A Project Report
Submitted by
Aashray Kotha
CBSE GRADE XII
BIOLOGY
2016-17
CERTIFICATE
Signature of Principal
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Finally, I extend my gratitude to one and all who are directly or indirectly
involved in the successful completion of this project work.
Aashray Kotha
INDEX
1. Introduction
2. Apparatus
3. Procedure
4. Observation
5. Conclusion
6. References
Introduction
What is Antibiotic?
Anantibioticis an agent that either kills or inhibits the
growth of amicroorganism.
The termantibioticwas first used in 1942 bySelman
Waksmanand his collaborators in journal articles to
describe any substance produced by a microorganism that
isantagonisticto the growth of other microorganisms in
high dilution.[3]This definition excluded substances that kill
bacteria but that are not produced by microorganisms (such
asgastric juicesandhydrogen peroxide). It also
excludedsyntheticantibacterial compounds such as the
sulphonamides. Many antibacterial compounds are
relativelysmall moleculeswith amolecular weightof less
than 2000atomic mass units.
With advances inmedicinal chemistry, most modern
antibacterial aresemi syntheticmodifications of various
natural compounds.[4]These include, for example, thebetalactam antibiotics, which include thepenicillin(produced by
fungi in the genusPenicillium), thecephalosporin, and
thecarbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from
living organisms are theamino glycosides, whereas other
antibacterialfor example, thesulfonamides, the
quinolones, and theoxazolidinonesare produced solely by
chemical synthesis. In accordance with this, many
antibacterial compounds are classified on the basis of
chemical/biosyntheticorigin into natural, semi synthetic,
and synthetic. Another classification system is based on
some MDR pathogens, resistance to second- and even thirdline antibiotics is, thus, sequentially acquired, a case
quintessentially illustrated byStaphylococcus aureusin
somenosocomialsettings. Some pathogens, such
asPseudomonas aeruginosa, also possess a high level of
intrinsic resistance.
It may take the form of a spontaneous or induced
geneticmutation, or the acquisition of
resistancegenesfrom other bacterial species byhorizontal
gene transferviaconjugation, transduction,
ortransformation. Many antibiotic resistance genes reside
on transmissibleplasmids, facilitating their transfer.
Exposure to an antibioticnaturally selectsfor the survival of
the organisms with the genes for resistance. In this way, a
gene for antibiotic resistance may readily spread through an
ecosystem of bacteria. Antibiotic-resistance plasmids
frequently contain genes conferring resistance to several
different antibiotics. This is not the case forMycobacterium
tuberculosis, the bacteria that causesTuberculosis, since
evidence is lacking for whether these bacteria have
plasmids.AlsoM. tuberculosislack the opportunity to
interact with other bacteria in order to share plasmids.
Genes for resistance to antibiotics, like the antibiotics
themselves, are ancient.However, the increasing prevalence
of antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections seen in clinical
practice stems from antibiotic use both within human
medicine andveterinary medicine. Any use of antibiotics
can increaseselective pressurein a population of bacteria
to allow the resistant bacteria to thrive and the susceptible
bacteria to die off. As resistance towards antibiotics
becomes more common, a greater need for alternative
treatments arises. However, despite a push for new
antibiotic therapies, there has been a continued decline in
These studies indicate how highly adaptable bacteria are in
relation to the application of antimicrobial treatments.
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria have become a problem not
only in hospitals, but in the food industry as well. Drugresistant microbes in medical facilities lead to patient
infections that are more costly and difficult to treat.
Resistantbacteria in turkeyand other meat products have
caused serious public health safety issues. Some bacteria
may develop resistance to a single antibiotic agent or even
multiple antibiotic agents. Some have even become so
resistant that they are immune to all current antibiotics.
Understanding how bacteria gain this resistance is key to
the development of improved methods for treating antibiotic
resistance.
6. Beaker
7. Burner
8. Penicillin
9. Aureomycin
10. Hay
11. Alcohol
12. Agar
13. Starch
14. Distilled water
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1.
3.
4.
OBSERVATION:
The area around the antibiotic discs in the Petri
dishes will be clear. In other areas, colonies of
bacteria will be observed. Then I examined the clear
area in each Petri dishes for few more days. A few
very colonies may appear in the clear areas. These are
the colonies of resistant strains of the bacteria.
CONCLUSION:
Antibiotic drugs killed most of the bacterial strain,
hence the areas appeared clear. However, a few
strains which were resistant in the bacterial
population survived and produced colonies later. This
proves the resistant strain to antibiotics were present
in the bacterial population.
REFERENCES:
1. Comprehensive Laboratory Manual In Biology-XII
2. Biology Text For Class XII NCERT