Winter 2005 Quarterly Review - Theological Resources For Ministry

in t h e fc*
United Methodist Mode

QUARTERLY REVIEW E D I T O R I A L BOARD
T E D A. C A M P B E L L RUSSELL E. RICHEY
Garrctt-Evangelical Theological Seminary, Candler School of Theology, Atlanta, GA
Evanston, IL
L I N D A E. T H O M A S
MINERVA G. C A R C A N O Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago,
Phoenix Episcopal Area, Phoenix, A Z Chicago, IL
PATRICIA FARRIS TRACI C. W E S T

The Theological School, Drew University,
First United Methodist Church, Santa Monica, CA
Madison, NJ
G R A N T HAGIYA
DAVID K. Y E M B A
Los Angeles District Office, Los Angeles, CA
Central Congo Area
JEROME KING D E L P I N O , C H A I R
Democratic Republic of Congo
General Board of Higher Education and Ministry,
The United Methodist Church, Nashville, TN
MARY A N N M O M A N
General Board of Higher Education and Ministry,
The United Methodist Church, Nashville, T N
T H O M A S W. OGLETREE
The Divinity School, Yale University,
N e w Haven, CT
HARRIETT JANE O L S O N
The United Methodist Publishing House,
Nashville, TN
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Quarterly Review
A'JOURNAL OI- THEOLOGICAL RESOURCES FOR MINISTRY
Volume 25, N u m b e r 4
Winter 2005
A Publication of
the General Board of Higher Education and Ministry
and The United Methodist Publishing House
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Cover design: Laura Deck
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Quarterly Review
Winter 2005
Editor: Hendrik R. Pieterse

Email: hpieterse@gbhem.org
Website: http://www.quarterlvreview.org
Copyright 2005 by the General Board of Higher Education and Ministry
and The United Methodist Publishing House
Volume 25, N u m b e r 4 Winter 2005
Contents
Editorial
E x t e n d i n g t h e Witness a n d Service of Christ in t h e World 337
ISSUE THEME:
Practicing Pastoral Counseling in the United Methodist M o d e
Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g in t h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t Tradition;
H i s t o r y a n d Issues
Donald C Houts 339
Wesleyan Roots of Pastoral Care a n d C o u n s e l i n g 353

Theodore Runyon
Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g as Faithful Practice a m i d Liminality,

Uncertainty, and Multiplicity 366
Emmanuel Y. Lartey
Professional Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g in t h e United M e t h o d i s t M o d e 377

Michael D. Potts
U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t Pastoral C o u n s e l o r s Reflect 387

Richard Bruehl
W. Victor Maloy
Anne Ross Stewart
Outside the Theme
Wesley, t h e Constitution, a n d Secular H u m a n i s m 396

Theodore W. Jennings, Jr.
T h e C h u r c h in Review
H o w can T h e United M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h m o s t effectively e m p l o y licensed

local pastors in ministry?
Gary D, Moody 407

James L. Mayfield 407
A Word on The Word
Lectionary Study
Cathie Leimenstoll 414
Issues In: Science a n d Religion

Joseph A. Bracken, S.J, 423
Book Reviews
The Logic of Renewal, by William J. A b r a h a m (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003)

Reviewer: R o b e r t Allan Hill 430
Claiming Theology in the Pulpit, by B u r t o n Z. C o o p e r a n d J o h n S. McClure

(Louisville: W e s t m i n s t e r / J o h n Knox, 2003)
Reviewer: G. Lee Ramsey, Jr. 432
I n d e x to Volume 25, 2005 435

Editorial
Extending the Witness and Service

of Christ in the World
H E N D R I K R. P I E T E R S E
T h e Book of Discipline describes t h e labor of U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t elders

a n d d e a c o n s in e x t e n s i o n ministries as "extending t h e ministry of t h e
U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t church" (f 343.3) in "the witness a n d service of Christ's
love a n d justice" in t h e world (If 343.1; cf. 331.3). This final issue of Quarterly
Review focuses o n o n e particular form of e x t e n s i o n ministry, namely,
pastoral counseling. T h e articles i n t r o d u c e readers to t h e rich p a n o p l y of
care, scholarship, a n d service t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s t h e practice of pastoral coun
seling in T h e United M e t h o d i s t Church. In t h e o p e n i n g essay, D o n a l d
H o u t s chronicles t h e history of U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t pastoral counseling in
t h e c o n t e x t of t h e e m e r g e n c e of t h e Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g m o v e m e n t a n d
places t h r e e issues o n t h e d e n o m i n a t i o n ' s a g e n d a for o n g o i n g discussion:
t h e c h a n g i n g priorities of clergy; t h e paucity of pastoral counseling a n d
c o g n a t e courses in s e m i n a r y curricula; a n d t h e place of e x t e n s i o n
ministries in t h e life of t h e church.
T h e o d o r e R u n y o n explores t h e Wesleyan r o o t s of pastoral care a n d
counseling, H e uses Wesley's exposition of t h e restoration of t h e image of
G o d in t h e j o u r n e y of faith as theological c o n t e x t for a discussion of
pastoral counseling in a Wesleyan m o d e . For Wesley, grace operates in
different waysprevenient, justifying, a n d sanctifyingat different stages in
t h e j o u r n e y of faith. R u n y o n shows h o w t h e s e ways "significantly parallel
b o t h t h e stages of salvation a n d t h e stages of counseling."
E m m a n u e l Lartey p o i n t s o u t t h e challenges of practicing pastoral
c o u n s e l i n g in o u r increasingly multicultural, multif aith, pluralistic world.
For Lartey. this e m e r g i n g c o n t e x t challenges pastoral counseling to tran
s c e n d parochially conceived d e n o m i n a t i o n a l a n d faith identities; b e "at
h o m e with" and recognize t h e holy in b o t h sacred a n d secular expressions;
QUARTERLY REVIEW 337

VOLUME 25, NUMBER 4, WINTER 2005
E X T E N D I N G THE WITNESS A N D SERVICE O F CHRIST I N THE WORLD
e n a b l e respectful dialogue w i t h a n d b e t w e e n religious a n d nonreligious

p e r s o n s ; e m p h a s i z e relationship over "technique" a n d "belief"; balance
"disease" a n d "health a n d strength" m o d e l s in a n a p p r o a c h t h a t integrates
spirituality, moral education, a n d pastoral counseling; b e theologically
astute; a n d take p e r s o n s a n d contexts seriously.
Michael Potts e x a m i n e s t h e relationship of t h e professional pastoral
counselor t o t h e overall ministry of t h e church. H e helpfully argues t h a t
pastoral care a n d c o u n s e l i n g s h o u l d b e s e e n as o n a c o n t i n u u m t h a t
begins, o n t h e o n e end, w i t h t h e biblical m a n d a t e for all baptized
Christians to care for o n e a n o t h e r a n d extends, o n t h e o t h e r end, to t h e
professional pastoral counselor, a u t h o r i z e d a n d e q u i p p e d by t h e c o m m u
nity of faith t o p e r f o r m "a specialized type of pastoral care" o n its behalf.
In t h e final article, t h r e e United M e t h o d i s t pastoral counselors in active
practice reflect o n t h e question, "What are t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t challenges
a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s y o u experience as a United M e t h o d i s t pastoral counselor
in o u r world today?" N o t surprisingly, a central t h e m e in their r e s p o n s e s
c o r r e s p o n d s w i t h a key refrain in t h e previous essays: U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t
pastoral counselors n e e d t o a t t e n d to t h e issue of h o w t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d
navigate their professional identity a n d practice in t h e midst of swirling
rapids of ethnic, demographic, theological, a n d cultural change.
As m e n t i o n e d earlier, this installment is t h e final issue of Quarterly

Review, a n d w i t h it m y t e n u r e as its editor c o m e s to a close. It has b e e n a
profound privilege t o g u i d e t h e conversation in t h e s e pages over t h e past
six years as t h e j o u r n a l s o u g h t to stimulate a n d n u r t u r e theological
discourse at t h e intersection of scholarship a n d ministry.
I pray t h a t U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s , like their e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y progenitor
in t h e faith, will face t h e m o m e n t o u s challenges of o u r d a y w i t h an identity
b o r n e of s u s t a i n e d intellectual reflection, p a s s i o n a t e spiritual c o m m i t m e n t ,
a n d c o u r a g e o u s social e n g a g e m e n t .
Hendrik R. Pieterse is the editor of Q u a r t e r l y Review.
338 QUARTERLY REVIEW

Issue Theme
Practicing Pastoral Counseling in the United Methodist Mode
Pastoral Counseling in the United

Methodist Tradition: History and Issues
D O N A L D C. H O U T S
T his issue of Quarterly Review celebrates t h e place of pastoral counseling in

t h e United Methodist tradition. As o n e of t h e varieties of gifts, services,
and activities being practiced within o u r faith tradition, it is our privilege as
authors in this issue to sketch historic continuities, u n i q u e emphases, a n d
current realities in t h e developing specialty of pastoral counseling.
T h e generic basis of pastoral-counseling practice in t h e church is well
established. Pastoral c o u n s e l o r s are t h o s e so designated by their gifts,
c o m m i t m e n t s , priorities, training, a n d certification. Pastoral counseling is
t h e particular practice of this calling u n d e r t h e umbrella of t h e reconciling,
healing, sustaining, a n d g u i d i n g ministries of t h e church. Pastoral coun
seling m a y b e practiced w i t h faithful m e m b e r s of t h e church, w i t h p e r s o n s
w h o are outside t h e circle of t h e faithful, o r w i t h t h o s e w h o are p a r t of t h e
c h u r c h b u t suffer from guilt, self-doubt, c h i l d h o o d trauma, relational failure,
o r p e r s o n a l alienation. Pastoral counseling m a y start w i t h any crisis b u t
m a y ultimately lead toward conversion, reconciliation, remediation, forgive
ness, renunciation, or even a s e n s e of n e w birth.
Pastoral counseling is a specialized ministry w i t h i n pastoral care a n d is
often m o r e time c o n s u m i n g , m o r e in t o u c h w i t h c u r r e n t psychological a n d
t h e r a p e u t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g s , a n d m o r e stringent in its r e q u i r e m e n t s
regarding ethical guidelines, realistic goals, a n d collaboration w i t h o t h e r
s o u r c e s of preferred help. Pastoral counseling m a y take place w i t h i n t h e
c o n t e x t of t h e local c h u r c h or u n d e r t h e c o m m u n i t y umbrella of faith-
b a s e d clinicians w h o share c o m m o n s t a n d a r d s of care. In any case, t h e

VOLUME 25, N U M B E R 4, WINTER 2005
PASTORAL C O U N S E L I N G IN THE UNITED METHODIST TRADITION: HISTORY A N D ISSUES
pastoral counselor u n i q u e l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e authority, c o m m i t m e n t , a n d

character of t h e faith c o m m u n i t y .
T h e c u r r e n t directory of t h e A m e r i c a n Association of Pastoral
C o u n s e l o r s lists s o m e 468 United Methodistsone o u t of six of t h e total
interfaith m e m b e r s h i p of 2,937. Of t h e 468 U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s , 338 are
m a l e a n d 130 female. T h e n u m b e r w o u l d b e considerably g r e a t e r w e r e
United M e t h o d i s t s within t h e A m e r i c a n Association of Marriage a n d
Family Therapists a n d t h e Christian Association of Psychological Studies
a n d Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g to b e included. While s o m e overlap of m e m b e r
ship exists, t h e n u m b e r of U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s w h o identify themselves w i t h
t h e Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g m o v e m e n t is certainly greater t h a n t h e above
figures w o u l d indicate w e r e we able accurately t o c o u n t t h e pastors trained
in this field b u t serving in parishes a n d o t h e r v e n u e s .
However, t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e m o v e m e n t in t h e life of t h e c h u r c h
c a n n o t b e m e a s u r e d by n u m b e r s of specialized clergy or by t h e consis
t e n c y of s u p p o r t a n d appreciation w i t h i n t h e d e n o m i n a t i o n alone. In this
article, I tell t h e s t o r y of pastoral counseling in United M e t h o d i s m in t h e
context of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g m o v e m e n t in t h e
United States in o r d e r t o e n c o u r a g e a dialogue a b o u t this U n i t e d
M e t h o d i s t history a n d a b o u t issues relevant to t h e future.
Pastoral Counseling: Ancient Antecedents

While t h e Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g m o v e m e n t got its start only in t h e t w e n t i e t h
century, t h e Christian c h u r c h has cared for t h e souls of t h e faithful since
t h e beginning. Indeed, this p r e o c c u p a t i o n has b o t h religious and secular
roots. In his l a n d m a r k b o o k A History of the Cure of Souls, J o h n T. McNeill
writes a b o u t t h e "Guides of Israel," w h o w e r e wise m e n , scribes, a n d rabbis.
H e traces t h e record of G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s as "physicians of t h e soul" a n d
p o i n t s t o t h e spiritual direction w i t h i n Asian faiths. H e also sees a p a t t e r n
of discipline and consolation inherited from t h e early church fathers of
Christendom.
McNeill n o t e s t h a t in t h e b e g i n n i n g of Mark's Gospel, Jesus d r e w large
crowds to w i t n e s s his miracles a n d h e a r his teaching. Again a n d again,
Jesus s e e m e d to prefer to minister to a few at a time a n d frequently with
d r e w from t h e crowds. Indeed, Jesus instructs t h e leper h e cleanses t o tell
n o o n e . O n e is r e m i n d e d t h a t t h e origin of private acts of confession in t h e
history of t h e c h u r c h a n d t h e c o u n s e l of Jesus to humilityeven secrecy

D O N A L D C. HOUTS
a b o u t o u r acts of charity are c o n s o n a n t w i t h c o n t e m p o r a r y practice of

1
pastoral counseling.
Clebsch and Jaekle delineate four basic functions in t h e history of t h e
2
Christian church: healing, guiding, sustaining, a n d reconciling. "Guiding"
e n c o m p a s s e s t h e p u r p o s e of pastoral counseling, w h i c h s h o u l d b e "to help
a p e r s o n mobilize h i s / h e r i n n e r resources for h a n d l i n g a crisis; for m a k i n g
a difficult decision; for adjusting constructively to a n unalterable problem;
or for improving h i s / h e r i n t e r p e r s o n a l relationships, including h i s / h e r rela
3
t i o n s h i p w i t h God."
This p u r p o s e is deeply i m b e d d e d in t h e e t h o s a n d history of
M e t h o d i s m . Take J o h n Wesley. In A History of the Cure of Souls, McNeill gives
considerable attention to t h e ministry of J o h n Wesley
Wesley, like Luther and Calvin and in accordance with the Book of Common
Prayer, approved confession of sins "to a spiritual guide for disburdening of the
conscience." But he held that to make it obligatory for all "is to make of what
may be a useful means, a dangerous snare." Under this limitation he was, in
effect, father confessor to very many. . . . [E]ven when he writes of administra
tive problems, the dominant note is that of meeting the spiritual needs of men
and women. This meant not merely bringing them into a religious life by the
experience of conversion, but also holding them on the right way and
4
reclaiming those who lapsed from it.
Liston Mills characterizes Wesley's influence o n t h e m o d e r n pastoral

counseling m o v e m e n t as follows:
Wesley was himself a model for his followers. He talked constantly to the
anxious, perplexed, and distressed, visited the sick, and attended prisoners
condemned to death. His correspondence was voluminous but its constant
theme was the spiritual needs of persons. He wanted conversion, to be sure,
but he was equally concerned to encourage the pursuit of holiness and to
5
reclaim the lapsed.
The Pastoral Counseling Movement: Explicit Beginnings

A w h o l e n e w field of interest developed w i t h i n theological circles in t h e
t w e n t i e t h century. William James had just published his b o o k The Varieties
WINTER 2005 341

PASTORAL COUNSELING IN THE UNITED METHODIST TRADITION: HISTORY AND ISSUES
of Religious Experience (1902). James's work, along w i t h t h a t of G. Stanley

Hall a n d James Leuba, b e g a n to raise t h e issue of an intersection b e t w e e n
science and theology. Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy, Boston
University School of Theology, a n d t h e University of Chicagoall began to
offer courses in t h e psychology of religion.
However, as E. Brooks Holifield n o t e s in his careful analysis of pastoral
care in America, p a s t o r s w e r e n o t h a p p y simply w i t h courses o n t h e
psychology of religion.
[Ministers complained that most seminaries had failed to teach them how to
apply their theology, analyze the soul, understand their parishioners, or give
c o u n s e l and, in s h o r t , how to m i n i s t e r to c o n g r e g a t i o n s with n e w
6
expectations.
In 1925, A n t o n Boisen, a clergyman w h o struggled w i t h m e n t a l illness

d u r i n g his o w n lifetime, b e g a n t o train theological s t u d e n t s in w h a t c a m e
to b e k n o w n as "clinical pastoral education." This u s h e r e d in a n e w era in
theological education. T h e n e e d s of s e m i n a r y s t u d e n t s t o u n d e r s t a n d
psychological d y n a m i c s a n d to e x p e r i e n c e s u p e r v i s i o n of their actual
ministry b e g a n t o take s h a p e a n d t o have a growing significance in t h e
history of theological education. T h e clinical training m o v e m e n t b e c a m e
influential in t h e 1930s; a n d by t h e 1950s, m a n y theological schools
s u p p o r t e d d e p a r t m e n t s in pastoral care a n d counseling, often related t o
t h e clinical e x p e r i e n c e s for s t u d e n t s . Faculty m e m b e r s in this field were
heavily influenced by t h e n o t i o n of s t u d y i n g "the h u m a n d o c u m e n t s , " as
Boisen called t h e m . N e w courses in "practical theology" b e g a n to e m e r g e
a n d b e c a m e increasingly p o p u l a r a m o n g s t u d e n t s , a l t h o u g h n o t uniformly
s u p p o r t e d by o t h e r faculty m e m b e r s .
By 1963, a g r o u p of c o n c e r n e d teachers a n d practitioners in t h e field
m e t in N e w York to discuss t h e u r g e n t n e e d for a stronger cohesiveness
a m o n g t h o s e dedicated to t h e field of pastoral counseling. In 1964, t h e first
formal g a t h e r i n g of t h e A m e r i c a n Association of Pastoral C o u n s e l o r s
(AAPC) took place in G r a c e Cathedral, St. Louis. H o w a r d J. Clinebell, Jr.,
was elected as t h e first president. Carroll A. Wise b e c a m e t h e association's
third p r e s i d e n t in 1967. T h e s e early teachers a n d practitioners served with
7
distinction w i t h i n t h e pastoral c o u n s e l i n g m o v e m e n t .
Five o t h e r U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s (Clinebell a n d Wise were b o t h U n i t e d

