Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research asa
scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is anart of
scientific investigation.
According to the Random House Dictionary of the English Language, Research is a systematic inquiry
into a subject in order to discover or revise facts, theories, etc.
One can also express research as:
To arrive at conclusions to formulate new theories and laws or revise the already established theories
and laws;
To be accepted or rejected before adding this new knowledge to the already existing general pool of
knowledge.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures.
The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.
Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a
number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are
termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with this
object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else
(studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesistesting research studies)
TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:
(i)
Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it
exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto
research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the
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researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is
happening.
In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or
pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and
with the formulation of a theory.
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behavior carried on with a view to make
generalizations about human behavior, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at
certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of applied
research.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It
is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand,
is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is
generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due
regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of
being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of research.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Science is defined as a body of knowledge of facts and truths of all systematized knowledge (subjects,
disciplines) that show the operations of general laws and others appropriate to them.
Scientific method is defined by Random House Dictionary as a method in which a problem is identified,
relevant data is gathered, a hypothesis is formulated, which is empirically tested.
It can be concluded from the above definition that scientific method is a logical systematic process. Steps
involved in this logical procedure are named as research process and presented in the diagram as below:
1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to
states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher
must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a
subject-matter that he would like to inquire into.
2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down.
For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the
first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be
tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will
lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied. A
good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear
terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to
draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research hypotheses are
developed is particularly important since they provide the focal point for research. They also affect the manner
in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for
the analysis.
4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the
researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state theconceptual structure
within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as
efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide
for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
5. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a universe
or population. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance
is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true.
6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate,
and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the
appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal
of the researcher. Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey.
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7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the
execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and
dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time.
8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them.
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the
application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.
9. Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be
contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various tests, such
as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may
be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research
inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting.
10. Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible
for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of
research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with,
he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has
been done by him.
Research plan
Research plan has been used synonymously with proposal and synopsis. They refer toa blue print of
your research. Both are used for documents that describe in detail:
In what resources (time, money, infrastructure, etc.) are you going to do?
A research proposal is thus, a document to your plans and ideas of carrying out your research.
The purpose of a research plan is to:
Present for the supervisor and other authorities also the plan of action for their approval;
give directions on what needs to be done, when and how and in what order;
Prove to your supervisor that you have gone into the fine details of your topic and will be able to
conduct research.
10. Limitations: Every research study has limitations. These could be from the point of view of the
contents (coverage of the subject), geographical area, time period of study, etc. The researcher should
very earnestly admit the limitations in his/her study.
Research problem
Without a problem, research cannot proceed, because there is nothing to proceed from and proceed
towards. Therefore, the first step in research is to perceive a problem - either practical or theoretical.
The recognition or existence of a problem motivates research. It may be noted that research is the
process of repeated search for truth/facts.
A problem in simple words is some difficulty experienced by the researcher in a theoretical or practical
situation. Solving this difficulty is the task of research.
A problem exists when we do not have enough information to answer a question (problem). The answer
to the question or problem is what is sought in the research.
The problem for research should ordinarily be expressed in an interrogative form. For example:
Why is product X more popular than product Y?
How to increase labour productivity?
Does illumination increase productivity?
Why is factory A earning profits and factory B incurring losses?
Is the audio-visual system of teaching more effective than the audio system?
These are all searchable problems/questions. Finding answers to the problems is what is endeavored
in research. One question/problem may give rise to number of/series of sub-questions too.
Sources of Research Problems
If the researcher / research organization has a ready problem on hand, he/she can proceed further in
the research process or else you have to search for a problem. Where can you search for research
problems? Your own mind, where else? You have to feel the problem and think about it. However, the
following sources may help you in identifying the problem / problem areas.
1) Business Problems: A research problem is a felt need; the need may be an answer, or a solution
or an improvement in facilities / technology eg. Cars Business experiences, various types of problems.
