arenecessaryheirs(i.e.theycannotbedisinherited)(art.536ss.)forinstance,the
survivingspouseisentitledtohalfthepropertyofthedeceasedspouseintheabsenceofchildren,andtoasmallershareifthere
arechildren(arts.540and542).
Asforagrarianlaw,Article44oftheConstitutionenvisageslegislationtoregulateandfixsizelimitsforprivatelandownership,to
transformthelatifondo,andtoprovideassistancetosmallandmediumholders.Onthebasisofthisnorm,avastagrarian
legislationhasbeenenacted.
Alandredistributionprogrammewasundertakeninthe1950storedistributelatifondoland(mainlyintheSouth)throughland
expropriationandallocationtofarmersbypublicbodies(Entidiriforma)(Law230of1950,socalledLeggeSilaLaw851of
1950,socalledLeggeStralcioaseparateregionallawwaspassedin1950forlandredistributioninSicily).Inaddition,two
decreeswereadoptedin1948(No.114and121)tostimulatelandtransfersthroughfiscalandfinancialincentives.Overall,the
reformhasresultedinasubstantialchangeinthelandownershipstructure(ShearerandBarbero,1996).Undertheland
redistributionprogramme,eligiblebeneficiarieswereruralworkerswhowereeitherlandlessorownersoflandinsufficientforthe
labourforceoftheirhousehold(LeggeSila,art.16).LandallocationwasmadethroughsalecontractsbetweentheEntediriforma
andthebeneficiary,whowastopayapriceovera30yearperiod.Inthegreatmajorityofcases,thesecontractsweresignedby
malehouseholdheads.Incaseofdeathofthebeneficiarybeforethepaymentofthewholeprice,specificsuccessionrulesapplied:
thecontractwasinheritedbythedescendantsthespouseinheritedonlyiftherewerenodescendants(LeggeSila,art.19).
Moreover,legislationhasbeenadoptedtoprotecttenants.ParticularlyimportantareLaws756of1964and203of1982.This
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legislationisgenderneutral.Bothmenandwomencansignfixrentalcontracts[33].Theheirsofatenant(bothmaleandfemale)
whocontributedtothecultivationoftherentedplothavetherighttocontinuetherentalcontractafterthedeathofthetenant(Law
203of1982,art.49(4)).
Nodiscriminationismadeinlegislationconcerningtheadministrativeprocedurefortheallocationofnonorundercultivatedland
(Law440of1978andregionallegislation,e.g.Molise,RegionalLaw11of1980,Abruzzo,RegionalLaw73of1982,art.6).
Asforwaterresources,Law36of1994nationalisedsuperficialandundergroundwaterswaterrightsarenowgrantedintheform
ofconcessionsnodistinctionismadeonthebasisofsex/gender.
Forestsarewithinthelegislativecompetenceoftheregionsregionalforestlawsaregenderneutral(e.g.Liguria,RegionalLaw4of
1999Toscana,RegionalLaw39of2000Molise,RegionalLaw6of2000).
2.9.Conclusion
Thischapterhashighlightedsomeofthekeyissuesconcerningwomensrightstolandandothernaturalresources.First,womens
rightsmaybecurtailedbydejuredirectdiscrimination.Thisisparticularlythecaseoffamilylaw(whichmayrestrictthelegal
capacityofmarriedwomentoadministerproperty,includinglande.g.SouthAfricabeforethefamilylawreforms)andofsuccession
law(whichmayrestrictwomensinheritancerightse.g.TunisiaandsomepersonallawsofIndiaandthePhilippines).
Discriminatorysuccessionnormshaveaparticularlynegativeeffectonwomenslandrightswhereinheritanceistheprimaryformof
landacquisition(asintheruralareasofmanydevelopingcountries).Dejuredirectdiscriminationalsoexistsinagrarianreform
legislationentitlingonlymenoveracertainagetoobtainland,whilewomenqualifyonlyiftheyarehouseholdheads.
Second,womensrightsmaybelimitedbyindirectdiscrimination.Forinstance,thecriteriaforlanddistributionunderagrarian
reformprogrammes,whilenotreferringtogenderexplicitly,oftenrefertomaledominatedcategorieslikepermanentagricultural
workers(whilewomenareconcentratedintheseasonalandtemporaryagriculturallabourforce)andsmallholders(whilewomen
rarelyownland)(e.g.Philippines,Brazil).Moreover,underlandredistributionandtitlingprogrammes,landtitlesareoftenissuedin
thenameofthehouseholdhead,whoisusually(dejureordefacto)thehusband/father(e.g.Kenya).