Methodists) have served as p r e s i d e n t s of A A P C so far: J o h n H, Patton,

D o n a l d C. H o u t s , James C. Wyrtzen, Gerald J. D e S o b e , a n d A n n e Ross
Stewart. O t h e r United M e t h o d i s t s h o n o r e d by t h e Association for their
c o n t r i b u t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e years include Paul E. J o h n s o n , Q u e n t i n L. H a n d ,
R o b e r t C. Leslie, Merle R. Jordan, a n d Bonnie J. Niswander. Orlo S t r u n k
has served for m a n y years w i t h distinction as editor of The Journal of
Pastoral Care and Counseling,
T h e r a n k s of regional a n d national c o m m i t t e e s of pastoral counseling
a n d t h e positions of responsibility w i t h i n pastoral counseling centers also
b o a s t m a n y United M e t h o d i s t pastoral counselors. T h e direction a n d stan
d a r d s of t h e association certainly have profited from t h e theological
c o m m i t m e n t s , intellectual honesty, a n d creativity of m a n y w h o have repre
s e n t e d U n i t e d M e t h o d i s m powerfully a n d w i t h distinction. Likewise, t h e
A m e r i c a n Association of Marriage a n d Family Therapists has profited
repeatedly from t h e w o r k of United M e t h o d i s t pastoral counselors.
In recent years, t h e pastoral counseling m o v e m e n t has b e g u n to take
o n a m o r e international flavor. In t h e early 1980s, t h e A A P C began to train
pastors and theological students from across t h e world in t h e field of pastoral
counseling. After c o m i n g t o t h e United States for training, t w o of t h e s e
p e r s o n s were s u p p o r t e d by t h e association in building n e w pastoral coun
seling programs within their o w n countriesOlgierd C. Benedyktowicz in
Warsaw, Poland, a n d Philip del Rosario in C a b a n a t u a n City, Philippines. At
the p r e s e n t time, nine additional United Methodists are listed in overseas
settings, including James Farris in Sao Paulo, Brazil; J o h n C. Blair in Australia;
Christine Kayte in England, Shui-Man Kwan in H o n g Kong; Soo-Young
Kwaon in South Korea; and Elizabeth K. Mtimkulu a n d N d u u m u l a n d
M u t o m b u in the Republic of South Africa.
T h e extensive travels of H o w a r d Clinebell a n d o t h e r leaders to teach in
overseas settings have influenced t h e a d a p t a t i o n of A m e r i c a n pastoral
counseling m e t h o d s . In r e c e n t years, a n u m b e r of articles have a p p e a r e d by
pastoral counselors w i t h a d e e p u n d e r s t a n d i n g of cultural differences rele
vant t o t h e practice of pastoral counseling. Also recently, a n u m b e r of o t h e r
pastoral counselors have provided leadership in short-term overseas
programs.
Certainly t h e a d v e n t of m a n y m o r e w o m e n a n d p e o p l e of color into
this field has b r o u g h t c h a n g e s a n d i m p r o v e m e n t s in earlier forms of
training a n d t h e r a p e u t i c processes. They have provided challenges to
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PASTORAL C O U N S E L I N G IN THE U N I T E D METHODIST TRADITION: HISTORY A N D ISSUES
g e n d e r a n d racial bias a n d have effectively b r o a d e n e d b o t h t h e thinking

a n d t h e practice of pastoral counseling in o u r day. Such sensibilities are
increasingly vital in a worldwide c h u r c h a n d a n international m o v e m e n t of
practitioners.
The Unique Impact of Pastoral Counseling on

United Methodism
O n e of t h e m o s t u n i q u e influences of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of pastoral coun
seling w i t h i n U n i t e d M e t h o d i s m h a s b e e n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a series of
a n n u a l conference a n d area p r o g r a m s in pastoral care a n d counseling. A s
early as 1957, Bishop Richard Raines s u p p o r t e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a
pastoral counseling center in t h e N o r t h Indiana Conference. James D o t y
was t h e director for t h e first n i n e years, followed by Foster W. Williams,
w h o c o n t i n u e d t h a t direction from 1966 t h r o u g h 1986. It is n o t e w o r t h y
that, before being elected b i s h o p , Richard Raines served as senior minister
at H e n n e p i n A v e n u e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h in Minneapolis. Carroll
Wise served o n staff as a pastoral c o u n s e l o r a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y took a posi
tion at G a r r e t t Evangelical Theological Seminary.
In 1961, Bishop H a z e n W e r n e r h e l p e d initiate an area p r o g r a m in Ohio.
David C h a m b e r l a i n was t h e first director. In 1969, t h e O h i o p r o g r a m
b e c a m e t w o conference p r o g r a m s . Paul S c h u r m a n , Sam L. Slack, H o w a r d K.
H u m p h r e s s , a n d Terry D a l t o n have led t h e O h i o East Conference p r o g r a m
ever since, while R o b e r t M. Collie was in charge of t h e O h i o West p r o g r a m
until 1978. Subsequently, Louis H o y e r c o n t i n u e d t h e p r o g r a m for m o r e
t h a n twenty years.
In 1966, Bishop K e n n e t h P o p e worked w i t h t h e N o r t h a n d Central
Texas a n n u a l conferences in establishing a n area program, w i t h D e F o r e s t
Wiksten as its director. This p r o g r a m c o n t i n u e d u n d e r his leadership until
1973, w h e n it evolved into a series of pastoral counseling resources. In
1972, t h e Baltimore Conference b e g a n a p r o g r a m u n d e r Bishop J o h n
Wesley Lord, w i t h Leroy G r a h a m as its first director. In later years, Berkely
H a t h o r n e a n d B r u n o Heidik gave leadership as directors.
T h e H o l s t o n C o n f e r e n c e b e g a n its p r o g r a m in 1972 u n d e r Bishop L.
Scott Allen, w i t h William H. Balch as director. At present, t h e p r o g r a m is
led by G a r y Mauldin. T h e Iowa area started a p r o g r a m in 1973 u n d e r
Bishop J a m e s T h o m a s , directed by Larry W. Sonner. O n his retirement,

M a r y L. Fraser took over t h e reins. In 1974, t h e Illinois area, u n d e r Bishop

Lance Webb, l a u n c h e d a program, w i t h D o n a l d C. H o u t s as director. U p o n
his retirement, Daniel C. H e n d e r s o n has c o n t i n u e d t h e program.
T h e N o r t h Alabama Conference began its p r o g r a m in 1974 u n d e r t h e
leadership of Bishop K e n n e t h G o o d s o n . William C l e m e n t s was director for
a s h o r t time, followed by Charles E. Alexander, w h o was later assisted by
J o h n G, Gallaway a n d Rachel Julian, That p r o g r a m is c o n t i n u i n g to this day.
Bishop Edward L. Tullis led t h e S o u t h Georgia Conference in starting a
p r o g r a m in 1974 u n d e r t h e direction of Robert H u d s p e t h , followed by
A n d r e w S u m m e r s . T h e Missouri area, u n d e r Robert G o o d r i c h , instituted a
p r o g r a m in 1976, w i t h James T. Walker as director. T h e m o s t r e c e n t
p r o g r a m was b e g u n in 2001 in t h e N o r t h Carolina C o n f e r e n c e u n d e r
8
Bishop J, Lawrence McCleskey, w i t h Jane C. N o r m a n as director.
M o s t of these U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t p r o g r a m s b e g a n as direct services to
clergy a n d their families by c o m p e t e n t a n d certified directors of pastoral
care. A n u m b e r of t h e m developed training for clergy w i t h i n t h e b o u n d s of
t h e p r o g r a m and b e g a n to use o t h e r c o m p e t e n t clinicians a n d teachers to
assist. S o m e c o m b i n e d t h e direct pastoral counseling services w i t h satellite
c e n t e r s to m i n i m i z e t h e p r o b l e m of travel distance for clients. O t h e r s
e m p h a s i z e d t h e c o n t i n u i n g e d u c a t i o n of clergy in small g r o u p s a n d work
s h o p s related to such varied subjects as marriage counseling, grief a n d
b e r e a v e m e n t , conflict m a n a g e m e n t , p e e r supervision, as well as o n g o i n g
s u p p o r t g r o u p s a n d o t h e r clergy-oriented p r o g r a m s . All of t h e s e p r o g r a m s
c o n t i n u e d to serve clergy a n d r e s p o n d to their n e e d s . For example, t h e y
offered "transition seminars" for clergy w h o are changing a p p o i n t m e n t s
a n d retreats for t h e children of clergy.
Since 1974, area a n d a n n u a l conference directors have m e t annually for
m u t u a l support, e n r i c h m e n t , a n d sharing of pilot projects. It is to t h e credit
of t h e s e directors that their record shows consistent, faithful service t o t h e
church. Clergy a n d their families have long n e e d e d a place to go w h e r e
t h e y w o u l d n o t be judged a n d w h e r e t h e y could c o u n t o n receiving h e l p at
m o d e r a t e cost.
It n e e d s to be said t h a t in m o s t of t h e s e programs, b o a r d s of o r d a i n e d
ministry have offered strong s u p p o r t . These b o a r d s quickly b e g a n t o appre
ciate t h e quality of care available to clergy families a n d t h e n e w range of
o p t i o n s to assist clergy in their g r o w t h a n d professional d e v e l o p m e n t .
O n e of t h e key characteristics of t h e m o r e successful a n d c o n t i n u i n g
WINTER 2005 345

PASTORAL C O U N S E L I N G I N THE U N I T E D METHODIST TRADITION: HISTORY A N D ISSUES
area a n d a n n u a l conference p r o g r a m s has b e e n t h e ability of conference

leaders to free area directors from r e p o r t i n g specifics of t h e r a p e u t i c
contacts to ecclesiastical superiors. Fear of losing their p r o t e c t e d confiden
tiality has always b e e n a factor in p r o g r a m s for clergy. Trust in o u r pastoral
counseling leadership b y c h u r c h s u p e r i o r s is a n o b v i o u s prerequisite for
effective a n d c o n t i n u i n g p r o g r a m s . W h e r e t h e r e has b e e n m u t u a l trust, t h e
p r o g r a m s have s u c c e e d e d in a d e p e n d a b l e a n d predictable m a n n e r .
At a t i m e w h e n a n n u a l conferences face skyrocketing health i n s u r a n c e
costs a n d o t h e r e m e r g i n g c o n c e r n s , it r e m a i n s t o b e s e e n h o w these
p r o g r a m s a n d o t h e r potential n e w p r o g r a m s c a n r e m a i n viable. S o m e
p r o g r a m s have b e g u n to charge small fees for their services, while several
o t h e r s have benefited from large gifts of charitable f o u n d a t i o n s to supple
m e n t their b u d g e t n e e d s . T h e creative a n d s u p p o r t i v e function of t h e s e
p r o g r a m s c o n t i n u e s t o b e w o r t h any r e a s o n a b l e cost a n d it would b e diffi
cult to devise alternative p r o g r a m s t h a t w o u l d b e m o r e effective.
In s u m m a r y , I believe this e x p e r i m e n t , quite u n i q u e t o United
M e t h o d i s t polity, has served a n d is serving t h e c h u r c h very well. Clergy
from o t h e r d e n o m i n a t i o n a l a n d faith g r o u p s have often r e m a r k e d a b o u t
t h e paucity of resources available t o t h e m for p e r s o n a l spiritual growth.
T h e y also s p e a k of feeling lonely a n d fearful in recognizing t h a t t h e y are
w i t h o u t t h e advocacy offered by a pastoral counseling service. These feel
ings often cloud their effectiveness a n d joy in ministry. Bishop Raines's
vision a n d t h e s u p p o r t of m a n y individuals a n d a n n u a l conferences m a r k
t h e area a n d annual-conference pastoral counseling p r o g r a m s as U n i t e d
M e t h o d i s m ' s u n i q u e c o n t r i b u t i o n to m o r e effective clergy s u p p o r t .
A s e c o n d major i m p a c t of pastoral counseling o n T h e United
M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h is in t h e p r e v e n t i o n of sexual a b u s e by clergy. A n y
a n n u a l conference t h a t h a s e x p e r i e n c e d t h e public trial of a clergyperson
will k n o w t h e terrible price t h a t c o m e s from sexual a b u s e of even o n e
victim. H a v i n g e x p e r i e n c e d o n l y o n e s u c h trial in n i n e t e e n years of prac
tice, I have b e c o m e convinced t h a t t h e c h u r c h m u s t w o r k proactively t o
assure t h a t s u c h instances are v e r y few a n d are never glossed over.
In t h e early 1980s, M a r i e F o r t u n e w a s almost alone in h e r campaign t o
call a t t e n t i o n t o issues of clergy sexual a b u s e . T h r o u g h retreats a n d educa
tional p r o g r a m s a i m e d at challenging clergy a n d judicatories alike, s h e h a s
h e l p e d to provide p a t t e r n s for change. T h a n k s t o h e r p i o n e e r i n g w o r k a n d
to t h e early efforts of o t h e r s to s p e a k t o t h e s e issues, a few p r o g r a m s w e r e

developed for assisting judicatories to r e s p o n d effectively a n d p r e e m p

tively. O n e such resource, t h e E x t e n s i o n Division of t h e University of
Wisconsin, developed t h e first in a series of v i d e o t a p e d resources, set
w i t h i n a c o n t e x t of training for clergy. W h e n t h e s e materials b e c a m e avail
able t h e r e s e e m e d little excuse n o t to use t h e m extensively.
T h e first and m o s t extensive use of s u c h p r o g r a m s was largely w i t h i n
United M e t h o d i s m . Scores of a n n u a l conferences n o t only w o r k e d o n rele
vant c o d e s of sexual ethics b u t also p l a n n e d a n d carried o u t m a n d a t o r y
p r o g r a m s that reached a v e r y high p e r c e n t a g e of clergy. There is n o way to
k n o w exactly h o w effective t h e s e p r o g r a m s have b e e n in p r e v e n t i n g sexual
a b u s e by individual clergy m e m b e r s ; b u t certainly t h e y have b e g u n t o
sensitize m a n y clergy to t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e issue a n d have portrayed a
w i d e variety of relevant situations. In o u r d e n o m i n a t i o n , t h e s e sexual
p r e v e n t i o n p r o g r a m s have consistently used male-female leadership teams,
At a b o u t t h e s a m e time, t h e church was b e g i n n i n g to identify thera
p e u t i c resources. M i n n e s o t a , Kansas, a n d o t h e r places l a u n c h e d pilot treat
m e n t p r o g r a m s for perpetrators. Conference policies w e r e d e v e l o p e d for
t h o s e w h o would teach in c h u r c h schools or supervise in y o u t h s u m m e r
camps. Trained pastoral counselors h e l p e d develop a n d e x p e d i t e s u c h
education.
In 1993, the entire U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t Council of Bishops u n d e r w e n t
training p r o g r a m s similar t o t h o s e carried o u t w i t h m a n y of t h e i r clergy, To
o u r knowledge, n o o t h e r d e n o m i n a t i o n has b e e n as dedicated, consistent,
a n d t h o r o u g h in its a t t e m p t s to deal w i t h this problem. While t h e w o r k t h a t
has b e e n d o n e to d a t e is less t h a n uniform, each a n n u a l conference has
b e e n challenged to delineate a c o m m i t m e n t b o t h to protecting vulnerable
p e r s o n s a n d to enabling clergy to u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r o c e s s e s of h a r a s s m e n t
and victimization.
Overall, The U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h has m a d e substantial progress
in t h e o n g o i n g fight for safety a n d sensitivity in o u r relationships w i t h
others, It is time for all conference leaders w h o have n o t d o n e so yet to
follow suit.
T h e official positions of t h e c h u r c h o n p e a c e a n d justice have n o t
always b e e n p r e a c h e d a n d p u r s u e d w i t h vigor. O n e of t h e m o s t a m b i t i o u s
a n d effective voices of faith g r o u p s has b e e n t h e Interfaith Pastoral
C o u n s e l o r s for Social Responsibility. For a generation, it has b e e n a steady
a n d vocal factor w i t h i n pastoral counseling professional meetings. As o n e
WINTER 2005 347

of its founders, H o w a r d Clinebell w a s again a h e a d of his c h u r c h and his

fellow pastoral c o u n s e l o r s in seeing t h e relevance of social justice, fair
trade, a n d ecology as c o m m i t m e n t s toward world peace. Thus, t h e Pastoral
C o u n s e l i n g m o v e m e n t has s u p p o r t e d t h e goals of global missions a n d
world p e a c e t h r o u g h its international s c o p e a n d its effective n e t w o r k i n g
across t h e globe.
Continuing Questions for Discussion

T h e aim of this p a p e r has b e e n t o o p e n dialogue a b o u t t h e history of
pastoral counseling w i t h i n United M e t h o d i s m a n d a b o u t issues relevant to
t h e future. T h r e e s u c h issues c o m e t o mind: t h e c h a n g i n g priorities of
parish clergy, s e m i n a r y curriculum, a n d a p p o i n t m e n t s to e x t e n s i o n
ministries in T h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h .
C h a n g i n g P r i o r i t i e s of C l e r g y
In t h e past generation, theologians s u c h as D a n i e l D a y Williams, Albert C.
Outler, a n d H e n r i N o u w e n have s o u g h t to find c o m m o n language for clas
sical theologians a n d behavioral scientists t o converse a n d thoughtfully
discuss i m p o r t a n t faith issues. As early as 1950, David Roberts published
Psychotherapy and a Christian View of Man. Roberts argued t h a t acquain
t a n c e w i t h p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c t h e o r y w o u l d e n r i c h theologians' interpreta
t i o n of Christian doctrine. Within t h e Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g m o v e m e n t ,
theologians s u c h as Seward Hiltner consistently tried to e m p h a s i z e t h e
i m p o r t a n c e of k e e p i n g t h e m o v e m e n t close to t h e church.
Prior t o t h e AAPC's first g a t h e r i n g in 1964, Carroll Wise required all
of his g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s to a t t e n d t h e m e e t i n g to assure t h a t t h e m o v e m e n t
saw its place as a ministry of t h e church. I was o n e of t h o s e s t u d e n t s a n d
have never forgotten Wise's c o n c e r n . As early as 1980, AAPC's a n n u a l
p r o g r a m s balanced clinical p r e s e n t a t i o n s w i t h theological p a p e r s a n d t h e o
logical discussions w i t h clinically relevant discussion. In m y view, this
a t t e m p t to find meaningful c o m m o n g r o u n d b e t w e e n t h e o l o g y and
pastoral psychology h a s b e c o m e a p r o d u c t i v e a n d comfortable g r o u n d
for m o s t pastoral counselors.
Recently, t h e r e a p p e a r s to b e a w i d e s p r e a d shift in t h e priorities of
s e m i n a r y g r a d u a t e s w i t h regard to h o w t h e y s p e n d their t i m e a n d energy.
In m y experience, y o u n g e r pastors consistently are less interested in
s p e n d i n g significant t i m e in visiting w i t h i n t h e parish. To b e sure, in s o m e