They may be business policy problems, operational problems, general management problems, or
function al area problems. The functional areas are Financial Management, Marketing Management,
Production Management and Human Resources Management. Every business research problem is
expected to solve a management problem by facilitating rational decision-making.
2) Day to Day Problems: A research problem can be from the day to day experience of the researcher.
Every day problems constantly present something new and worthy of investigation and it depends on
the keenness of observation and sharpness of the intellect of the researcher to knit his daily experience
into a research problem. For example, a person who travels in city buses every day
finds it a problem to get in or get out of the bus. But a Q system (that is theanswer to the problem)
facilitates boarding and alighting comfortably.
3) Technological Changes: Technological changes in a fast changing world are constantly bringing
forth new problems and thus new opportunities for research. For example, what is the impact or
implications of a new technique or new process or new machine?
4) Unexplored Areas: Research problems can be both abstract and of applied interest. The researcher
may identify the areas in which much work has been done and the areas in which little work has been
done or areas in which no work has been done. He may select those areas which have not been
explored so far/explored very little.
5) Theory of Ones Own Interest: A researcher may also select a problem for investigation from a
given theory in which he has considerable interest. In such situations the researcher must have a
thorough knowledge of that theory and should be able to explore some unexplained aspects or
assumptions of that theory. His effort should revalidate, or modify or reject the theory.
6) Books, Theses, Dissertation Abstracts, and Articles: Special assignments in textbooks,
research theses, investigative reports, research articles in research journals etc., are rich sources for
problem seekers. These sources may suggest some additional areas of needed research. Many of the
research theses and articles suggest problems for further investigation which may prove fruitful.
7) Policy Problems: Government policy measures give rise to both positive and negative impact. The
researcher may identify these aspects for his research. For example, what is the impact of the
Governments new industrial policy on industrial development?
8) Discussions with Supervisor and Other Knowledgeable Persons: The researcher may find it
fruitful to have discussions with his/her proposed supervisor or other knowledgeable persons in the
area of the topic.
Points to be Considered while Selecting a Problem
The topic or problems which the researcher selects among the many possibilitiesshould meet
certain requirements. Every problem selected for research must satisfy the following criteria.
1) The topic selected should be original or at least less explored. The purpose of research is to fill the
gaps in existing knowledge or to discover new facts and not to repeat already known facts.
2) It should be of significance and socially relevant and useful.
3) It should be interesting to the researcher and should fit into his aptitude.
4) It should be from an area of the researchers specialization.
5) It should correspond to the researchers abilities - both acquired and acquirable.
6) It should be big enough to be researchable and small enough to be handled the topic should be
amenable for research with existing and acquirable skills.
7) It should have a clear focus or objective.
8) The feasibility of carrying out research on the selected problem should be checked against the
following considerations.
a) Whether adequate and suitable data are available?
b) Whether there is access to the organization and respondents?
c) Whether cooperation will be forth coming from the organization and respondents?
d) What are the resources required and how are they available?
e) Whether the topic is within the resources (money and man power) position
of the researcher?
9) It should be completed within the time limits permissible.
Research objective
Having selected and specified the research problem, the next step is to formulate the objectives
of research. Thus, research is a goal-oriented activity. We have to identify the goal / goals to be
achieved and they must be specified in order to give direction to the research study. Hence, formulation
ofresearch objectives are equally important. Once research objectives are stated, then the entire
research activity will be geared to achieving those objectives.
Principles of research objective:
1. It should be logically derived from the research objective.
2. It should be simple and specific.
3. It should be stated in advance to the research process.
4. It should be stated clearly phrased in operational terms. i.e., it should clearly specify
What exactly researcher is going to do?
Where exactly he want to go?
What is the purpose of the study?
5. It should make the use of action verbs that are specific enough to be evaluated.
Benefits of having a research objective:
Brings focus into the study / concentrates the study
Avoids the collection of data which are not essential for the study
Arranges the study into clearly defined segments.