Third,womensnaturalresourcerightsmaybedeterminedbytheinteractionbetweennormsofdifferentnaturecoexistingina
contextoflegalpluralism(e.g.customaryandstatutorylaw).Genderstrugglesforaccesstoandcontrolofnaturalresourcesmay
befoughtbymenandwomenrelyingonbothstatutoryandcustomarynorms.Inthiscontext,customarynormsmaybeinvokedby
womentoclaimrightsnotrecognizedunderstatutorylaw(e.g.inthecaseoftheKenyanregistrationprogramme),andbymento
limitwomensinheritancerightsunderstatutorylaw.Similarly,statutorylawmayberelieduponbymentolimitwomens
unregisteredlandrights(e.g.Kenya),andbywomentochallengetheconstitutionalityofdiscriminatorycustomarynorms(e.g.the
PastorycaseinTanzania).
Fourth,evenwherethereisnoformaldiscrimination,womensrightsmayberestrictedinpractice.Forinstance,evenwhereland
legislationisgenderneutral,mostlandmaybeinpracticeheldbymen(e.g.Fiji).Moreover,ruralwomenmaylackthedocuments
requiredbylawsandregulationstobenefitfromagrarianreformprogrammes(asdocumentedforBrazil).Insomecases,formally
genderneutralnormsmayallowdiscriminationinpracticeforexample,normsgrantingabsolutefreedomofwillmaybeusedto
disinheritwidowsanddaughters(asdocumentede.g.forIndiaundertheHinduSuccessionAct).Inothercases,sociocultural
factors,suchasperceptionsonwomensroleinthefamilyandinsocietyand/orfemaleseclusionpractices,constrainthe
meaningfulparticipationofruralwomeninnaturalresourcemanagementinstitutions(e.g.inIndianpanchayatsandvillageforest
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committeesandinMexicanejidos).Moreover,socioeconomicfactors(particularlywomensdependenceontheirmalefamily
members)maypressurisewomentorenouncetotheirstatutorylandrightsinfavourofmalerelatives(asdocumentedforBurkina
FasoandIndia).
Inmostcases,stepshavebeentakentoimprovewomensnaturalresourcerights.Discriminatoryfamilylawsrestrictingthelegal
capacityofmarriedwomenhavebeenrepealed(e.g.BrazilandSouthAfrica).Theprincipleofnondiscriminationhasbeen
explicitlystatedinagrarianreformprogrammes(e.g.MexicoandBrazil).Moreover,affirmativeactiontofacilitatewomensaccessto
landhasbeenadoptedinsomecountries(Brazil).Jointtitlingforcouples(whethermarriedornot)hasalsobeenadopted(the
Philippinesand,recently,Brazil),andwomenspecificformsofcollectivelandholdingorusehavebeenestablished(e.g.UAIMsin
Mexico).Furthermore,genderrelatedprovisionshavebeenadoptedwithregardtonaturalresourcemanagementinstitutions,in
termsofbothcompositionandactivities(e.g.undertheSouthAfricanNationalWaterActof1998).Theeffectivenessofsomeof
thesemeasuresdeservestobestudiedmoreclosely.Forinstance,itisnotevidentthatmerelyreservingtowomenseatswithin
naturalresourcemanagementinstitutionsresultsingreaterparticipationofwomenindecisionmaking,assomefieldstudiesfound
thatwomendidnotattendmeetingseveniftheywereentitledto,ordidsobutwerelargelyignoredormerelyactedas
spokespersonsoftheirhusbands(e.g.onIndia,Ogra,2000).
Table4.Womensrightstolandandothernaturalresources
Propertylaw Familylaw Successionlaw
Landlaw
Brazil
GN
NDGN
ND
NDSMF
BurkinaFaso
GN
GN
NDJ/D
NDGN
GNF
GNF
GNJ/D
GNJ/DSMF
Fiji
Waterlaw Forestrylaw
GN
GN
India
GN
GNF
Italy
GN
NDGN
GN
GN
GN
Kenya
GN
GN
GNF
GNF
GNF
Mexico
GN
NDGN
GNF
NDSMF
GNSMF
GN
Philippines
GN
GNJ/D
GNJ/D
ND
GN
GNSM
SouthAfrica
GN
GN
NDGN
GNNDF
GNSMF
NDGN
Tunisia
GN
GNJ/D
J/D
GN
GN
GNGenderneutral/nondiscriminatory
NDNondiscrimination/equalrightsprincipleexplicitlystated
SMSpecialmeasurestoadvancewomen
J/DDejuredirectdiscrimination
J/IDejureindirectdiscrimination
FDefactodiscriminationreportedintheliteraturereviewed
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Wheretwoormoreacronymsareincluded,theyrefertodifferentaspectsofrelevantlegislationand/ortoagap
betweenlawandpractice.