D O N A L D C. H O U T S
cases, there are reasonable explanations: b o t h s p o u s e s w o r k or parishes

have less-discrete geographical b o u n d a r i e s . However, a m o r e subtle reason
underlying t h e rejection of this role m a y b e t h a t m a n y of t h e s e pastors are
n o t comfortable visiting parishioners, particularly if it involves a m e m b e r
w h o is experiencing acute stress. For s o m e , fear of sexual t e m p t a t i o n in t h e
face of marked anxiety a b o u t b o u n d a r y issues m a y play a role.
J o h n Wesley never relinquished t h e priority of k n o w i n g p e r s o n s as
individuals. His desire to b e w h e r e p e o p l e were in their p a i n a n d to share
in their struggles a n d s e n s e of "lostness" was c o n s t a n t a n d u n c o m p r o
mising. Pastors have always b e e n t e m p t e d to avoid u n p l e a s a n t o r difficult
activities. In the past, s o m e have s o u g h t relief t h r o u g h alcohol, drugs, or
television. Nowadays, t h e I n t e r n e t m a y offer escape. Until w e are able o n c e
again to translate o u r c o n c e r n for evangelism a n d n e w life to face-to-face
relationships, I fear m a n y of o u r clergy will c o n t i n u e to s h u n this central
task of traditional M e t h o d i s m - t h e "care of souls."
Seminary Curriculum
This c h a n g e in priority a m o n g y o u n g e r p a s t o r s h a s b e e n g r a d u a l in
coming, b u t t h e review of United M e t h o d i s t s e m i n a r y catalogues t e n d s t o
bolster this observation. While m o s t of o u r s e m i n a r i e s give credit for clin
ical pastoral education, it is listed in t h e catalogue as a n elective; a n d t h e
n u m b e r of United M e t h o d i s t theological s t u d e n t s w h o enroll in clinical
pastoral e d u c a t i o n courses has gradually fallen. Likewise, t h e c u r r e n t cata
logues of all of our U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t seminaries list clinical pastoral coun
seling as o n e required course of t w o or t h r e e s e m e s t e r h o u r s o r offer elec-
tives t h a t include a choice b e t w e e n t w o or t h r e e courses in Christian
E d u c a t i o n , Evangelism, Pastoral C a r e a n d Counseling, or Worship. S o m e
catalogues c o n t i n u e to list additional electives in t h e field b u t a p p e a r n o t
to offer e n o u g h faculty time to m a k e t h o s e courses available, given t h e
w i d e variety of elective courses a n d t h e a p p a r e n t increase of c u r r i c u l u m
r e q u i r e m e n t s in Bible, C h u r c h History, a n d Theology. Few s e m i n a r y gradu
ates today can b e a s s u m e d to have special skills in pastoral counseling.
Extension Ministries
Paragraphs 3 4 3 - 3 4 4 of t h e Book of Discipline list a w i d e variety of ministries
approved by t h e general c h u r c h as potentially a p p r o p r i a t e a p p o i n t m e n t s .
We take for granted t h a t a g o o d n u m b e r of a p p o i n t m e n t s to e x t e n s i o n
ministry will take place. However, t h e s h o r t a g e of parish clergy in m a n y
WINTER 2005 349

a n n u a l conferences creates t h e t e m p t a t i o n for b i s h o p s to treat appoint

m e n t s b e y o n d t h e local church as peripheral a n d in s o m e s e n s e regrettable.
T h e Discipline m a k e s it very clear t h a t t h e itinerant ministry s u p e r c e d e s
t h e n e e d s of e x t e n s i o n ministries w h e n e v e r d e e m e d advisable by t h e
bishop.
Elders in appointments extending the ministry of the local United Methodist

church are full participants in the itinerant system. Therefore, a conference
member in an appointment beyond the local United Methodist church must
9
be willing upon consultation to receive an appointment in a pastoral charge.
W h e t h e r or n o t this "consultation" is a two-way c o m m u n i c a t i o n or

simply a conference to indicate a decision by t h e b i s h o p is n o t clear to m e .
While I have n o e v i d e n c e to indicate h o w c o m m o n l y s u c h a p p o i n t m e n t s
are m a d e , I have h e a r d a n e c d o t a l r e p o r t s t h a t in s o m e conferences it has
b e c o m e a frequent o c c u r r e n c e . N o n e t h e l e s s , it is clear t h a t T h e United
M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h functions m o s t effectively o n t h e basis of a fully itin
e r a n t system regarding appointive practice. In c o m m e n t i n g o n this issue,
J o h n H. Patton says:
Pastoral Care and other specialized ministers simply don't fit in denomina
tional structures such as geographical Annual Conferences, presbyteries, or
10
associations organized to facilitate congregational or parochial ministry.
Fortunately, t h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t E n d o r s i n g Agency (UMEA) at t h e

G e n e r a l Board of H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n a n d Ministry has a t i m e - h o n o r e d tradi
tion of s u p p o r t for t h o s e of us w h o have b e c o m e specialists in particular
areas of ministry s u c h as pastoral counseling. F r o m early days, staff
m e m b e r s have t e n d e d their flock of p e o p l e in e x t e n s i o n ministries. They
function as p r i m a r y links to t h e larger c h u r c h for m a n y of us in a variety
of special a p p o i n t m e n t s .
U M E A has also b e e n helpful in taking o n t h e certification process for
t h e board. It has carefully carried o u t t h e i n t e n t of t h e G e n e r a l Conference
in paying a t t e n t i o n t o s t a n d a r d s for a n d p e r s o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t of clergy in
e x t e n s i o n ministries. Hopefully, t h e history of t h e past generation has justi
fied t h e c o n t i n u i n g confidence of t h e larger c h u r c h in t h e c o m p e t e n c e ,
loyalty, a n d u n i q u e c o n t r i b u t i o n s of h e r clergy in e x t e n s i o n a p p o i n t m e n t s .

Conclusion
It is n o t easy to s u m m a r i z e t h e issues in pastoral counseling over t h e past
o n e - h u n d r e d years or t h e u n i q u e relationship of t h e field to U n i t e d
M e t h o d i s m . Perhaps o t h e r s will b e able to use t h e s e c o m m e n t s in helpful
ways t o insure that t h e church is continually p r o u d of t h e w o r k t h a t w e d o
in pastoral counseling. M e t h o d i s t s in J o h n Wesley's day w o r k e d in cottage,
m i n e , a n d slum. While t h e settings a n d qualifications m a y b e different
today, t h e overall witness a n d overarching c o n c e r n for t h e task of "going o n
to perfection" will n e v e r b e w i t h o u t w i t n e s s a n d power.
Liston O. Mills s u m m a r i z e s his historical view of t h e Pastoral
C o u n s e l i n g m o v e m e n t as follows;
Thus pastoral care seeks its roots in a theological world view at the same time
that it comes to terms with the forces and contending voices of the contempo
rary scene. What is reflected in these more recent enterprises is a continuation
of a long and honorable tradition. For the commitment to persons which
pastoral care's history reveals and the effort to discern the meaning of life in rela
11
tion to God remain as fundamental ideals in those who would care for souls.
We c o m m i t ourselves to this c o n t i n u i n g challenge.
Donald C. Houts, retired, spent a career in parish ministry, chaplaincy, teaching,

and pastoral counseling,
Endnotes
1. John T. McNeill, A History of the Cure of Souls (New York: Harper & Bros.
1951), 1, 69.
2. William A. Clebsch and Charles R. Jaekle, Pastoral Care in Historical Perspective
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1964), 32-63.
3. Howard J. Clinebell, Mental Health through Christian Community (Nashville:
Abingdon, 1963), 213.
4. McNeill, History of the Cure of Souls, 279-80.
5. Liston O. Mills, "Pastoral Care: History, Transitions, Definitions," in Rodney J.
Hunter, ed., Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Counseling (Nashville: Abingdon,
1990), 843//.
WINTER 2005 351

PASTORAL C O U N S E L I N G IN Tl IE U N I T E D METHODIST TRADITION: HISTORY A N D ISSUES
6. E. Brooks Holifield, A History of Pastoral Care in America: From Salvation to

Self-Realization (Nashville: Abingdon, 1983), 176.
7.1 dedicate this article to these Methodist pioneers. Clinebell was a long-time
friend, colleague, and mentor; and Wise a profoundly influential teacher and
example.
8. While we have attempted to retrieve this information with accuracy, there
may be s o m e omissions or actual errors. We included all these programs,
because at the present time there is n o public record of the history and impact
of these trailblazing programs.
9. The Book of Discipline of The United Methodist Church-2004 (Nashville: The
United Methodist Publishing House, 2004), 1 344.
10. John H. Patton, "Response," Journal of Pastoral Care and Counseling 5 8 / 5
(Supplement):429.
11. Mills, "Pastoral Care: History, Transitions, Definitions." Dictionary of Pastoral
Care and Counseling, 44.

Wesleyan Roots of Pastoral Care
and Counseling
T H E O D O R E R U N Y O N
I s t h e r e a distinctively Wesleyan a p p r o a c h to pastoral care a n d coun

selinga characteristic theological g r o u n d i n g t h a t m a y prove useful t o
t h o s e seeking resources in t h e founder of M e t h o d i s m for their o w n practice
of pastoral care? To b e sure, J o h n Wesley has n o t provided us w i t h t h e kind
of case studies that Seward Hiltner found in t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
Brooklyn pastor Ichabod Spencer, w h o s e cases a p p e a r e d in A Pastor's
Sketches, published in 1851cases that Hiltner d r e w o n extensively in his
1
classic Preface to Pastoral Theology. But Wesley, writing 100 years earlier t h a n
Spencer, did provide a richly n u a n c e d soteriology t h a t offers resources for
developing a theology of pastoral care surprisingly relevant to today's needs,
Every t h e o l o g y of pastoral care p r e s u p p o s e s an anthropology: a s s u m p
tions a b o u t w h o h u m a n beings are, their high calling a n d their limitations,
a n d their capabilities a n d foibles. A n d a Wesleyan starting p o i n t for coun
seling is n o exception. H u m a n s are created in t h e image of G o d . This is
Wesley's foundational anthropological assertion. Their Creator i n t e n d s for
t h e m to s t a n d in a role a n d relationship for w h i c h t h e y are e q u i p p e d with
special gifts and t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g responsibilities. In defining t h e image
of G o d Wesley differentiates b e t w e e n t h e natural image, t h e political image,
2
a n d t h e moral image. U n d e r t h e natural image h e includes t h e gifts of
reason, will, a n d freedom. T h e s e are t h e basic capacities n e c e s s a r y for
h u m a n s to b e in c o n s c i o u s relationship w i t h their Creator. W i t h regard to
h u m a n r e a s o n Wesley's view was functional a n d pragmatic, geared t o t h e
world t h a t was e m e r g i n g at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y
t h r o u g h Locke and empiricism rather t h a n t h e intuitional capabilities t h a t
h a d b e e n ascribed to r e a s o n by Descartes, t h e C a m b r i d g e Platonists, a n d
t h e Deists. Reason receives s e n s e d a t a a n d grasps h o w things w o r k
together. It discerns order a n d relationships t h a t m a k e possible right judg
m e n t s . The gift of will enables h u m a n s to exercise agency, sort o u t priori
ties, m a k e c o m m i t m e n t s , a n d execute responsibilities. T h e gift of freedom

VOLUME 25. NUMBER 4, WINTER 2005
WESLEYAN ROOTS O F PASTORAL CARE A N D C O U N S E L I N G
gives to r e a s o n a n d will t h e p o w e r to c h o o s e t h e g o o d a n d resist evil. T h e s e

w e r e E n l i g h t e n m e n t values, w h i c h Wesley shared.
The political image reflects t h e way in which h u m a n i t y "images" o n t h e
finite level G o d ' s ordering of t h e universe. In Genesis h u m a n i t y is described
as having "dominion over t h e fish of t h e sea and over t h e birds of t h e air and
over every living thing that moves u p o n t h e earth" (1:28). H u m a n i t y t h u s has
a place of special responsibility for t h e care of t h e e a r t h a n d its creatures.
Wesley notes, "So . . . m a n was G o d ' s vicegerent [manager] u p o n earth, t h e
prince a n d governor of this lower world; a n d all t h e blessings of G o d flowed
3
through h i m to t h e inferior creatures." We are t h e stewards of a world
entrusted to us.
T h e moral image is t h e m o s t strategic m a r k of t h e h u m a n imaging of
G o d , for it is t h e o n e o n w h i c h t h e o t h e r t w o d e p e n d . It consists of a rela
tionship in w h i c h t h e creature receives c o n t i n u o u s l y from t h e Creator a n d
mediates further w h a t is received. "'God is love': accordingly m a n at his
creation was full of love, w h i c h was t h e sole principle of all his t e m p e r s ,
t h o u g h t s , w o r d s a n d actions. G o d is full of justice, m e r c y a n d truth: so was
4
m a n as h e c a m e from t h e h a n d s of t h e Creator." T h e image in its relation
to its Source images a n d transmits further t h o s e qualities it receives from
b e y o n d itself. This relationship Wesley t e r m s "spiritual respiration":
God's breathing into the soul, and the soul's breathing back what it first
receives from God; a continual action of God upon the soul, the re-action of
the soul upon God; an unceasing presence of God, the loving pardoning God,
manifested to the heart, and perceived by faith; and an unceasing return of
love, praise, and prayer, offering up all the thoughts of our hearts, all the words
of our tongues, all the works of our hands, all our body, soul, and spirit, to be
5
an holy sacrifice unto God in Christ Jesus.
What Wesley is describing is theosis as it is u n d e r s t o o d in t h e Eastern

C h u r c h - G o d ' s participation in o u r lives by t h e p o w e r of t h e Spirit a n d o u r
participation by t h e s a m e Spirit in t h e life of G o d . W h a t is necessary for this
participation, however, is "the absolute necessity of this re-action of t h e soul
(whatsoever it b e called) in order to t h e c o n t i n u a n c e of t h e divine life
therein. For it plainly a p p e a r s G o d d o e s n o t c o n t i n u e to act u p o n t h e soul
6
unless t h e soul re-acts u p o n God." It is clear to Wesley that h u m a n s have
failed to "re-act," faithfully to image G o d as participants in t h e divine life.

THEODORE RUNYON
T h e result is t h a t t h e c o m p o n e n t s in t h e natural image have b e c o m e

distorted. They have b e e n t u r n e d in a direction o p p o s i t e from t h e p u r p o s e
for which t h e y were given, so that o u r reason is n o w used t o excuse a n d
rationalize, o u r will is t u r n e d to serve egocentric p u r p o s e s , a n d o u r freedom
b e c o m e s b o n d a g e as w e p u r s u e false goals that, o n c e chosen, d o n o t allow
us to c h o o s e w h a t we k n o w to b e better. In t h e familiar w o r d s of Paul, "I can
will w h a t is right, b u t I c a n n o t d o it. For I d o n o t d o t h e g o o d I want, b u t t h e
evil I d o n o t w a n t is w h a t I d o " (Rom. 7:18M9). T h u s w e retain t h e character
istics of reason, will, a n d freedom; b u t t h e y n o longer function in t h e way
intended, a n d often w e are unable to d o anything a b o u t it.
T h e political image is also distorted. As t h e steward, w e have n o t b e e n
faithful in t h e care of t h e world placed in o u r h a n d s . We t h i n k n o t of future
g e n e r a t i o n s b u t only of o u r p r e s e n t n e e d s a n d desires. T h e e a r t h suffers
from o u r exploitation. While we retain o u r role of "prince a n d governor,"
w e m i s m a n a g e t h a t over w h i c h w e have b e e n m a d e stewards a n d exploit it
t o satisfy o u r selfish, excessive c o n s u m p t i o n .
If t h e natural image a n d political image have b e c o m e distorted, it is t h e
moral image that has b r o k e n d o w n m o s t completely; for w e have lost t h e
ability t o transmit to o t h e r s t h e justice, mercy, truth, a n d love t h a t w e have
received from o u r Maker. We n o longer re-act to G o d ' s action. We have
b e c o m e desensitized t o grace t h a t flows from t h e divine Source. Therefore,
we d o n o t fulfill o u r calling of s h a r i n g t h a t grace w i t h o t h e r s .
It is n o t surprising, therefore, t h a t Wesley's d o c t r i n e of salvation
focuses o n t h e f u n d a m e n t a l h u m a n n e e d for t h e renewal of the image of God.
This is his m o s t frequent way to describe salvation. "You k n o w t h a t t h e
great e n d of religion is to r e n e w o u r h e a r t s in t h e image of G o d , . . . [and]
all t h a t stops short of this . . . is n o o t h e r t h a n a p o o r farce a n d a m e r e
7
m o c k e r y of God." Therefore, it is G o d ' s i n t e n t i o n to '"create us a n e w ' in
8
t h e 'image of God, w h e r e i n we were first created.'" A n d it is this renewal
t h a t is t h e goal of pastoral care a n d counseling insofar as it is consciously
g r o u n d e d in t h e Wesleyan tradition. H o w d o e s this renewal take place?
Wesley sets o u t for us a kind of template of t h e factors involved t h a t
m a r k t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l stages in t h e j o u r n e y of faith. U n d e r g i r d i n g this
soteriology is the conviction t h a t salvation is n o t a o n e - t i m e event b u t an
o n g o i n g process of divine grace operative in h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e t h a t
Wesley describes in t e r m s b r o a d e r t h a n t h o s e often a s s u m e d by his
c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . "What is salvation?" h e asks. It is "not w h a t is frequently
WINTER 2005 355

u n d e r s t o o d by t h a t word, t h e going t o heaven, eternal h a p p i n e s s It is

n o t a blessing w h i c h lies o n t h e o t h e r side of death, or (as w e usually
speak) in t h e o t h e r world." Referring t o Eph. 2:8, h e c o m m e n t s ,
The very words of the text itself put this beyond all question. 'Ye are saved.' It
is not something at a distance: it is a present thing, a blessing which, through
the free mercy of God, ye are now in possession o f . . . . So that the salvation
which is here spoken of might be extended to the entire work of God, from
9
the first dawning of grace in the soul till it is consummated in glory.
This grace n u r t u r e s t h e p e r s o n t h r o u g h ever-greater maturation. Basic

to this soteriology is therefore t h e c o n c e p t of divine grace: t h e kindness,
mercy, blessing, a n d "outgoingness" of G o d toward h u m a n i t y given expres
sion in t h e life, d e a t h , a n d resurrection of Jesus Christ a n d in t h e activity of
t h e Spirit. G r a c e is a gift u n d e s e r v e d by h u m a n s b u t overflowing o u t of t h e
generosity of t h e Creator. It is t h e m e a n s by w h i c h G o d s e e k s to o v e r c o m e
t h e e s t r a n g e m e n t t h a t has distorted t h e relationship b e t w e e n t h e creatures,
their Maker, a n d o n e another. A n d it is t h e divine caring t h a t s u r r o u n d s
a n d sustains everything t h a t has breath. It is this grace t h a t is a chief
p r e s u p p o s i t i o n of pastoral counseling in a Wesleyan m o d e , for it c a n b e
p r e s u p p o s e d e v e n w h e n it is n o t o b v i o u s to t h e c o u n s e l o r a n d even w h e n
it is n o t e v i d e n t t o t h e counselee. T h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n is t h a t t h e Spirit is
already at w o r k in t h e life of every p e r s o n w h o seeks o u t counsel. This is
t h e objective p r e s e n c e of grace in a n y counseling relationship.
Because grace is t h e trinitarian G o d ' s g o o d will toward us, it is of o n e
piece a n d c a n n o t b e divided, w h e t h e r it c o m e s from t h e Father, t h e Son, or
t h e Spirit. But for p u r p o s e s of explanation a n d analysis, Wesley c a n see
grace o p e r a t i n g in different ways at different stages in t h e j o u r n e y of f a i t h -
ways t h a t significantly parallel b o t h t h e stages of salvation a n d t h e stages
of counseling. T h e s e ways are p r e v e n i e n t grace, justifying grace, a n d sancti
fying grace.
Prevenient Grace
T h e first stage in t h e template is p r e v e n i e n t grace. This is, so to say, t h e
porch by w h i c h o n e first a p p r o a c h e s t h e h o u s e of faith, health, a n d w h o l e
ness. A c c o r d i n g t o Wesley, this is often t h e m o s t subtle form of grace. It is
"the first d a w n i n g of grace in t h e soul,"