Research hypothesis
To understand the meaning of a hypothesis, let us see some definitions:
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A hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains to be tested. In its most
elementary stage the hypothesis may be any guess, hunch, imaginative idea, which becomes the basis
for action or investigation.(G.A.Lundberg)
It is a proposition which can be put to test to determine validity. (Goode and Hatt).
A hypothesis is a question put in such a way that an answer of some kind can be forth coming (Rummel and Ballaine).
These definitions lead us to conclude that a hypothesis is a tentative solution or explanation or a guess
or assumption or a proposition or a statement to the problem facing the researcher, adopted on a
cursory observation of known and available data, as a basis of investigation, whose validity is to be
tested or verified.
Types of Hypothesis
Hypotheses can be classified in a variety of ways into different types or kinds. The following are some
of the types of hypotheses:
i) Explanatory Hypothesis: The purpose of this hypothesis is to explain a certain fact. All hypotheses
are in a way explanatory for a hypothesis is advanced only when we try to explain the observed fact. A
large number of hypotheses are advanced to explain the individual facts in life. A theft, a murder, an
accident are examples.
ii) Descriptive Hypothesis: Sometimes a researcher comes across a complex phenomenon. He/ she
does not understand the relations among the observed facts. But how to account for these facts? The
answer is a descriptive hypothesis. A hypothesis is descriptive when it is based upon the points of
resemblance of something. It describes the cause and effect relationship of a phenomenon e.g., the
current unemployment rate of a state exceeds 25% of the work force. Similarly, the consumers of local
made products constitute a significant market segment.
iii) Analogical Hypothesis: When we formulate a hypothesis on the basis of similarities (analogy), it is
called an analogical hypothesis e.g., families with higher earnings invest more surplus income on long
term investments.
iv) Working hypothesis: Sometimes certain facts cannot be explained adequately by existing
hypotheses, and no new hypothesis comes up. Thus, the investigation is held up. In this situation, a
researcher formulates a hypothesis which enables to continue investigation. Such a hypothesis, though
inadequate and formulated for the purpose of further investigation only, is called a working hypothesis.
It is simply accepted as a starting point in the process of investigation.
v) Null Hypothesis: It is an important concept that is used widely in the sampling theory. It forms the
basis of many tests of significance. Under this type, the hypothesis is stated negatively. It is null
because it may be nullified, if the evidence of a random sample is unfavorable to the hypothesis. It is a
hypothesis being tested (H0). If the calculated value of the test is less than the permissible value, Null
hypothesis is accepted, otherwise it is rejected. The rejection of a null hypothesis implies that the
difference could not have arisen due to chance or sampling fluctuations.
vi) Statistical Hypothesis: Statistical hypotheses are the statements derived from sample. These are
quantitative in nature and are numerically measurable. For example, the market share of product X is
70%, the average life of a tube light is 2000 hours etc.
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ii)
iii)
A hypothesis must have predictive and explanatory power: Explanatory power means that a
good hypothesis, over and above the facts it proposes to explain, must also explain some other
facts which are beyond its original scope. The wider the range, the greater is its explanatory
power.
iv)
A hypothesis must furnish a base for deductive inference on consequences: In the process of
investigation, we always pass from the known to the unknown.
v)
A hypothesis does not go against the traditionally established knowledge: As far as possible, a
new hypothesis should not go against any previously established law or knowledge. The new
hypothesis is expected to be consistent with the established knowledge.
vi)
vii)
A hypothesis must be clear, definite and certain: It is desirable that the hypothesis must be
simple and specific to the point.
viii)
A Hypothesis should be related to available techniques: If tools and techniques are not available
we cannot test the hypothesis. Therefore, the hypothesis should be formulated only after due
thought is given to the methods and techniques that can be used to measure the concepts and
variables related to the hypothesis.