[4]Whileejidoswereallocatedlandthroughtheexpropriationandredistributionprogramme,comunidadesmainlyacquiredlandthrough
confirmationofexistinglanduseandrestitutionoflandsunlawfullyappropriatedbyindividuals(FAO,1996b).
[5]Thisallocationwasoriginallyenvisagedbythe1971FederalLawofAgrarianReformasamandatoryallocationbyeachejidototheUAIM.
[6]ThisparagraphhassubstantiallybenefitedfromtheexcellentworkofBarsted(2002)andofGuivant(2001).
[7]RasakiYinusav.Adesubokun(1972,SC27/70),allowingMuslimstofreelydisposeoftheirestatebywillnotwithstandingcustomarylaw
restrictionsAbibatuFolarinv.FloraCole(1986,2NWLR369),recognisingtherightofadaughtertosucceedtoherfatherashouseholdhead
intheabsenceofmalechildren(casesquotedinEjidike,1999).
[8]Undersection82oftheKenyanConstitution,familylawisexemptedfromtheprincipleofnondiscrimination.
[9]Forinstance,intheMurangaDistrict,Kikuyulandtenure(ngundu)traditionallyvestedlandinthembari(subclan),whichallocatedplotsto
householdheadswomenhadusufructrightsandwereexcludedfrominheritance.Intheearly1900s,anindividualisationprocesstookplace,
withthembariprogressivelylosingcontroloverland.Aslandsalesbecameallowed,wealthiermenpurchasedlandasindividuals.Moreover,
whiledifferentinterpretationsofcustomwereinvokedbymenandwomencompetingforland,menselderswereconsideredtheinterpretsof
traditionbythecolonialauthority.Thisprocessresultedinanerosionofwomenssecondarylandrights(Mackenzie,1998).
[10]HCCCNo.377/1968.Thisredressmechanismisallowedbythefactthatsection126oftheRegisteredLandActstatesthatparticularsof
anytrustexistingatthemomentofregistrationarenottobeenteredintheregister.
[11][1972]EA227and[1973]EA388,respectively.Mostofthesecasesconcerntheeffectofregistrationtothehouseholdheadonchildrens
secondarylandrights(andsomecasesinvolvedisputesbetweenwidowsandsons).However,theprinciplesaffirmedinthemarealso
relevantforotherholdersofsecondaryrights,namelywomen.
[12]Therationaleofthesenormswasessentiallypolitical,astheyaimedatdamagingMauMaurebels,whowerelargelyabsentwhen
registrationstarted,andatrewardingloyalists(Coldham,1978b).
[13]Aninterestingexampleofwomensuseofcustomarylawtoprotecttheiraccesstonaturalresourcesistheinstitutionofthefemale
husband,wherebyawidowwithoutdescendantsmarriesayoungerwoman,andherwifeandthechildrenofthewifebecomeherheirs.This
institutionwasoftenusedbywealthywidowstoprotecttheiraccesstotheirdeceasedhusbandslandvisvistheirhusbandsfamily
members,bothbygivingtheyoungerwifepartofthelandasbridewealthandbyprovidingthefemalehusbandwithheirs.Today,this
practiceisnolongerverycommon,althoughsomecasesexist(Mackenzie,1993and1998).InMarch2002,aKikuyuwoman(MsGrace
WanjiruNgundu)broughtasuitagainstthemalerelativesofherlatefemalehusband,whohadtriedtoevictherfromthelandownedbythe
deceasedfemalehusbandMsNgunduscase,broughtbeforecourts,istobebasedoncustomarylaw(BBCwebsite,11March2002).
SimilarpracticesarereportedfromotherpartsofAfrica(e.g.seeKevaneandGray,1999b,and,onNigeria,Ejidike,1999)inNigeria,a
womantowomenmarriagewasdeclarednullbecausecontrarytonaturaljustice,equityandgoodconscienceinMeribev.Egwu(19761All
NLR266,quotedinEjidike,1999).
[14]AsimilarprocessoferosionofwomensrightsinthecontextofirrigationprojectsisdocumentedfortheGambiainDey(1981)andKevane
andGray(1999b).
[15]TheMatrimonialPropertyActof1984onlyappliedtomarriagescelebratedafter1984the1993AmendmentActextendedittoallmarriages
(sec.29).
[16]LeRouxJ,1997(2)SA936(T)ProvincialDivision,1998(2)SA675(T)SupremeCourtofAppeal,CaseNo.71/98,30May2000.
[17]Forinstance,itabolishespolygamy(art.18)andgrantsbothspousestherighttorequestdivorce,subjecttojudicialreview(art.31)in
severalIslamiccountries,terminationofmarriageiscarriedoutbythehusbandalonethroughunilateralrepudiation).