THEODORE RUNYON
the first dawn of light concerning [God's] will, and the first slight, transient
conviction of having sinned against him, All these imply some tendency
toward life, some degree of salvation, the beginning of a deliverance from a
10
blind, unfeeling heart, quite insensible of God and things of God.
T h e s e p r o m p t i n g s of p r e v e n i e n t grace m a y cause a p e r s o n to seek o u t

counseling, for p e r s o n s often c a n n o t clearly identify w h y t h e y have c o m e
a n d have difficulty saying w h a t it is t h a t is troubling t h e m a n d causing
their uneasiness, their "dis-ease." But t h e y s e n s e t h a t a pastoral c o u n s e l o r
will b e able to assist t h e m in getting to t h e root of t h e problem. F r o m
Wesley's s t a n d p o i n t t h e y have rightly identified t h e role of a pastor, for
"the religion of Jesus C h r i s t . . . is therapeia psyches [soul therapy], G o d ' s
11
m e t h o d of healing a soul w h i c h is t h u s diseased."
This identification of salvation with therapy, or healing, is o u r clue to t h e
fact t h a t Wesley benefitted from t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of salvation character
istic of t h e early Eastern Fathers, w h o m Wesley w i t h his colleagues in t h e
Holy Club at Oxford studied in t h e original Greek. His favorites w e r e
Macarius a n d E p h r e m Syrus, w h o could describe sin as an illness a n d salva
tion as overcoming illness a n d bringing a b o u t health. Christ is t h e G r e a t
Physician w h o has c o m e to heal t h e lame, t h e blind, a n d t h e possessed. This
is in contrast to the p r e d o m i n a n t Western definition of sin as a criminal
offense, a breaking of t h e Law. In t h e West, t h e s c e n e is a c o u r t r o o m a n d
t h e sinner appears before t h e Judge, w h o could rightly c o n d e m n t h e guilty
w e r e it n o t that t h e Son intervenes. T h e j u d g m e n t t h a t should fall o n us falls
instead o n him. H e bears t h e b u r d e n of o u r guilt, pays t h e price for o u r
crime, a n d sets us free, Wesley could call u p o n this tradition as well, a n d in
describing Christ's a t o n i n g action h e often employs t h e motifs of substitu
tion, satisfaction, a n d sacrifice. However, t h e p o i n t is that h e explicitly
utilized t h e Eastern tradition and its e m p h a s i s u p o n t h e healing arts. This
m a y b e d u e to w h a t h e describes as his long-term interest in medicine,
w h i c h h e studied at Oxford in preparation for his mission in colonial
Georgia, w h e r e "I imagined I might b e of s o m e service to t h o s e w h o h a d n o
12
regular Physician a m o n g t h e m . " H e c o n t i n u e d his interest in a n a t o m y a n d
medicine, reading extensively in t h e field. A n d later, at his L o n d o n head
quarters, t h e Foundery, h e o p e n e d a clinic a n d a p o t h e c a r y for t h e t r e a t m e n t
of t h e poor, enlisting t h e help of physicians a n d pharmacists w h o volun
t e e r e d their services. Consulting t h e medical texts of t h e time, h e published
WINTER 2005 357

a medical tract in 1745 titled A Collection of Receipts for the Use of the Poor, In
1747, Wesley revised t h e tract to m a k e it a c o m p r e h e n s i v e self-help b o o k of
diagnoses a n d r e m e d i e s for s o m e 250 maladies a n d published it u n d e r t h e
title Primitive Physick: An Easy and Natural Method of Curing Most Diseases.
T h e b o o k carefully marked t h o s e cures Wesley h a d tried himself a n d
approved. It was t h e m o s t p o p u l a r of Wesley's publications a n d w e n t
13
t h r o u g h twenty-three editions d u r i n g his lifetime. M o s t of t h e cures have
14
in the m e a n t i m e proved t o b e if n o t beneficial t h e n at least h a r m l e s s .
Prevenient grace is evident in t h e p h e n o m e n o n of conscience, says
Wesley. "No m a n living is entirely d e s t i t u t e of w h a t is [ c o m m o n l y ] called
'natural conscience.' But this is n o t natural; it is m o r e properly t e r m e d
'preventing [i.e., p r e v e n i e n t ] grace.' Every m a n has a greater or less
15
m e a s u r e of t h i s . " This is testified t o by t h e impulses t h a t strike every
h u m a n breast.
Everyone has . . . good desires, although the generality of men stifle them
before they can strike deep root or produce any considerable fruit. Everyone
has some measure of that light, some faint glimmering ray, which sooner or
later . . . enlightens every man that cometh into the world . . . . Everyone . . .
feels more or less uneasy when he acts contrary to the light of his own
conscience. So that no man sins because he has not grace, but because he does
16
not use the grace he hath.
This implied positive view of c o n s c i e n c e helps to clarify t h e differences

b e t w e e n Wesley a n d t h e L u t h e r a n a n d Calvinistic a p p r o a c h e s . For Luther,
t h e conscience c a n c o n d e m n ; it joins t h e Law in accusing t h e sinner before
G o d . T h e role of grace is to free from t h e c o n d e m n a t i o n of conscience. To
b e sure, Wesley w a r n s against a n overly "scrupulous conscience," w h i c h h e
t e r m s "a sore evil" t h a t requires c o r r e c t i o n by scriptural authority. T h e r e
are s o m e , h e says, "who fear w h e r e n o fear is, w h o are continually
c o n d e m n i n g themselves w i t h o u t cause; imagining s o m e things to b e sinful
which t h e Scripture n o w h e r e c o n d e m n s ; a n d s u p p o s i n g o t h e r things t o b e
17
their d u t y w h i c h t h e Scripture n o w h e r e enjoins." Yet h e accords a m o r e
positive role to conscience, p e r h a p s b e c a u s e h e detects p r e v e n i e n t grace at
work in t h e lives of t h e p o o r w h o , t h o u g h u n t u t o r e d a n d unlettered, testify
to t h e a u t h e n t i c voice of conscience within. This h e felt w a s g r o u n d e d in
Christ, t h e u n k n o w n c o m p a n i o n of e v e r y h u m a n being.

THEODORE RUNYON
It is not nature but the Son of God that is "the true light, which enlighteneth
every man which cometh into the world." So that we may say to every human
creature, "He," not nature, "hath shown thee, O man, what is good." And it is
his Spirit who giveth thee an inward check, who causeth thee to feel uneasy,
when thou walkest in any instance contrary to the light which he hath given
18
thee.
The contrast w i t h Calvin's a p p r o a c h has to d o m o r e w i t h Wesley's

emphasis u p o n h u m a n freedom in appropriating grace. Wesley scholar
Albert O u t l e r observed that t h e Calvinists "stressed t h e Father's elective
will," which, before t h e worlds began, was t h e first cause of everything t h a t
was to follow. The absoluteness of divine sovereignty was therefore t h e char
acteristic way in w h i c h G o d ' s grace was conceived. T h e i m m u t a b l e divine
will is t h e source of all t h e gracious benefits for t h e elect and, b e c a u s e t h a t
will is immutable, t h e grace t h a t results is necessarily viewed as irresistible.
Wesley's therapeutic a p p r o a c h shifts t h e emphasis to t h e third p e r s o n of t h e
Trinity. Because it is n o t an eternal decree b u t a healing p o w e r t h a t is t h e
guiding motif, and because there m u s t be a willing cooperation if grace is to
b e effective, this grace of t h e Spirit can b e resisted by h u m a n s t o o threat
19
e n e d by t h e implications of grace for c h a n g e . While n o t disagreeing w i t h
t h e Calvinist c o n t e n t i o n t h a t G o d is sovereign Lord a n d therefore able to
intervene directly a n d p u t things right by fiat, Wesley asserts t h a t this would
defeat G o d ' s p u r p o s e to restore h u m a n i t y to t h e image of God, w h i c h
includes h u m a n freedom. T h e Almighty could, of course,
act irresistibly, and the thing is done; yea, with just the same ease as when
"God said, Let there be light; and there was light." But then man would be man
no longer; his inmost nature would be changed. He would no longer be a
moral agent, any more than the sun or the wind, as he would no longer be
endued with liberty, a power of choosing or self-determination. Consequently
20
he would no longer be capable of virtue or vice, of reward or punishment.
Like his m e n t o r s a m o n g t h e Eastern Fathers, Wesley u n d e r s t a n d s

divine grace as cooperant. It invites into p a r t n e r s h i p . This p a r t n e r s h i p
c a n n o t b e i m p o s e d b u t instead o p e n s u p a greater d e g r e e of g e n u i n e
freedom.
WINTER 2005 359

You know how God wrought in your own soul when he first enabled you to
say, "The life I now live, I live by faith in the Son of God.". . . He did not take
away your understanding, but enlightened and strengthened it. He did not
destroy any of your affections; rather they were more vigorous than before.
Least of all did he take away your liberty, your power of choosing good or evil;
he did not force you; but being assisted by his grace you, like Mary, chose the
21
better p a r t
F r e e d o m is necessary in order t o e n s u r e synergy, t h e cooperative

working together of t h e h u m a n a n d t h e divine at every step in t h e process
of salvation. Synergy is generally attributed to t h e Eastern Fathers, a l t h o u g h
Wesley q u o t e s a Western Father, St. Augustine, t o m a k e t h e point: "He t h a t
m a d e u s w i t h o u t ourselves, will n o t save us w i t h o u t ourselves." (Wesley
admits, however, t h a t w i t h regard t o h u m a n freedom A u g u s t i n e "is generally
22
s u p p o s e d to favour t h e contrary doctrine.") Wesley was criticized by his
Calvinist o p p o n e n t s for defending synergism, which t h e y considered
Pelagian a n d taking away from t h e glory of G o d . It is t r u e t h a t Wesley
defended Pelagius a n d felt h e was m i s r e p r e s e n t e d by Augustine; b u t t h e
version of synergism t h a t h e e s p o u s e d attributed all t h e initiative to G o d ' s
23
grace a n d was, in t h e tradition of t h e Eastern church, perfectly o r t h o d o x .
Synergy is a n i m p o r t a n t p r e s u p p o s i t i o n of pastoral counseling. T h e
counselor m a y have his or h e r a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e diagnosis of t h e
counselee's issues a n d possible a v e n u e s of resolution b u t k n o w s t h a t his o r
h e r solutions, if imposed, are n o solution at all. W h a t is required is a m u t u a l
process of exploration a n d discovery freely e n t e r e d into a n d c o n t r i b u t e d t o
24
by t h e c o u n s e l e e . For it is in h i m o r h e r t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d c h a n g e
m u s t take place. T h e counselor's role is to reinforce t h e gentle n u d g i n g s of
t h e Spirit in p r e v e n i e n t grace.
Justifying Grace
T h e next stage in t h e process of salvation in Wesley's theological template
is justifying grace. If p r e v e n i e n t grace is t h e p o r c h leading to t h e h o u s e of
faith, t h e n justifying grace is t h e d o o r by w h i c h we are b r o u g h t in.
Prevenient grace is G o d ' s g o o d will toward all h u m a n k i n d , a n d we can
a s s u m e it is operative in t h e lives of all. "It is found, at least in s o m e small
25
degree, in every child of m a n , . . . n o t only in all Christians " Just as t h e
pastoral c o u n s e l o r m u s t therefore p r e s u p p o s e t h e o p e r a t i o n of p r e v e n i e n t

THEODORE RUNYON
grace in all of his or h e r clients, justifying grace is a n a l o g o u s to t h e break

t h r o u g h s t h a t occur in t h e counseling process itself, especially if t h o s e
b r e a k t h r o u g h s bring n o t just insights for t h e individual b u t reconciliation
in relationships.
To use t h e t e r m in a way familiar to us from c o m p u t e r language, justifi
cation is t h e way o u r relationship to G o d is realigned, rectified, restored,
a n d r e n e w e d . This begins w i t h t h e a d m i s s i o n t h a t s o m e t h i n g h a s g o n e
wrong; t h a t t h e gifts a n d talents we have b e e n given have n o t proved suffi
cient or have b e e n distorted; t h a t o u r reason, will, a n d f r e e d o m have n o t
always served us well a n d have often led to self-deception, m i s u n d e r
standing, a n d b o n d a g e . T h e first step o u t of this p r e d i c a m e n t is dissatisfac
tion a n d frustration, a desire to b e r e o r i e n t e d a n d to t u r n things around.
Theologically, this is described as repentance, Yet this is n o t s o m e t h i n g we
c a n accomplish by ourselves. We n e e d a n "other" to h e l p u s sort t h i n g s o u t
a n d c o m e t o t e r m s w i t h o u r situation. This is w h e r e t h e pastor, counselor,
o r therapist c o m e s in. It is n o t t h e therapist's job to m a k e r e p e n t a n c e easy;
for w h a t is necessary is an utterly realistic look at all t h e factors involved in
26
o u r quandary. Wesley describes r e p e n t a n c e as a "kind of self-knowledge,"
b u t a knowledge w h i c h can best b e facilitated by another. "Why is it t h a t it
is often easier to confess o u r sins t o G o d t h a n t o a brother?" w r i t e s
Dietrich Bonhoeffer. "We m u s t ask ourselves w h e t h e r w e have n o t often
b e e n deceiving ourselves w i t h o u r confession of sin t o G o d , w h e t h e r we
have n o t r a t h e r b e e n confessing o u r sins to ourselves a n d also g r a n t i n g
ourselves absolution." But w h e n we r e p e n t in t h e p r e s e n c e of a n o t h e r
p e r s o n , we "experience t h e p r e s e n c e of G o d in t h e reality of t h e o t h e r
27
person." T h e role of t h e counselor is to b e t h a t o t h e r p e r s o n a n d t o
m e d i a t e divine grace. T h e counselor accepts t h e c o u n s e l e e as h e or s h e is.
T h e counselor d o e s n o t require t h a t t h e individual first m e e t any criteria
for insight into him- or herself or his or h e r situation b u t o p e n s u p b y his
or h e r w a r m t h a n d expertise t h e possibility for c a n d i d exchange. Both t h e
i n t e r p e r s o n a l w a r m t h a n d t h e professional expertise are n e c e s s a r y
because, to b e authentic, grace involves n o t just a c c e p t a n c e b u t also t h e
ability t o a r o u s e trust s o t h a t t h e c o u n s e l e e c a n in t u r n d r o p defenses. T h e
w o r d of forgiveness, w h e t h e r c o m m u n i c a t e d verbally, or nonverbally in atti
t u d e , c o m e s from b e y o n d a n d assures p a r d o n a n d reconciliation.
Justification is often identified w i t h a s u d d e n b r e a k t h r o u g h a n d this
event of forgiveness a n d reconciliation. Things fall into place a n d t h e client
WINTER 2005 361

or parishioner sees him- or herself in a n e w light. T h e y k n o w themselves to

b e accepted by t h a t w h i c h is infinite. In Wesley's t e r m s , t h e y have experi
e n c e d "assurance"; t h e y have b e e n affirmed by t h e ultimate. "If G o d is for
us, w h o is against us?" (Rom. 8:31). Things are n o w aligned differently t h a n
before a n d t h e relationship to G o d is reestablished. Leading u p to this
realignment, however, is a dialogical process in w h i c h t h e counselor guides
toward greater insight. Is t h e result e n l i g h t e n m e n t o r conversion? O n t h e
intellectual level, it could b e called e n l i g h t e n m e n t ; b u t if it is u n d e r g i r d e d
by t h e a c c e p t a n c e t h a t c o m m u n i c a t e s divine grace, it brings t h e c o u n s e l e e
into a relation w i t h t h e divine t h a t c a n b e read as conversion. Usually it is
n o t a one-time conversion, however, b e c a u s e it is often followed by further
insights a n d b r e a k t h r o u g h s .
Persons frequently testify t o t h e s e n s e of f r e e d o m a n d release t h a t
a c c o m p a n i e s t h e s e b r e a k t h r o u g h s . Therapists m a y b e cautious a b o u t s u c h
experiences, b e c a u s e t h e y k n o w t h e s e can b e followed by p e r i o d s of
depression. Wesley was convinced, however, t h a t grace is perceptiblethat
it can b e s e n s e d a n d e x p e r i e n c e d so t h a t w e b e c o m e c o n s c i o u s of it. In this
h e differed from t h e usual c h u r c h position t h a t grace is forensic; i.e., it is
declared a n d d i s p e n s e d t h r o u g h t h e officially a u t h o r i z e d administrators of
gracethe clergyin a n e v e n t t h a t takes place, for example, in t h e sacra
m e n t s , w h e t h e r t h e recipient is aware of it o r not. Wesley felt that G o d was
reaching o u t precisely in t h e Eucharist to b r i n g t h e k n o w l e d g e of t h e h e a r t
of G o d t o h u m a n hearts. A n d t h a t involves experiential knowledge.
Feelings are an i m p o r t a n t factor in counselingindeed, often t h e m o s t
m e m o r a b l e factor. Nevertheless, Wesley did n o t advocate a n uncritical atti
t u d e toward feelings. H e recognized t h a t t h e y could mislead a n d b e misin
formed. Therefore, Scripture r e m a i n s t h e s t a n d a r d by w h i c h feelings are t o
b e judged as to their consistency w i t h t h e t r u t h of t h e gospel, a n d feelings
28
are n o t in any s e n s e t o b e t a k e n as absolute in t h e m s e l v e s . But t h e
healing p o w e r of feelings often c o n t r i b u t e s to t h e n u r t u r i n g process intro
d u c e d by justification.
Sanctifying Grace
T h e final piece Wesley offers us in t h e theological t e m p l a t e for use in t h e
ministry of counseling is sanctifying grace. As w e have seen, Wesley identi
fies salvation as a healing process, a tberapeia t h a t is ongoing, If p r e v e n i e n t
grace is t h e p o r c h a n d justifying grace t h e door, t h e n sanctifying grace