Testing of Hypothesis
When the hypothesis has been framed in the research study, it must be verified as true or false. Verifiability is
one of the important conditions of a good hypothesis. Verification of hypothesis means testing of the truth of
the hypothesis in the light of facts. If the hypothesis agrees with the facts, it is said to be true and may be
accepted as the explanation of the facts. But if it doesnt agree it is said to be false. Such a false hypothesis is
either totally rejected or modified. Verification is of two types viz., Direct verification and Indirect
verification.
Direct verification may be either by observation or by experiments. When direct observation shows
that the supposed cause exists where it was thought to exist, we have a direct verification. When a hypothesis
is verified by an experiment in a laboratory it is called direct verification by experiment. When the hypothesis is
not amenable for direct verification, we have to depend on indirect verification.
Indirect verification is a process in which certain possible consequences are deduced from the
hypothesis and they are then verified directly. Two steps are involved in indirect verification. (i) Deductive
development of hypothesis: By deductive development certain consequences are predicted and (ii) finding
whether the predicted consequences follow. If the predicted consequences come true, the hypothesis is said to
be indirectly verified. Verification may be done directly or indirectly or through logical methods.
Testing of a hypothesis is done by using statistical methods. Testing is used to accept or reject an
assumption or hypothesis about a random variable using a sample from the distribution. The assumption is the
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null hypothesis (H0), and it is tested against some alternative hypothesis (H1). Statistical tests of hypothesis
are applied to sample data. The procedure involved in testing a hypothesis is
A) Select a sample and collect the data.
B) Convert the variables or attributes into statistical form such as mean, proportion.
C) Formulate hypotheses.
D) Select an appropriate test for the data such as t-test, Z-test.
E) Perform computations.
F) Finally draw the inference of accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis.
Uses of Hypothesis
If a clear scientific hypothesis has been formulated, half of the research works is already done. The
advantages/utility of having a hypothesis is summarized here underneath:
i) It is a starting points for many a research work.
ii) It helps in deciding the direction in which to proceed.
iii) It helps in selecting and collecting pertinent facts.
iv) It is an aid to explanation.
v) It helps in drawing specific conclusions.
vi) It helps in testing theories.
vii) It works as a basis for future knowledge
Research design
Research design is also known by different names such as research outline, plan, blue print.
Definition:
A research design is the arrangement of condition for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to accomplish the research objective with economy in procedure.
Overall research design can be split down into following parts.
a. Sampling design: deals with the methods of selecting items to be observed for the given study.
b. Observation design: relates to the condition under which the observations are to be made.
c. Statistical design: concern with the question of how many items are to be observed and how the data
gathered will be analyzed.
d. Operational design: deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in sampling,
statistical and observational design can be carried out.
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1. Exploratory Research:
A research study may be either exploratory or full scale. Exploratory research is conducted when the
researcher does not know how and why certain phenomenon occurs. Here, the hypothetical solutions or
actions are explored and evaluated by the decision-maker, e.g. evaluation of quality of service of a
bank/hotel/airline. Here, the quality cannot be accessed directly as tangible features are not available.
The purpose of exploratory research is to know the unknown. Exploratory research determines fruitful
alternatives that the executive would not have perceived. Exploratory Research is used:
To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population exhibiting a certain behavior e.g. the
percentage of heavy users of prestigious department stores who also patronize discount department
stores.
To make specific predictions. For e.g. what will be retail sales of Shoppers stop (specific store) for
fashion clothing (specific product category) in the Mumbai area (specific region)?
For finding out views and attitudes of customers, e.g. how many customers prefer branded goods or ISI
marked goods.
Make predictions about future trends, consumer needs or expectations or possible sales after n years.
design gives proper direction and time-table to research activity. It keeps adequate check on the research work
and ensures its completion within certain time limit. It keeps the whole research project on the right track.
Research design avoids possible errors as regards research problem, information requirement and so
on. It gives practical orientation to the whole research work and makes it relevant to the problems faced by the
sponsoring organization. Finally, it makes the whole research process compact and result-oriented. A
researcher should not go ahead with his research project unless the research design is planned properly.
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