[18]AlthoughpartialprivatisationreformshavebeenadoptedwithDirective100of1981,Resolution10of1988andtheLandLawof1993,
whichintroducedproductioncontractsystems(withfarmersleasingland)andthetransferoflanduserightstofarmers.
[19]Membershipofwaterusersassociationsisgenerallylimitedtoonememberperhousehold,usuallythemalehouseholdhead(regardlessof
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mensandwomenswateruse).IntheChhattisMaujaIrrigationSystem(Nepal),nowomanismemberofthewaterusersassociation(even
thoughinsomevillagesthereisahighnumberofdefactofemaleheadedhouseholds).Thelackofwomenrepresentationisduetoentrenched
socioculturalpracticesreservingdecisionmakingtomenand,insomecases,toalackofinterestonthepartofwomen(Zwarteveen,1995).
[20]ThisparagraphdrawsextensivelyontheexcellentstudybyAgarwal(1994).
[21]Thus,contractingorregisteringmarriageundertheSpecialMarriageActof1954allowsIndianstooptoutoftheirpersonallaw(seeHindu
SuccessionAct,e.g.sec.5(i)).Thisisnotpossibleinothercountries,e.g.PakistanandBangladesh.
[22]19953SCC635.ThecaseconcernedaHinduman,marriedunderHindurite,whoconvertedtoIslamandcontractedasecondmarriage.
AsbigamyisacriminaloffenceundertheHinduMarriageAct,thefirstwifechallengedthevalidityofthesecondmarriage.Themaninvoked
thepersonallibertyandreligiousfreedomprovisionsoftheConstitution.Thecourtruledinfavourofthefirstwife,declaringthattheconversion
hadnoeffectsonthefirstmarriage,whichremainedgovernedbytheHinduMarriageActthesecondmarriagewasthereforenullandvoid,and
theconvertcouldbeprosecuted.Inhisseparatejudgement,KuldeepSinghJ.directedthegovernmenttoadoptauniformcivilcode.
[23]TheHinduWomensdirection.Thus,widows(previouslyexcludedfrominheritancebythepresenceofmaledescendants)became
intestateheirsofseparateproperty,insharesequaltothoseofthesons.However,landownershipwasexplicitlyexcludedfromthescopeof
theAct.Notethatsection4(1)oftheHinduSuccessionActof1956explicitlyrepealsprevioustexts,rules,practicesandinterpretationsof
Hindulaw.
[24]Forareviewoflegislation,seeBehuria(1997).
[25]InanalysingwomensandDulnuan(2001)providedveryusefulguidance.
[26]DivorceisnotallowedunderPhilippinelaw,exceptfortheMuslimcommunity.
[27]SummarizedinJuddandDulnuan(2001).
[28]Forinstance,thewifehadadutyofobediencetowardthehusband(art.213)incommunityofproperty,thehusbandexclusively
administeredfamilyproperty(art.1421)thewifecouldnotsell,mortgage,acquirepropertywithouthusbandsconsent,eveninseparationof
property(art.217).
[29]Inthenewtext,article213veststhedirectionoffamilyaffairswithbothspousesarticles1421and1428vesttheadministrationof
commonandseparatepropertywitheachspouse.
[30]Forinstance,Law21111990grantstherighttofileapetitionfortheallocationofpermanentuserightsinstatelandtocitizensandadult
residentsofLatvia,withoutmakinganydistinctiononthebasisofsex/gender(art.7).
[31]Forinstance,Law21May1991,ontherestitutionoflanddispossessedbetween1948and1990,explicitlystatesthatthebeneficiarymay
beaheorashe(art.4(1)).Theactualgenderimpactofthisnormdependsonthegenderlanddistributionbeforethedispossessions.Where
theexpropriatedlandownerisdead,restitutionbenefitsthetestamentaryheir,andinabsenceofwillthechildrenandthespouse(art.4(2)).
[32]TheLandReformAct1997doesnotdifferentiateonthebasisofsex/genderfortheparticipationinthelandrestitutionorcompensation
programme(art.5)andinthelandprivatisationprogramme(art.21).
[33]Sharecroppingcontracts(mezzadria,coloniaparziaria,soccida)arelargelyprohibitedandautomaticallyconvertedintofixedrentals.In
themezzadriacontract(nownolongerallowed),thehouseholdhead(inpractice,usuallythehusband/father)wasthelegalrepresentativeof
thehousehold,andobligationscontractedbytherepresentativewereguaranteedbythewholehouseholdproperty(butnotbyseparateproperty
ofthespouse)(2150oftheCivilCode)thisnormwasimplicitlyabrogatedbyarticle48ofLaw203of1982,whichstatesthatagrarian
contractsrefertothewholecultivatingfamily,andonlyifthelessorspecificallyrequiressodoesthelesseefamilyhavetoappointa
representative.
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