THEODORE RUNYON
invites healing into all of t h e r o o m s of t h e h o u s e . T h e healing p o w e r gener

ally d o e s n o t accomplish everything at o n c e b u t m a k e s its way into t h e
various r o o m s of a life o n e by o n e , b r i n g i n g t h e reconciliation t h a t has
b e e n discovered in justification to t h e various aspects of t h e individual's
life a n d t h e n e t w o r k of relationships in which h e or s h e is involved. S o m e
are relationships to kindred, o t h e r s to friends a n d colleagues, a n d yet
o t h e r s to t h e larger society of w h i c h we are a part.
A s T h o m a s O d e n p o i n t s out, Jesus c a m e into conflict w i t h t h e religious
authorities b e c a u s e h e practiced healing o n t h e Sabbath. T h e y t h o u g h t t h e
S a b b a t h s h o u l d b e reserved for religious o b s e r v a n c e s only. W h e n Jesus
r e s p o n d e d t h a t t h e S a b b a t h w a s m a d e for h u m a n b e i n g s a n d n o t h u m a n
beings for t h e Sabbath, h e e x t e n d e d t h e limits of w h a t constituted service
to G o d into t h e secular arena. "He offered therapeia o n t h e S a b b a t h as a
sign of t h e e m e r g i n g reign of G o d , t h u s i n t r u d i n g u p o n t h e holy day w i t h
his ministry to sick b o d i e s a n d souls a n d erasing t h e strict b o u n d a r y
29
b e t w e e n sacred a n d secular functions." Just as healing was n e e d e d for t h e
religious a n d social structures of Jesus' time, so healing is n e e d e d today,
especially in t h e sanctifying of h u m a n i t y as t h e political image of G o d .
T h e healing process requires n u r t u r i n g t h a t usually takes t i m e a n d
c o m m i t m e n t , o n t h e p a r t of b o t h t h e pastor-counselor a n d t h e counselee,
for " h u m a n freedom is n u r t u r e d even amid t h e c o n d i t i o n s of estrange
30
ment." Wesley was well aware of this n e e d for a n u r t u r i n g e n v i r o n m e n t
a n d so h e developed w i t h i n his societies smaller groupsclasses a n d
bandsin which m e m b e r s c a m e t o g e t h e r weekly for Bible study, prayer,
a n d s h a r i n g of t h e issues t h e y faced in their o w n lives. T h e y h a d n o profes
sional training in therapy; b u t often class leaders b e g a n t h e sessions by
confessing their o w n t e m p t a t i o n s and p r o b l e m s a n d w e r e a d e p t at drawing
o u t from t h e ten o r twelve p e r s o n s in t h e g r o u p t h e issues w i t h w h i c h t h e y
h a d b e e n confronted d u r i n g t h e previous weeka process n o t unlike
t h e r a p y g r o u p s today. Wesley was convinced t h a t h u m a n beings w e r e
social creatures m e a n t to b e fulfilled in social relationships a n d h e reacted
against t h o s e w h o argued t h a t t r u e piety was cultivated only by withdrawal
from society. T h e quietists a n d mystics advocated, "To t h e desertl to t h e
desert! a n d G o d will build y o u up." Wesley c o u n t e r e d ,
Directly opposite to this is the gospel of Christ. Solitary religion is not to be

found there. "Holy solitaries" is a phrase no more consistent with the gospel
WINTER 2005 363

than holy adulterers. The gospel of Christ knows of no religion but social, no
31
holiness but social holiness,
T h e goal of counseling, therefore, is t o s t r e n g t h e n p e r s o n s so t h a t t h e y

c a n play a creative a n d engaged social role, s h a r i n g t h e healing in w h i c h
t h e y have participated in all of t h e i r social relationships.
Ye "are the salt of the earth." It is your very nature to season whatever is round
about you. It is the nature of the divine savour which is in you to spread to
whatsoever you touch; to diffuse itself on every side, to all those among whom
you are. This is the great reason why the providence of God has so mingled
you together with other men, that whatever grace you have received of God
32
may through you be communicated to others.
A l t h o u g h sanctification includes disciplines of spiritual renewal, it

m e a n s n o t withdrawal b u t active involvement t h a t draws a p e r s o n o u t of
p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h self into a life of c o n c e r n for o t h e r s . "Faith working
t h r o u g h love" (Gal. 5:6) was Wesley's favorite d e s c r i p t i o n of sanctification.
A n d it could well serve as t h e goal of t h e e m p o w e r i n g t h a t takes place
t h r o u g h a n y pastoral counseling relationship.
This is t h e t e m p l a t e t h a t Wesley suggests c a n m a k e u s o p e n a n d sensi
tive to t h e action of grace at every stage of t h e counseling process, w h e t h e r
in prevenient, justifying, o r sanctifying grace.
Theodore Runyon is Professor Emeritus of Systematic Theology at Candler School

of Theology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, and author of The N e w
Creation: J o h n Wesley's Theology Today (Abingdon, 1998).
Endnotes
1. Seward Hiltner, Preface to Pastoral Theology (New York: Abingdon, 1958).
2. The Works of John Wesley, Bicentennial Edition, ed. by Albert C. O u t l e r
(Nashville: Abingdon, 1985), 2:474/; hereafter Works.
3. Ibid., 2:440.
4. Ibid., 2:188.
5. Ibid., 1:442.
6. Ibid.

THEODORE RUNYON
7. Ibid., 2:185.
8. Ibid., 3:77. See Theodore Runyon, The New Creation: John Wesley's Theology
Today (Nashville: Abingdon, 1998), 8.
9. Ibid., 2:156.
10. Ibid., 3:203/.
11. Ibid, 2:184.
12. The Works of John Wesley (Jackson edition) (Grand Rapids: Z o n d e r v a n ,
1872), 8:264 (hereafter Works [Jackson]).
13. See t h e d i s c u s s i o n in E. Brooks Holifield, Health and Medicine in the
Methodist Tradition (New York: Crossroad, 1986), 32//.
14. See A. Wesley Hill, John Wesley among the Physicians (London: Epworth,
1958).
15. Works, 3:207.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid., 3:487.
18. Ibid., 3:482.
19. Albert Outler, Introduction to Works, 1:81.
20. Works, 2:488/
21. Ibid., 2:489.
22. Ibid., 3:208.
23. Jose Miguez Bonino, "Sanctification: A Latin American Rereading," in Faith
Born in the Struggle for Life, ed. D o w Kirkpatrick (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1988), 21.
24. Cf. Runyon. New Creation, 22, 31,55/.
25. Ibid., 4:163.
26. Ibid., 1:336.
27. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Life Together (New York: Harper & Row, 1954), 115/.
28. Cf. Runyon, New Creation, 146-67.
29. Thomas Oden, Kerygma and Counseling (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966),
150.
30. Ibid., 77.
31. J o h n Wesley, "Preface to H y m n s a n d Sacred P o e m s (1739)," in Works
(Jackson), 14:321.
32. Ibid., 1:537.
WINTER 2005 365

Pastoral Counseling as Faithful Practice
amid Liminality, Uncertainly, and
Multiplicity
E M M A N U E L Y. L A R T E Y
A s a result of their practice b e i n g closely related to p e o p l e ' s everyday

life experience, pastoral c o u n s e l o r s have historically h a d t o invoke
cultural analytical skills. J o h n Wesley in his ad populum m a n n e r of s p e e c h
a n d practice, b e c a m e very a d e p t at this, relating his theological insights t o
t h e e x p e r i e n c e s of o r d i n a r y folk. Wesley's "practical divinity" involved
m a k i n g life-giving c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n Scripture, reason, tradition, a n d
e x p e r i e n c e a n d d o i n g so in ways t h a t c o m m u n i c a t e d clearly w i t h t h e "ordi
nary" p e r s o n .
Pastoral c o u n s e l o r s still face this challenge t o d a y b u t w i t h t h e a d d e d
realization of t h e particular issues facing t h e multicultural a n d multifaith
world in w h i c h w e n o w increasingly live. Of course, t h e world has always
b e e n multicultural a n d pluralistic. However, it is only now, as a result of
rapid technological d e v e l o p m e n t s a n d t h e realities of t h e m o v e m e n t of
p e o p l e across national a n d cultural borders, t h a t we are able to face
squarely t h e challenges a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s of this reality.
T h e world of t o d a y t h r o w s p e o p l e of v e r y different social, cultural,
economic, religious, a n d e t h n i c b a c k g r o u n d s into close proximity w i t h o n e
a n o t h e r in v e r y m a n y places. T h e challenges of c o m m u n i c a t i o n across
linguistic a n d cultural barriers face u s all t h e time. Moreover, p e o p l e of
different cultures w h o are in c o n t a c t influence o n e a n o t h e r in subtle and,
at times, overt ways. T h e p o w e r of t h e m e d i a is considerable in this regard.
T h e influence of a radio in a r e m o t e village c o m m u n i t y c a n b e p h e n o m
enal. Political a n d e v e n national revolutions have b e e n traced t o t h e p o w e r
of t h e m e d i a either in sowing s e e d s o r else in giving t h e oxygen of
publicity to little-known causes. We n o longer live, a n y w h e r e in t h e world,
in c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t are completely closed o r impenetrable. C o m p u t e r
t e c h n o l o g y invades e v e n t h e m o s t inaccessible terrain.
We c a n n o longer a s s u m e t h a t o u r n e i g h b o r s s p e a k t h e s a m e language

E M M A N U E L Y. LARTEY
as we or share o u r beliefs. W h a t m a k e s t h e task e v e n m o r e intractable is

t h a t w e n o t only have to deal w i t h varieties of experience, b a c k g r o u n d ,
culture, a n d faith b u t also are called u p o n to r e s p o n d to t h e s e baffling
differences while t h e y too are in a state of c h a n g e t h r o u g h interaction and
influence.
H o w are we to p r o c e e d w i t h pastoral counseling in this situation?
W h a t d o e s Christian pastoral counseling m e a n in today's circumstances?
H o w are Christian pastoral counselors to relate to M u s l i m o r Sikh clients?
W h a t h a p p e n s w h e n t h e chaplain available in t h e hospital at t h e crucial
m o m e n t of critical care is Buddhist or H i n d u a n d t h e p a t i e n t is M u s l i m o r
Christian? H o w d o different religious faiths c o m e into play in pastoral
counseling? H o w are Christian pastoral counselors to c o u n s e l p e r s o n s of
G e n e r a t i o n X or t h e N e w M i l l e n n i a l , for w h o m p o s t m o d e r n i s m is already
b e g i n n i n g to b e c o m e o u t d a t e d ?
Multiplicity and Plurality

We live increasingly in contexts in w h i c h t h e p r e m o d e r n , m o d e r n , a n d
p o s t m o d e r n (and w h a t is already b e g i n n i n g to b e described as t h e post-
p o s t m o d e r n ) are juxtaposed. These t h r e e are n o longer historical e p o c h s
separable from each other. They exist t o g e t h e r a n d are in c o n s t a n t interac
tive relationship. T h e p o s t m o d e r n disillusionment w i t h a m b i t i o u s total
explanations such as offered by science, religion, a n d e c o n o m i c or political
ideologies is already fracturing into extremism, o n t h e o n e hand, a n d
nihilism, o n t h e other. Violence against self a n d o t h e r s b o r n of religious
fundamentalism a n d d e s p e r a t i o n stalks t h e world. "Cutting" and o t h e r
forms of self-injury, t e e n a g e suicide, retreats into t h e fantasy world of
drugs, altered states of c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d nihilistic self-absorptionall are
c o m m o n p l a c e . At t h e s a m e time, and often in t h e s a m e n e i g h b o r h o o d s , it
is possible to find p e o p l e w i t h "affluenza" in close proximity w i t h t h o s e
suffering t h e effects of poverty a n d disease. While m a n y have access to
c o m p u t e r s and t h e Internet, o t h e r s can barely read a n d write.
Varieties of religious faith a n d practice are n o w t a k e n for granted in
m a n y places. Interfaith dialogue a n d respect were o n t h e increase until
S e p t e m b e r 11,2001. In s o m e places, 9 / 1 1 s p u r r e d o n t h e s e efforts. In m a n y
o t h e r places, interfaith dialogue has given way to m u t u a l suspicion a n d
recrimination. This is a very fragile and t u r b u l e n t time for p e o p l e w h o
believe in peace, e c u m e n i s m , coexistence, tolerance, and g o o d neighborli-
WINTER 2005 367

PASTORAL C O U N S E L I N G AS FAITHFUL PRACTICE
ness. Atrocities c o m m i t t e d against m e m b e r s of o t h e r religions in "ethnic

cleansing" o p e r a t i o n s are c o m i n g to light in E u r o p e a n d o t h e r u n e x p e c t e d
locations. Targeted killings of high-profile p e r s o n s w h o a p p e a r in t h e eyes of
s o m e radical fundamentalists to have in s o m e way violated their sacred
faith are chilling r e m i n d e r s of t h e lengths t o w h i c h s o m e will go in defense
of their religious values.
Following w i d e s p r e a d d i s e n c h a n t m e n t w i t h first civilian and t h e n mili
t a r y regimes in various African a n d o t h e r so-called "Third World" c o u n t r i e s
t h a t p r o m i s e d i n d e p e n d e n c e , freedom, r e d e m p t i o n , liberation, revolution,
a n d progress, postcolonial discourses are increasingly critical of t h e
neocolonialist g o v e r n m e n t s a n d societies t h a t e m e r g e d . Civil society
c o n t i n u e s to b e n o n p a r t i s a n if n o t completely apolitical a n d deeply skep
tical of calls for "democracy" and "freedom," especially w h e n t h e y e m a n a t e
from powerful, militaristic forces.
T h e n e e d for r e n e w e d forms of pastoral counseling t h a t e m b o d y values
of c o m m u n a l as well as p e r s o n a l well-being is clear. T h e characteristics of
s u c h n e w forms of pastoral counseling are c o n t a i n e d in a description of
pastoral care I first w r o t e in 1993 a n d revised slightly in 2003. T h e descrip
tion is as follows:
Pastoral care consists of helping activities, participated in by people who

recognize a transcendent dimension to human life, which, by the use of verbal
and non-verbal, direct or indirect, literal or symbolic modes of communication
aim at preventing stress, relieving anxiety or facilitating persons coping with
anxieties. Pastoral care seeks to foster people's growth as full human beings
together with the development of ecologically and socio-politically holistic
1
communities in which all persons may live humane lives.
In m y view, pastoral counseling, w h i c h in e s s e n c e involves intensive

p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c a n d theological a t t e n t i o n to individuals a n d small
groups, n e e d s t o b e set w i t h i n a framework of s u c h pastoral care. Pastoral
counseling can b e c o m p a r e d to surgical intervention, while pastoral care
functions as c o m m u n i t y healthcare. Pastoral counseling is a n intensifying
a n d focusing of t h e general skills a n d aims of pastoral care u p o n an indi
vidual or small g r o u p of persons-in-relation. Pastoral counseling, t h e n ,
n e e d s to b e related to t h e w i d e r ministry of pastoral care as framework a n d
context. Pastoral c o u n s e l i n g is p r e m i s e d u p o n a recognition of transcen-

d e n c e , w h i c h is a way of affirming t h a t it has t o d o w i t h spirituality, signifi

cance, structures of m e a n i n g , a n d faith. In exploring this further it is
instructive to pay a t t e n t i o n to different ways in w h i c h t h e adjective pastoral
is u s e d to qualify a n d illuminate t h e n a t u r e of t h e counseling t h a t is o n
offer t h r o u g h pastoral counseling.
In spite of protests from practitioners a n d teachers, by far t h e m o s t
c o m m o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t s e e m s to b e evoked by t h e expression is t h a t
it is counseling of or by o r d a i n e d clergypersons. H e r e pastoral counseling
m e a n s counseling of pastors or, simply put, talking w i t h pastors to h e l p
t h e m w i t h their p r o b l e m s . Along similar lines it is u n d e r s t o o d as coun
seling by pastors, or pastors talking w i t h p e r s o n s a b o u t their personal,
family, or relational p r o b l e m s . H o w a r d Clinebell describes pastoral coun
seling as "the utilization by clergy of counseling a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c
m e t h o d s to enable individuals, couples a n d families to h a n d l e their
2
p e r s o n a l crises a n d p r o b l e m s in living constructively." In this way of
u n d e r s t a n d i n g pastoral counseling, t h e focus is o n t h e o n e w h o receives or
else gives t h e counseling, namely, t h e pastor. This "clerical" p a r a d i g m
c o n t i n u e s to shape t h e practice of pastoral counseling in m a n y places.
Such pastoral counseling takes religious issues seriously. Exploring a n d
analyzing faith development, taking religious histories, a n d gauging theolog
ical acuity are important features of it. For s o m e pastoral counselors, reli
gious verbiage indicates t h e pathological or transferential material that is t h e
focus of therapeutic work. That is to say, religion has a place in t h e transfer
e n c e a n d countertransference b e t w e e n counselor a n d client, t h e exploration
of which is crucial for effective therapy, For others, faith-talk, w h e n properly
and directly attended to, can help t h e therapeutic process move forward in
helpful ways. In either case, t h o u g h in very different ways, issues of faith are
n o t dismissed. Instead, there is a serious e n g a g e m e n t and attempt to inte
grate theology with psychology, b o t h in diagnosis a n d in treatment.
However, religion n o t only is notoriously difficult t o define b u t also
h a r d to categorize. As such, s o m e w h o wish to retain t h e designation
pastoral counseling as d e m a r c a t i n g a religious interest seek t o include w i t h i n
it a n y m a t t e r s of faith or ultimate c o n c e r n a n d n o t merely religious affilia
3
t i o n . This a p p r o a c h seeks to address t h e fact t h a t m a n y w h o "believe d o
4
n o t belong" to any religious c o m m u n i t y . Moreover, various participants in
c o m m u n i t i e s of faith hold w h a t m a y b e described as u n c o n v e n t i o n a l or
u n o r t h o d o x beliefs. Pastoral counseling o n t h e s e t e r m s w o u l d include any
WINTER 2005 369

a n d all m a t t e r s of faith a n d ultimate c o n c e r n , o r "spirituality," however

defined or described. In general, t h e clerical p a r a d i g m has b e e n criticized
as being overly individualistic a n d n o t sufficiently in t u n e w i t h t h e plurifor-
mity a n d unofficial n a t u r e of m u c h pastoral counseling.
A n o t h e r way of looking at pastoral counseling is t o see it as arising o u t
of a n d o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n a c o m m u n i t y of faith. In this view, pastoral coun
seling is c o m m u n i t y counseling t h a t is engaged in, by, a n d w i t h i n c o m m u
nity. T h e w h o l e c o m m u n i t y is t h e c o u n s e l o r a n d individual counselors see
themselves as representatives of t h e c o m m u n i t y . H e r e t e a m w o r k a n d
collaboration are vital. Different p e r s o n s have different forms of expertise
w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y , a n d t h e y offer t h e s e skills in c o n c e r t a n d w i t h
consultation. A great e x a m p l e of this from M e t h o d i s t practice is t h e "class
meeting," w h i c h was a n d r e m a i n s a significant hallmark of M e t h o d i s t faith
a n d practice. In fact, for Wesley, m e m b e r s h i p of t h e M e t h o d i s t society was
t o b e established by o n e ' s n a m e b e i n g p r e s e n t in a c u r r e n t class b o o k .
Class m e e t i n g s c a p t u r e crucial e l e m e n t s of early c h u r c h Christianity, s u c h
as p e r s o n a l g r o w t h t h r o u g h a n d w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of loving fellowship,
accountability for Christian stewardship a n d discipleship, "bear[ing] o n e
a n o t h e r ' s b u r d e n s " (Gal. 6:2), a n d "speaking t h e t r u t h in love" (Eph. 4:15).
Wesley m a d e t h e s e c o m m u n a l g r o u p s t h e t o u c h s t o n e of faithful service,
a n d t h e y b e c a m e t h e v e n u e s of m u c h n u r t u r e a n d pastoral counseling
within t h e M e t h o d i s t s c h e m e , Class meetings, t h e n , w i t h faithful leader
ship a n d c o m m i t t e d m e m b e r s h i p , are examples of pastoral counseling
within c o m m u n i t i e s of faith. Recapturing t h e spirit of c o m m u n i t y w i t h i n
t h e practice of pastoral counseling, as early M e t h o d i s m did, is a c o n t e m p o
5
rary challenge well w o r t h a t t e n d i n g t o .
Faithful through Liminality and Uncertainty

Two o t h e r a p p r o a c h e s to pastoral counseling s e e m to m e t o offer m u c h of
value to faithful practice in t h e m i d s t of t h e liminality, uncertainty, a n d
multiplicity of o u r times.
In t h e first a p p r o a c h pastoral counseling is envisaged a n d practiced as
counseling for t h e w h o l e person-in-community. T h e p a s s i o n of pastoral
counselors w h o envision their practice in t h e s e t e r m s is for w h a t I call
"relational holism." T h e aim of their charge is n o t t h e isolated, tough, self-
directed, self-regulated individual of E n l i g h t e n m e n t rationalism b u t r a t h e r
emotionally intelligent p e r s o n s w h o are in t o u c h w i t h themselves, relate

effectively a n d compassionately w i t h others, a n d seek t h e well-being of

w h o l e c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e genius is learning to relate well w i t h self a n d
o t h e r s . These counselors d o n o t w o r k in isolation. T h e y respectfully engage
t h e expertise and practice of o t h e r healthcare professionals a n d e x p e c t also
in t h e s e t e a m s to b e t r e a t e d in t h e s a m e way. M a t t e r s of faith a n d belief are
i m p o r t a n t to t h e m n o t as impositions from w i t h o u t b u t as e m a n a t i o n s
from w i t h i n p e r s o n s in relation w i t h a self-giving a n d responsive G o d .
Matters of faith are n o t solely t h e preserve of active participants in c o m m u
nities of faith. W h o e v e r wishes to p o n d e r their life c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h r o u g h
lenses of significance m a y find help a n d s u p p o r t from pastoral counselors.
T h e desire is to h e l p p e r s o n s find internal a n d i n t e r p e r s o n a l w h o l e n e s s . In
this day a n d age m a n y p e o p l e seek this w h o l e n e s s b u t d o n o t find it
b e c a u s e almost e v e r y o n e is trying to sell t h e m a p r o d u c t w i t h their o w n
s t a m p o n it. Pastoral counseling t h a t aims at p r o m o t i n g relational holism
e s c h e w s a n y attempts to m a k e p e o p l e after o u r o w n image. Rather, t h e
skills acquired by t h e counselor e n a b l e h e r or h i m to a c c o m p a n y p e r s o n s
o n their o w n j o u r n e y s in q u e s t of p e r s o n a l w h o l e n e s s .
H e r e a n i m p o r t a n t distinction b e t w e e n "individual" a n d "person" m a y

b e helpful. T h e t e r m individual derives from t h e idea t h a t t h e r e exists a
unit-of-life s u b s t a n c e (e.g., t h e atom) t h a t c a n n o t b e subdivided. In society,
t h e individual is t h a t unitthe smallest unit of society. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
t h e m e a n i n g of person derives from relationship. T h e Z u l u saying "A p e r s o n
is a p e r s o n by reason of o t h e r p e r s o n s " captures this s e n s e beautifully, We
b e c o m e p e r s o n s from before t h e time of o u r b i r t h t h r o u g h an interactive
process w i t h o t h e r p e r s o n s . N o o n e achieves holistic d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h o u t
t h e challenges a n d joys of i n t e r p e r s o n a l interaction. A s such, unlike indi
vidual, person is a relational term. M a n y pastoral c o u n s e l o r s have found a
c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e p s y c h o d y n a m i c Object Relations Theories, t h e socially
engaged t h e o r i e s of Family Systems therapies, a n d t h e sociohistorical ideas
of Narrative Therapy useful in r e s p o n d i n g to realities a n d challenges of o u r
social n a t u r e as p e r s o n s .
Pastoral counseling that aims at facilitating t h e g r o w t h of w h o l e
c o m m u n i t i e s d o e s so t h r o u g h j o u r n e y i n g w i t h p e r s o n s as t h e y navigate t h e
d e e p waters of internalized oppression, societal devaluing, a n d cultural
denigration. Pastoral counseling in quest of relational holism develops o u t
of m o d e l s of illness, disease, a n d deprivation b u t also draws from t h e wells
of w i s d o m , strength, a n d courage found in c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t have under-
WINTER 2005 371

g o n e t r a u m a a n d hardship. W h o l e n e s s a n d holiness go together. For Wesley,

holiness is a social concept, n o t merely a narrowly individual achievement.
A n i m p o r t a n t shift is taking place in psychotherapeutic a n d psychological
studies from an exclusive focus o n pathology to m o r e s t u d y of h u m a n
strengths a n d virtues. In t h e end, t h e r e n e e d s to b e m o r e balance so t h a t w e
benefit from both. As Daniel Schipani has argued, "As providers of a special
form of pastoral care, pastoral counselors are primarily c o n c e r n e d w i t h
helping people live m o r e wisely in t h e light of G o d as t h e y face life chal
6
lenges and struggles."
In G r e a t Britain t h e r e is a decidedly secular usage of t h e t e r m pastoral
counseling, w h i c h m a y s e e m strange b u t w h i c h offers m u c h in t h e climate
w e have b e e n describing. T h e t e r m is u s e d w i t h i n educational circles.
Pastoral C a r e as used in schools in Britain a t t e n d s to four d i m e n s i o n s of
s t u d e n t s ' lives:
Discipline a n d o r d e r
Welfare a n d p e r s o n a l well-being
Curriculum and academic achievement
Administration a n d organization
T h o u g h it m a y deal w i t h "spirituality," pastoral care in this setting has
n o t h i n g overtly to d o w i t h religion or religious belief. Teachers, tutors, guid
a n c e a n d career counselors, a c a d e m i c advisors, a n d supervisors, all have,
a m o n g o t h e r things, a "pastoral" responsibility toward their s t u d e n t s . It is
significant t h a t t h e t e r m pastoral has b e e n retained, allowing it to b e
reframed s o t h a t its essential functional referent is b r o u g h t out. Pastoral
refers n o t so m u c h to "who is d o i n g it" b u t t o "what is d o n e a n d how." O n
this view, pastoral counseling is counseling t h a t p r o m o t e s or enables well-
being, g o o d order, disciplined living, a n d achieving of potential in a well-
structured e n v i r o n m e n t .
There is s o m e t h i n g of d e e p theological, contextual, a n d operational
significance in t h e s e last t w o a p p r o a c h e s t o pastoral counseling t h a t I w a n t
t o explore further.
First, t h e c o n c e r n s of pastoral counseling n e e d n o t b e narrowly
parochial. In this day a n d age, pastoral counseling n e e d s to rise above
b e i n g merely an i n n e r dialogue b e t w e e n p e r s o n s of t h e s a m e faith or
a t t e m p t s to recruit along faith lines. A n y o n e , regardless of religious tradi
t i o n or t h e lack of it, s h o u l d find s o m e benefit from t h e careful, thoughtful,
practice of pastoral counseling. This m e a n s t h a t pastoral counselors n e e d a

multifaith o r i e n t a t i o n t h a t is familiar w i t h different faiths in a n o n t h r e a t -

ening, nondefensive m a n n e r . Pastoral counselors n e e d t o b e able to b e
respectful of all faiths n o m a t t e r h o w different t h e y m a y b e . A story is told
of a zealous M e t h o d i s t dragging a y o u n g lady to Mr. Wesley for w e a r i n g
bracelets a n d o t h e r fine jewelry o n h e r h a n d s . H i s e x p e c t a t i o n was t h a t
Wesley, k n o w n for his fiery p r e a c h i n g against excessive self-decoration a n d
flowery a d o r n m e n t s , w o u l d have a w o r d of c e n s u r e for this w o m a n . We are
told t h a t Wesley looked d o w n from his h o r s e at t h e y o u n g lady a n d
observed, "What beautiful h a n d s you have!"
Second, pastoral counseling in this context lends itself b o t h to t h e
sacred, or religious, a n d t h e s e c u l a r - t h e u n e x p e c t e d l y sacred as well as t h e
"holy" secular. Pastoral counseling in t h e c u r r e n t e n v i r o n m e n t n e e d s to b e at
h o m e w i t h and recognize t r a n s c e n d e n c e in various forms. A n age of multi
plicity n e e d s the flexibility of a faith that recognizes G o d in u n e x p e c t e d
spaces a n d places. Taking faith seriously requires attention to theology a n d
h o w it has developed in particular people's experience. It also m e a n s atten
tion to unconventional a n d u n c h a r t e d forms of religious experienceand
secular experience t h a t is invested w i t h sacred value. The expertise t h a t
pastoral counselors bring will b e that of exploring t h e significance of
conscious and u n c o n s c i o u s ideas, images, a n d relationships. These will
include overtly religious symbols as well as nonreligious a n d secular o n e s .
Third, t h e forms of pastoral counseling that will b e relevant in o u r
c u r r e n t context will m a k e respectful dialogue w i t h a n d b e t w e e n a w i d e
range of religious a n d nonreligious p e r s o n s possible. I have gained m u c h
t h r o u g h studying a n d living closely with p e r s o n s of Islamic faith. T h e
w i s d o m of mystics like Khalil Gibran, R a b i n d r a n a t h Tagore, a n d t h e Dalai
Lama, a m o n g others, have illuminated m y o w n j o u r n e y as well as t h o s e of
m a n y o t h e r Christians. In t h e q u e s t for wise living, w e m u s t acknowledge
that p e r s o n s from m a n y different religious faiths have m a d e very significant
contributions. A rich a n d b r o a d literature of t h e w i s d o m of t h e ages d r a w n
from m a n y different religious faiths could enrich t h e t h e o r y and practice of
pastoral counseling, if t h e practitioners could rise above exclusive w e d d e d -
n e s s t o particular psychologies, theologies, a n d traditions. Pastoral coun
seling n e e d s an interfaith o r i e n t a t i o n of respect a n d interaction.
It is instructive t h a t t h e G o s p e l s p o r t r a y Jesus as h a v i n g m u c h to say in
c o m m e n d a t i o n of t h e faith of non-Jews, even of d e s p i s e d Samaritans a n d
R o m a n s (e.g., t h e C a n a a n i t e w o m a n in Matt. 15:21-28; t h e R o m a n c e n t u r i o n
WINTER 2005 373

in Luke 7:1-10; t h e Samaritan leper in Luke 17:11-19, w h o was t h e only o n e

of t h e t e n w h o r e t u r n e d t h a n k s for his healing). Jesus' s h a r p e s t r e b u k e s
were reserved for t h o s e of his o w n faith (the Scribes a n d Pharisees) w h o
refused to recognize G o d o u t s i d e of their o w n n a r r o w s c h e m e s .
Fourth, pastoral counseling n o w m u s t c o n t i n u e to emphasize relation-
ality above t e c h n i q u e and belief. A l o n g w i t h a theological rediscovery of t h e
richness of t h e d o c t r i n e of t h e Trinity has b e e n a realization t h a t a m o r e
a d e q u a t e way of talking of t h e "Persons" of t h e G o d h e a d is to talk of "rela
tions." G o d t h e Blessed Trinity is a m o v e m e n t of relations that interpene
trate and interact within a n d a m o n g each other. T h e language of relations is
very dear to t h e h e a r t of pastoral counselors b e c a u s e so m u c h of o u r prac
tice has to d o with exploring t h e impact of past a n d p r e s e n t significant rela
tionships u p o n o u r emotional a n d psychological health a n d well-being
today. There is t h u s m u c h to b e gained by exploring w h a t is m e a n t by rela
tions within G o d for learning a b o u t relations a m o n g a n d within h u m a n
beings created in t h e image of G o d . A hallmark of pastoral counseling in
o u r n e w circumstances today m u s t b e a d e e p e r and m o r e thoughtful theo
logical analysis. Pastoral counseling c a n n o t a n d m u s t n o t merely be a sprin
kling of a psychological baby with cold theological water or t h e overlaying
of a thin veneer of shallow theology u p o n a psychological product.
Fifth, pastoral counseling n o w has to b e o r i e n t e d toward a balance
b e t w e e n a "disease" m o d e l a n d a "health a n d strength" model. So m u c h of
t h e discipline of pastoral counseling has followed t h e disease m o d e l
e m b e d d e d in medical practice. A s w i t h psychology t h e m a i n interest has
b e e n in diagnosis a n d t r e a t m e n t of pathology. While this has clearly b e e n
valuable a n d will c o n t i n u e to b e so, t h e r e is growing recognition of t h e
i m p o r t a n c e of t h e m o r e "positive psychology" t h a t studies strength, virtue,
a n d ability. T h e cultivation of virtues a n d s t r e n g t h s has long b e e n a practice
associated w i t h spiritual direction. Spirituality has t e n d e d in t h e direction
of t h e practices t h a t e m p o w e r a n d e n h a n c e s t r e n g t h e n e d relations w i t h t h e
divine. As Len S p e r r y has argued in Transforming Self and Community, m u c h
of value could result from a n integrative a p p r o a c h t h a t draws t o g e t h e r t h e
7
practices of spiritual direction, moral education, a n d pastoral counseling.
Sixth, pastoral counseling as a r g u e d above increasingly draws u p o n a
rich and varied theological heritage. Pastoral counseling n e e d s to b e t h e o
logically astute in a t t e m p t i n g consciously a n d u n c o n s c i o u s l y to mirror
G o d ' s p r e s e n c e in t h e world, which is framed in Christian u n d e r s t a n d i n g

E M M A N U E L Y, LARTEY
as self-giving (kenotic), self-effacing, u n o b t r u s i v e , n o n t h r e a t e n i n g , a n d life-

giving. "Secular" pastoral counseling in particular holds potential for s u c h
mirroring. In recognition of t h e G o d w h o , t h o u g h self-disclosing, invites all
h u m a n s t o "search for G o d a n d p e r h a p s g r o p e for h i m a n d find him
t h o u g h i n d e e d he is n o t far from each o n e of us" (Acts 17:27), pastoral
counseling may by its very practice engage in such invitational practice.
G o d ' s p r e s e n c e in t h e world is subtle a n d often u n r e c o g n i z e d or inade
quately celebrated. Similarly, t h e m o s t effective forms of care a n d coun
seling are u n a n n o u n c e d . It s e e m s to b e t h e way of t h e Holy Spirit to w o o
a n d lure rather t h a n to o v e r w h e l m a n d compel. T h e G o d "in [ w h o m ] w e
live a n d move and have o u r being" (Acts 17:28) d o e s n o t s e e m a n x i o u s to
constantly make her p r e s e n c e felt overtly. In Christ G o d gives G o d ' s self to
h u m a n i t y in faith a n d trust t h a t t h e divine self-giving will eventually b e
discovered. Pastoral counseling mirrors s u c h self-giving love.
Seventh, n o w m o r e t h a n ever pastoral counseling n e e d s to take
p e r s o n s a n d contexts seriously. As w e learn just h o w m u c h w e are
i m p a c t e d by t h e contexts in w h i c h we live a n d grow, we recognize t h e
n e e d for pastoral counselors to b e cultural analysts if o u r practice is to b e
of a n y significance for t h e p e r s o n s a n d c o m m u n i t i e s in w h i c h w e practice,
It is as pastoral counselors b e c o m e aware of a n d sensitive t o t h e c h a n g i n g
cultural circumstances at w o r k within a n d a r o u n d o u r clients t h a t w e
b e c o m e b e t t e r able to b e authentically p r e s e n t w i t h t h e m . T h e world, as it
were, is closing in o n us in t h e global village. As t h e West has influenced
o t h e r s w i t h language a n d cultural products, so are w e n o w subject t o t h e
influences t h a t exist and arise from different regions of t h e world.
Potentially w e are h u m a n i z e d by e m p a t h i c relations w i t h all h u m a n k i n d ,
n o m a t t e r h o w different culturally a n d ethnically. As it was for Wesley, t h e
world i n d e e d is o u r parish, w h e r e we b o t h teach a n d learn.
Emmanuel Y. Lartey is Professor of Pastoral Theology, Care, and Counseling at

Candler School of Theology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.
Endnotes
1. Emmanuel Y. Lartey, In Living Color: An Intercultural Approach to Pastoral Care
and Counseling (London & N e w York: Jessica Kingsley Press, 2003), 30-31.
2. Howard Clinebell, "Pastoral Counselling," in A Dictionary of Pastoral Care, ed.
WINTER 2005 375

Alastair V. Campbell (London: SPCK, 1987), 198.

3. See, for e x a m p l e , J. F o s k e t t a n d M. J a c o b s , "Pastoral Counselling," in
Handbook of Counseling in Britain, ed. by W i n d y D r y d e n , et. al. (London:
Tavistock/Routledge, 1989).
4. G r a c e Davie, Religion in Britain since 1945: Believing without Belonging
(Oxford: Blackwell, 1994); G o r d o n Lynch, After Religion: Generation X and the
Search for Meaning (London: Darton, Longman, and Todd, 2002).
5. See Michael D. Henderson, John Wesley's Class Meeting: A Model for Making
Disciples (Nappanee, Indiana: Francis Asbury Press, 1997).
6. D a n i e l S. Schipani, The Way of Wisdom in Pastoral Counseling (Elkhart,
Indiana: Institute of Mennonite Studies, 2003), 29.
7. Len Sperry, Transforming Self and Community: Revisioning Pastoral Counseling
and Spiritual Direction (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 2002).

Professional Pastoral Counseling in
the United Methodist Mode
M I C H A E L D. P O T T S
A discussion of professional pastoral counseling in t h e United M e t h o d i s t

m o d e n e e d s to begin w i t h an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e biblical a n d histor
ical context o u t of which pastoral care a n d pastoral counseling as we have
c o m e to k n o w t h e m have evolved. T h e Dictionary of Pastoral Care and
Counseling defines pastoral care as "the ministry of oversight and n u r t u r e
offered by a religious c o m m u n i t y to its m e m b e r s , including acts of disci
pline, support, comfort a n d celebration." Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g (upper case P,
u p p e r case C) is defined as "a specialized type of pastoral care offered in
1
r e s p o n s e to individuals, couples or families." For p u r p o s e s of this article,
Pastoral Counseling is defined as a particular type of pastoral care offered
by t h e c o m m u n i t y of faith t h r o u g h designated p e r s o n s to a specific s e g m e n t
of t h e community.
Pastoral Care and Counseling in Historical Perspective

The biblical m a n d a t e to care for o n e a n o t h e r as a ministry of oversight a n d
n u r t u r e derives from t h e H e b r e w Scriptures a n d reflects t h e Semitic tradi
tion to care for t h e stranger by treating t h e other as o n e would w a n t to b e
treated. For Israel, failing to care for t h e stranger, t h e widow, t h e orphan, or
t h e p o o r was considered a violation of b o t h societal expectations a n d Israel's
covenant w i t h Yahweh, t h u s forfeiting a n essential quality of their unique
ness as G o d ' s chosen people. Israel m u s t k n o w t h a t their G o d is "Lord of
lords . . . w h o executes justice for the o r p h a n and t h e widow, a n d w h o loves
t h e strangers" (Deut. 10:17-18). M o r e t h a n an act of altruistic reciprocity,
showing love and mercy to t h e other was part of w h a t it m e a n s to b e t h e
C h o s e n People, w h o care for t h o s e w h o suffer. In fact, for t h e prophets, o n e
of t h e reasons for Israel's suffering was t h e loss of their u n i q u e identity,
s h o w n by their selfishness a n d their reluctance to care for o n e another.
T h e love a n d care t h a t G o d required was t h e kind of love a n d care t h a t
G o d provided for t h e p e o p l e of Israel from t h e b e g i n n i n g of time. T h e

VOLUME 25, NUMBER 4. WINTER 2005
PROFESSIONAL PASTORAL C O U N S E L I N G IN THE U N I T E D METHODIST M O D E
psalmist likens this divine caring to a g o o d s h e p h e r d w h o cares for his

flock (Psalm 23). T h e adjective pastoral in pastoral counseling derives from
this m e t a p h o r of a s h e p h e r d caring for his flock.
In t h e H e b r e w Bible, pastoral care is s e e n as a m a n d a t e from G o d t o
t h e p e o p l e of G o d to b e like g o o d s h e p h e r d s t o t h e stranger a n d t h e less
fortunate in t h e s a m e way t h a t G o d s h e p h e r d s Israel. This is part of t h e
c o v e n a n t b e t w e e n G o d a n d t h e p e o p l e a n d is a characteristic of w h a t it
m e a n s t o b e G o d ' s p e o p l e . Failure to care b r e a k s t h e c o v e n a n t a n d nega
tive c o n s e q u e n c e s follow.
T h e N e w T e s t a m e n t perspective o n pastoral care is b o t h t r a n s c e n d e n t
a n d incarnational. T h e N e w T e s t a m e n t c o n t i n u e s Old T e s t a m e n t n o t i o n s
t h a t caring, or love (agape), originates from G o d a n d t h a t t o love a n o t h e r is
of G o d . T h e J o h a n n i n e c o r p u s states r e p e a t e d l y t h a t w e s h o u l d love o n e
a n o t h e r as G o d has loved us. "Beloved, since G o d loved us so much, w e
also o u g h t t o love o n e a n o t h e r [I]f w e love o n e another, G o d lives in us,
a n d his love is perfected in us" (1 J o h n 4:11-12). For t h e Apostle Paul, this
love is t r a n s c e n d e n t , calling us n o t only to love t h o s e in o u r o w n c o m m u n i
ties b u t also, like Christ, t o b e willing to e n t e r into t h e suffering of all w h o
"are w e a r y a n d are carrying heavy b u r d e n s " (Matt. 11:28).
Pastoral care in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t is incarnational in t h a t h u m a n
suffering a n d e v e n d e a t h are s e e n n o t as G o d ' s p u n i s h m e n t or a b a n d o n
m e n t of h u m a n beings b u t as t h e c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r of t h e h u m a n
c o n d i t i o n into w h i c h G o d in Christ e n t e r e d as a willing act of c o m p a s s i o n
t o r e d e e m t h e world a n d its suffering. Thus, Paul could exclaim,
Who will separate us from the love of Christ? Will hardship, or distress, or perse
cution, or famine, or nakedness, or sword?... No, in all these things we are more
than conquerors through him who loved us. For I am convinced that neither
death, nor life, nor angels, nor rulers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor
powers, nor height, nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to
separate us from the love of God in Christ Jesus our Lord. (Rom. 8:35,37-39)
T h e N e w T e s t a m e n t provides a further d i m e n s i o n to w h a t it m e a n s t o
care from a "pastoral" perspective. O n e m u s t b e in a p o s i t i o n of oversight
o r leadership w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y in o r d e r t o offer care a n d c o u n s e l
from a pastoral perspective. Jesus d e s c r i b e d himself as t h e G o o d S h e p h e r d
(John 10:11-18). T h e resurrected Jesus instructs Peter to "feed m y s h e e p "

MICHAEL D. POTTS
(John 21:17). Since a s h e p h e r d is n o t o n e of t h e s h e e p , t h e s e instructions

imply t h a t Jesus has set a p a r t Peter a n d given h i m t h e responsibility a n d
a u t h o r i t y for oversight a n d n u r t u r e .
This s a m e act of intentionally setting a p a r t certain leaders for pastoral
care is evident in Acts 6. H e r e t h e c o m m u n i t y sets a p a r t S t e p h e n a n d
o t h e r s to oversee t h e daily distribution of food t o t h e widows. They w e r e to
b e "of g o o d standing, full of t h e Spirit a n d of w i s d o m " (Acts 6:3). Clearly,
caring for o t h e r s in n e e d h a d b e c o m e an accepted a n d expected function
of t h e c o m m u n i t y of faith. Leaders w e r e t o b e set a p a r t for overseeing t h e
care a n d e n s u r i n g t h a t it was d o n e in an intentionally pastoral m a n n e r .
A n o t h e r implication from Jesus' injunction to Peter a n d t h e disciples is
t h a t pastoral care requires intentionality. It was u n d e r s t o o d t h a t all
b a p t i z e d Christians are b r o u g h t into t h e suffering a n d resurrection of Jesus
Christ a n d are t h e r e b y to b e caring toward o t h e r s as Jesus himself was.
M e m b e r s of t h e c o m m u n i t y are expected to engage in everyday acts of
k i n d n e s s a n d caring. However, caring from a pastoral perspective requires
an additional intentionality a n d willingness to e n t e r into t h e suffering of
a n o t h e r for t h e sake a n d well-being of t h e o t h e r by s o m e o n e w h o repre
s e n t s t h e c o m m u n i t y of faith as well as t h e p r e s e n c e of Christ. Pastoral care
is m o r e t h a n acts of k i n d n e s s or sharing in t h e c o m m o n suffering of others.
It is a willingness to e n t e r into t h e suffering of a n o t h e r w i t h t h e s a m e
intentionality as t h a t of Jesus. F u r t h e r m o r e , it is to e n t e r into t h e sufferings
of o t h e r s from t h e perspective of a s h e p h e r d of t h e flock w h o has b e e n
given a position of leadership by t h e c o m m u n i t y of faith.
By t h e third century, t h e c h u r c h h a d b e c o m e m o r e centralized a n d
pastoral care fell m o r e a n d m o r e to t h e clergy. "Pastoral ministry was dele
gated by t h e b i s h o p to d e a c o n s , and, subsequently, to presbyters, w h o s e
task b e c a m e that of g a t h e r i n g t h e flock, k e e p i n g it unified, a n d protecting
2
its m e m b e r s from threat." D u r i n g t h e next several centuries, t h e church
assimilated t h e prevailing culture a n d increasingly b e c a m e m o r e diverse in
its m e m b e r s h i p . C o n c e r n for clarity, orthodoxy, a n d right t h i n k i n g b e c a m e
t h e focus of t h e church. Pastoral care b e c a m e largely instructional a n d
didactic. Caring from a pastoral perspective c a m e to include teaching or
"counseling" o t h e r s in right religious practices a n d guiding t h e m in right
m o r a l behavior.
O v e r t h e centuries, t h e function of pastoral care a n d counseling in t h e
life of t h e church b e c a m e k n o w n as cura animarium, or "cure/care of t h e
WINTER 2003 379

soul." The p h r a s e care of the soul s u m s u p t h e work of t h e office of t h e priest,

which includes leading worship, preaching, visiting, a n d organizing parish
life. All acts of ministry (including pastoral care a n d counseling) have as
3
their ultimate aim t h e salvation a n d perfection of p e r s o n s u n d e r G o d .
The Reformation b e g a n as a pastoral-care m o v e m e n t in r e s p o n s e t o t h e
overly didactic rigidity of t h e medieval R o m a n C h u r c h . Influenced by b o t h
t h e h u m a n i s m of t h e Renaissance a n d his internal struggle w i t h his o w n
righteousness, M a r t i n L u t h e r was d i s t u r b e d by t h e excesses h e experi
e n c e d o n a trip t o Rome. His identification w i t h a n d c o m p a s s i o n for t h e
p o o r a n d disenfranchised m o v e d h i m t o p e n his famous Ninety-Five
Theses. For Luther, salvation is n o t a result of right t h i n k i n g or religious
practices. Rather, Christ b e c o m e s p r e s e n t t o us in a n d t h r o u g h t h e relation
ships constituting t h e c o m m u n i t y of faitha view t h a t is close to t h e rela
tional n o t i o n of pastoral care found in t h e N e w Testament. J o h n McNeill
n o t e s t h a t t h e G e r m a n Reformation h a d its b e g i n n i n g in "matters
4
c o n c e r n i n g t h e cure of souls." I n d e e d , it is from t h e L u t h e r a n tradition
t h a t we have retained t h e w o r d pastor as descriptive of t h e clergy.
Like Luther, J o h n Calvin b e g a n w i t h a profound c o n c e r n for t h e
people. H e o p e n s his magisterial Institutes of the Christian Religion w i t h
5
t h e s e words: "Without k n o w l e d g e of self t h e r e is n o k n o w l e d g e of God."
While s h a r i n g L u t h e r ' s relational perspective o n salvation, Calvin
a p p r o a c h e s pastoral care a n d counseling m o r e in t h e traditional way of
"cure of t h e soul," in w h i c h right t h i n k i n g a n d practice w e r e codified as
d o c t r i n e a n d practices n e c e s s a r y t o salvation.
The Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Counseling s u m m a r i z e s t h e influ
e n c e s of t h e Reformation o n pastoral care a n d counseling as follows:
The confessional as institution was abandoned and the pastor emerged as a

central figure. However, the pastor's ordination did not set him apart (as it did
for the Roman Catholic priest). A married clergyman emphasized his identifi
cation at every point with his people. Moreover, though the primary acts of
care were preaching and the communion, the message of reconciliation
symbolized in these events was felt to be central to the life of the entire
community. Pastors and laypersons alike were mutually to comfort, correct,
6
and sustain each other.
Thus, over t h e centuries, t h e biblical m a n d a t e to care for o n e a n o t h e r

MICHAEL D. POITS
b e c a m e w h a t we today call "pastoral care a n d counseling." This s a m e prac

tice also has d e e p roots in M e t h o d i s m , b e g i n n i n g w i t h J o h n Wesley.
It could b e said t h a t J o h n Wesley was t o t h e Anglican C h u r c h of his
time w h a t Martin L u t h e r was to t h e R o m a n Catholic C h u r c h of t h e
sixteenth century. Both L u t h e r a n d Wesley were driven by their o w n
search for holiness a n d w e r e sensitized to t h e suffering of o t h e r s t h r o u g h
their o w n experiences of suffering. N e i t h e r s o u g h t to start a n e w church;
t h e y strove only t o b e faithful to G o d a n d to care for t h e n e e d s of G o d ' s
p e o p l e . In this sense, t h e M e t h o d i s t m o v e m e n t , m u c h like Luther's, b e g a n
as a pastoral-care c o n c e r n for t h e p o o r a n d disenfranchised, motivated o u t
of c o m p a s s i o n b o r n of pain.
To u n d e r s t a n d w h a t Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g in t h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t
m o d e might look like, it helps to start w i t h J o h n Wesley's life e x p e r i e n c e
a n d his role in t h e e m e r g i n g M e t h o d i s t m o v e m e n t in England. In John
Wesley and the Methodists, Cyril Davey r e c o u n t s a n event in t h e life of t h e
y o u n g Wesley t h a t was pivotal to his self-understanding a n d his a p p r o a c h
to ministry, including his practice of pastoral care.
When he was five there was a near-tragedy. The rectory caught fire and, though
the rest of the family managed to escape, John was unable to get down the
burning staircase from the top storey. He dragged a chair to the window,
climbed on it, called for help and waited calmly until he was lifted down. For
once his mother's austerity broke down, as they all prayed thankfully together
in the farmyard. Turning to Scripture for the right phrase, she thanked God for
the "brand plucked from the burning" and assured the small boy that God had
7
saved him "for a purpose."
This was arguably a transforming event for J o h n Wesley. T h r o u g h o u t

his life Wesley had a passionalmost an obsessionto m a k e t h e m o s t of his
life as G o d i n t e n d e d . At t h e s a m e time, he h a d compassion, b o r n of his
o w n pain, for t h o s e w h o suffered. We k n o w t h a t p e o p l e w h o have g o n e
t h r o u g h traumatic, life-threatening e x p e r i e n c e s have an u r g e n c y a b o u t
their lives. O n t h e o n e side, t h e y b e c o m e m o r e focused a n d intentional
a b o u t t h e direction of their lives, m a n y t i m e s to t h e p o i n t of b e i n g obses
sive. O n t h e o t h e r side, this kind of e x p e r i e n c e can lead to identification
w i t h t h o s e w h o suffer.
Wesley's c o n c e r n a n d c o m p a s s i o n for t h e disenfranchised, t h e poor,
WINTER 2005 381

t h e sick, a n d t h e prisoner, while at t h e s a m e time seeking after holiness,

can b e s e e n in his involvement w i t h t h e H o l y C l u b d u r i n g his days at
Oxford. Wesley regularly m e t w i t h a g r o u p of like-minded friends for Bible
study, b u t t h e g r o u p also visited t h e poor, cared for t h e sick, organized
classes for p o o r children, visited prisons, a n d s t o o d w i t h t h e criminals
when they were hanged.
From t h e beginning, then, Wesley saw that t h e pursuit of t h e holy life
required a c o m m u n i t y that would offer support, accountability, and a space
for self-reflection. It was here that h e first learned w h a t would later b e c o m e
o n e of t h e principal qualities of Pastoral Counseling in t h e United M e t h o d i s t
m o d e , namely, a c o m m u n i t y of faith found in small g r o u p s dedicated to
seeking holiness.
J o h n Wesley's genius lies in his u n i q u e c o m b i n a t i o n of passion,
compassion, a n d pragmatism. His passion for holiness a n d his pastoral
c o m p a s s i o n for o t h e r s w e r e firmly g r o u n d e d in t h e biblical n o t i o n t h a t
G o d is t h e originator a n d initiator of all care a n d compassion. Wesley's
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of salvation as a process allowed for his pastoral c o m p a s s i o n
t o b e b o t h t r a n s c e n d e n t a n d incarnational. H e m a i n t a i n e d t h e dignity of
t h e individual by insisting t h a t n o o n e is b e y o n d t h e grace of G o d a n d t h a t
e a c h p e r s o n has a p a r t to play in his or h e r o w n salvation. For Wesley, w e
are participants w i t h G o d t h r o u g h Christ in t h e process of salvation.
Wesley's p r a g m a t i s m is reflected in his focus o n t h e process toward holiness,
n o t only t h e content of belief. Therefore, w e could m o v e b e y o n d t h e walls of
t h e church into t h e world t o m e e t t h e p e o p l e w h e r e t h e y w e r e o n their
j o u r n e y of faith, regardless of t h e circumstance.
Pragmatically a d a p t i n g from his o w n experience, Wesley k n e w t h a t it
was in t h e c o n t e x t of a relationship t h a t a n act of care b e c o m e s "holy
g r o u n d " w h e r e t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t G o d b e c o m e s manifest in t h e here-and-
now. It is t h e c o m m u n i t y of faith t h a t i n c a r n a t e s t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t G o d
t h r o u g h relationships in w h i c h t h e divine e n c o u n t e r c a n occur. For Wesley,
c o m p a s s i o n for o t h e r s was t h e e s s e n c e of c o m m u n i t y . C a r i n g for a n o t h e r
was n o t a n option. N o t to care was to violate t h e v e r y p u r p o s e for t h e
c o m m u n i t y ' s existence. Thus, for followers of Wesley, t h e r e c a n b e n o
pastoral care or counseling apart from a c o m m u n i t y of faith.
M u c h of Wesley's later ministry was a b o u t e q u i p p i n g a n d setting a p a r t
leadership for his m o v e m e n t . Wesley u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e c o m m u n i t y of
faith n o t only was to b e a safe, s u p p o r t i v e space for his followers b u t also

MICHAEL D. POTTS
h a d t h e responsibility to provide a n d e q u i p t h o s e w h o h a d t h e gifts a n d

grace t o go into t h e world t o "offer t h e m Christ." M u c h like Acts 6, Wesley's
leaders w e r e approved by t h e c o m m u n i t y to b e of g o o d character, "going
o n to perfection," a n d intentional a b o u t going into t h e world t o m e e t t h e
n e e d s of G o d ' s people.
Professional Pastoral Counseling and the Church

T h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t m o d e of practicing Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g e m b o d i e s
Wesley's pragmatic c o m p a s s i o n in four respects. (1) A n act of pastoral
c o m p a s s i o n is at t h e s a m e t i m e b o t h t r a n s c e n d e n t a n d incarnational. (2)
A n act of pastoral c o m p a s s i o n is u n i q u e l y a function of t h e c o m m u n i t y of
faith. (3) A n act of pastoral c o m p a s s i o n is a function of ministry directed t o
t h o s e o u t s i d e t h e c o m m u n i t y of faith w h o are less f o r t u n a t e a n d are alien
ated from society. (4) Pastoral care a n d counseling are practiced intention
ally by t h e e q u i p p i n g a n d a u t h o r i z i n g p e r s o n s to perform acts of c o m p a s
sion o n behalf of t h e c o m m u n i t y .
T h e "professional" Pastoral Care a n d C o u n s e l i n g m o v e m e n t in t h e
U n i t e d States began w i t h A n t o n Boisen (1876-1965) w h o in 1925 b r o u g h t
ministers a n d theological s t u d e n t s into t h e m e n t a l hospitals to provide
pastoral care to t h e mentally ill. In so doing, Boisen applied t h e clinical (or
case-study) m e t h o d of learning d e v e l o p e d in m e d i c i n e a n d social w o r k so
as to learn t h e art of ministry from "living h u m a n d o c u m e n t s . " A n act of
pastoral care was recorded by each s t u d e n t a n d t h e n shared in a g r o u p of
p e e r s to b e reflected u p o n for p e r s o n a l a n d professional learning p u r p o s e s .
By t h e 1950s, t h e clinical pastoral e d u c a t i o n m o v e m e n t of applying t h e
action-reflection m o d e l of learning t o ministry m o v e d b e y o n d Boisen's
o w n psychiatric hospital into institutions such as prisons, general hospitals,
parishes, a n d training schools. M u c h like t h e pastoral-care m o v e m e n t s of
b o t h L u t h e r and Wesley, c o n t e m p o r a r y professional Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g
was b o r n o u t of a pastoral c o n c e r n for t h e disenfranchised (especially t h e
mentally ill), motivated o u t of c o m p a s s i o n b o r n of pain. It is clear t h a t t h e
clinical m e t h o d as i n t r o d u c e d a n d applied to ministry by Boisen fits well
w i t h Wesley's pragmatic compassion, m e n t i o n e d above.
T h o s e w h o have b e e n designated a n d e q u i p p e d as pastoral c o u n s e l o r s
intentionally to offer care a n d c o u n s e l to specific s e g m e n t s of t h e c o m m u
nity o n behalf of t h e c h u r c h e m b o d y t h e biblical m a n d a t e to care for t h e
stranger. For a United Methodist, t h e practice of Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g is first
WINTER 2005 383

of all a ministry of t h e faith c o m m u n i t y t h a t e x t e n d s into t h e world to

reach p e r s o n s w h o o t h e r w i s e m a y n o t b e reached. Indeed, there c a n b e n o
Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g a p a r t from t h e c o m m u n i t y of faith. It is t h e c o m m u
nity of faith t h a t gives a n y act of care a n d c o u n s e l its "pastoral" quality. Just
as a s h e p h e r d w i t h o u t a flock c a n n o t s h e p h e r d , so a pastoral counselor
c a n n o t offer a pastoral perspective apart from t h e c o m m u n i t y of faith t h a t
calls a n d sets h i m or h e r apart for ministry. For instance, w h e n a pastor
refers a p a r i s h i o n e r to a professional pastoral counselor, it is a n act of
s h a r i n g in ministry. This is especially applicable for p e r s o n s w h o are
seeking help w i t h addictions, marital conflict, or family difficulties, since
t h e r e are o b v i o u s moral a n d spiritual c o m p o n e n t s t o t h e s e kinds of diffi
culties. T h e professional pastoral c o u n s e l o r shares w i t h all clergy t h e
u n i q u e pastoral perspective o n t h e helping process t h a t set-apart ministry
brings. However, e a c h p e r s o n in t h a t process m a k e s a u n i q u e c o n t r i b u t i o n
t o t h e faith j o u r n e y of t h e parishioner.
Professional pastoral c o u n s e l o r s w o r k in a variety of settings t h a t
usually are n o t a t t a c h e d to a local c h u r c h or c h u r c h agency. However,
pastoral c o u n s e l o r s are n o t just a sub-specialty of allied health profes
sionals. Their w o r k has a quality t h a t distinguishes it from o t h e r helping
professions. T h e w o r d pastoral suggests a n aspect of "guiding" in t h e coun
seling relationship. Directly or indirectly, t h e identity of o n e w h o is
"pastoral" d e n o t e s a n a u t h o r i t y to provide moral a n d spiritual guidance.
Professional pastoral c o u n s e l o r s are in a position to provide s h e p h e r d i n g to
p e r s o n s w h o m a y o t h e r w i s e have n o involvement in t h e church.
O n e way to u n d e r s t a n d professional Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g as an exten
sion of t h e ministry of t h e faith c o m m u n i t y is t o t h i n k of pastoral care a n d
counseling as a c o n t i n u u m . It begins w i t h t h e biblical m a n d a t e for all
baptized Christians to care for o n e another. All acts of c o m p a s s i o n d o n e by
t h e church, w h e t h e r as direct services or by way of a relationship, fall into
this category. Activities s u c h as distributing food t o t h e needy, staffing
clothing closets, a n d offering e m e r g e n c y assistance are examples of this
level of pastoral care. F u r t h e r along t h e c o n t i n u u m , pastoral care b e c o m e s
counseling, provided by designated lay a n d clergy o n behalf of t h e c o m m u
nity of faith. Visiting p e r s o n s in hospitals a n d n u r s i n g h o m e s are examples
of this level of pastoral care a n d counseling. T h e next level comprises
pastoral care a n d counseling provided primarily by t h e clergy by virtue of
their o r d i n a t i o n a n d p o s i t i o n as s h e p h e r d of a flock. Examples include pre-

MICH A FX D . POTTS
martial counseling; religious instruction a b o u t b a p t i s m a n d t h e m e a n i n g of

c h u r c h m e m b e r s h i p ; a n d t h e s u p p o r t a n d g u i d a n c e given at t i m e s of
illness, funerals, weddings, or family crises. Professional Pastoral
C o u n s e l i n g overlaps a n d e x t e n d s t h e previous levels of pastoral counseling
b u t c a n address m o r e pervasive e m o t i o n a l o r relational c o n c e r n s , s u c h as
marital a n d family therapy, grief counseling, a n d t h e diagnosis a n d treat
m e n t of m e n t a l disorders s u c h as clinical d e p r e s s i o n a n d anxiety disorders.
O n e level of professional Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g t h a t has e m e r g e d over
t h e past twenty-five years is pastoral psychotherapy. M a n y professional
pastoral counselors have m e t t h e educational a n d clinical s t a n d a r d s t o
b e c o m e licensed as Licensed Professional C o u n s e l o r s (LPC) or Licensed
Marital a n d Family C o u n s e l o r s (LMFT) in their respective states. T h e s e
licensures allow professional pastoral c o u n s e l o r s to d i a g n o s e a n d treat
m e n t a l disorders, t h e r e b y offering u n d e r their o w n licensure long-term
p s y c h o t h e r a p y from a pastoral perspective.
Conclusion
T h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t professional pastoral c o u n s e l o r is characterized by
faithfulness t o t h e biblical m a n d a t e to care for t h e stranger, w h o e v e r o r
w h e r e v e r h e or she m a y be, as well as by t h e passion to seek t h e H o l y in
t h e midst of relationships. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y live o u t Wesley's pragmatic
c o m p a s s i o n t h r o u g h their clinical training by applying t h e best t e c h n i q u e s
a n d t h e o r i e s b o r r o w e d from t h e behavioral sciences t o acts of ministry.
Pastoral counselors s p e a k t h e languages of theology, medicine, a n d t h e
social sciences in o r d e r to a d a p t a n d apply t h e G o o d N e w s to t h e ever-
c h a n g i n g n e e d s of t h e world.
Truly, t h e practice of Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g in t h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t
m o d e is o n e of living o u t t h e w o r d s of J o h n Wesley w h e n h e said of himself,
"I look u p o n all t h e world as m y parish This is t h e work which I k n o w
8
G o d has called m e to do. A n d sure I a m that His blessing a t t e n d s it."
Michael D. Potts is Co-director of Associates in Psychotherapy and Religion,

Edmond, Oklahoma.
Endnotes
1. Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Counseling, R o d n e y J. H u n t e r , gen. ed.
WINTER 2005 385

(Nashville: Abingdon, 1990), 213, 849.

2. "Pastoral C a r e of t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n , " in Dictionary of Pastoral Care and
Counseling, 214.
3. "Cure of Souls," in Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Counseling, 122.
4. J o h n T. McNeill, A History of Cure of Souls ( N e w York: Harper, 1951), 163;
q u o t e d in "Pastoral Counseling," Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Counseling,
838.
5. J o h n Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion I, vol. 20 of The Library of
Christian Classics, ed. by J o h n T. McNeill (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1967),
335.
6. Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Counseling, 839.
7. Cyril Davey./ofon Wesley and the Methodists (Nashville: Abingdon, 1985), 5-6.
8. J o h n Wesley, The Bicentennial Edition of the Works of John Wesley (Nashville:
A b i n g d o n , 1984-), 25:616.

United Methodist Pastoral
Counselors Reflect
/ asked three United Methodist pastoral counselors in active practice the following
question: "What are the most important challenges and opportunities you experi
ence as a United Methodist pastoral counselor in our world today?" Below are
their reflections. -Editor
R I C H A R D B R U E H L
T h e reflections below are informed by long e x p e r i e n c e in t h e field.

I have b e e n involved in pastoral counseling as a professor at a major
divinity school, director of a pastoral counseling center, therapist t o p a s t o r s
a n d their families, training supervisor for a m u l t i t u d e of pastoral-therapy
s t u d e n t s , a n d i n d e p e n d e n t practitioner of pastoral therapy. I have b e e n
d e e p l y involved in t h e b r o a d e r life of t h e profession t h r o u g h t h e A m e r i c a n
Association of Pastoral C o u n s e l o r s at b o t h national a n d regional levels.
Inevitably, these e x p e r i e n c e s have s h a p e d m y t h o u g h t s o n t h e c u r r e n t
topic. O t h e r s w h o have explored different p a r t s of t h e proverbial blind
sages' e l e p h a n t will c o m m e n t quite differently.
The ongoing issue of t h e professional identity of pastoral therapists
r e m a i n s pivotal. Whatever ambiguity exists currently in t h e pastoral t h e r a p y
role is affected by m a n y factors, b o t h cultural a n d pastoral/theological. The
cultural context in which we practice pastoral counseling a n d therapy today,
powerfully influenced by managed-care organizations, has firmly estab
lished t h e n o r m of "medical necessity" for psychotherapy. T h o u g h in s o m e
ways this a p p r o a c h is a corrective to past insurance abuses, t h e wholesale
assault u p o n t h e traditional practice of therapy c a n n o t b e ignored. In addi
tion t o t h e n o r m of medical necessity, t h e over-prescription of psychoactive
drugs, t h e severe curtailment of "approved" sessions, a n d impossible expec
tations of practitioners b o t h reflect and s h a p e t h e c u r r e n t cultural bias
toward quick fixes and t h e n o r m of functionality. A b y p r o d u c t of this
emphasis, p e r h a p s intentional, has b e e n t h e devaluing of t h e possibility of
healing t h r o u g h relationship u p o n which, b o t h psychologically a n d theologi
cally, pastoral therapy has b e e n based.

U N I T E D METHODIST PASTORAL COUNSELORS REFLECT
Hence, t h e tradition of d e p t h soul-care, g r o w t h orientation, a n d trans

formative t h e r a p e u t i c e x p e r i e n c e has b e e n u n d e r subtle b u t serious attack.
In contrast to t h e c u r r e n t cynicism a b o u t any healing relationships, pastoral
therapists have e m p h a s i z e d their value.
In t h e main, pastoral therapists have e m b r a c e d t h e t r u t h t h a t life is
n o t primarily a n e x p e r i e n c e to b e fixed b u t r a t h e r s o m e t h i n g to b e u n d e r
stood, d e e p e n e d , a n d s u r r o u n d e d by m e a n i n g . T h e awareness that g e n u i n e
c h a n g e - a n internal shift of s i g n i f i c a n c e - t a k e s place in its o w n fashion a n d
o n its u n i q u e t i m e t a b l e a p p e a r s in stark contrast to cultural n o r m s .
The s e c o n d major challenge t o pastoral t h e r a p y is t h e effect of the
burgeoning evangelical Christian movement in counseling, exemplified by "bibli
cally b a s e d Christian counseling." This a p p r o a c h a p p e a r s to b e relatively
superficial as c o u n s e l o r s in this tradition t e n d t o offer biblical prescriptions
to p e r s o n s in ways t h a t are at w o r s t repressive a n d at best avoidant w h e n it
c o m e s to g e n u i n e t h e r a p e u t i c e n c o u n t e r .
O n e could characterize this a p p r o a c h as "spiritual m a n a g e d care." It
t e n d s to ignore t h e complexity of t h e h u m a n p s y c h e a n d t o "solve" p r o b
lems in w h a t c a n easily b e c o m e moralistic a n d a u t h o r i t a r i a n ways.
Finally, so-called "Christian" counseling seems to avoid t h e tension
inherent in effective pastoral therapy b e t w e e n psychological sophistication
and t h e u s e of theological and religious resources. This "holy ambiguity" is
w h a t pastoral therapists at their best have b e e n willing to e n d u r e w i t h o u t
easy resolution. Tolerance of uncertainty has b e e n o u r greatest gift to clients,
churches, a n d culture. While a gift, t h e willingness to steer a course b e t w e e n
moralism a n d relativism can lead to m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g and confusion.
O n e could h o p e , t h o u g h n o t naively, t h a t t h e future will b e l o n g t o
t h o s e w h o perceive t h e n o r m for seeking effective pastoral therapy n o t as
a medical b u t as a psycho-spiritual necessity. C o u n t e r to t h o s e w h o feel t h e
c h u r c h s h o u l d n o t b e in t h e "mental-health" business, pastoral therapists
believe t h a t w e are providing g e n u i n e pastoral services t h a t are character
ized by their u n i q u e focus, a p p r o p r i a t e b o u n d a r i e s a n d confidentiality, a n d
e n d u r a n c e over t i m e in ways t h a t typical parish pastoral counseling c a n n o t
a n d should n o t be.
Professional pastoral therapists have b e e n quietly learning and func
tioning for over fifty years. For a variety of reasons, t h e utilization of o u r
knowledge by t h e c h u r c h has b e e n s p o t t y a n d inconsistent. W h a t follows is
a list of o p p o r t u n i t i e s for applying t h e w o r k of pastoral t h e r a p y t o ministry.

RICHARD BRUEHL
We should c o n t i n u e to d e v e l o p pastoral counseling a n d t h e r a p y as a t r u e

"extension ministry" in p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h traditional ministries for t h e
benefit of a h u r t i n g world. Practically this m e a n s t h e e n c o u r a g e m e n t of
e n d o r s e m e n t , t h e s u p p o r t of e n d o r s e e s , a n d t h e furtherance of special
ized training for this ministry.
T h r o u g h its trained therapists, t h e c h u r c h could b e c o m e a bastion of
non-market-driven therapy. We c a n hold o u t h o p e for transformation
a n d healing rather t h a n simply focusing o n getting p e o p l e t o w o r k o n
M o n d a y s . That this h o p e could b e lost is a p r e s e n t danger.
Pastoral therapists have a great deal to offer parish ministers. O n e c a n
conceive of an o n g o i n g relationship b e t w e e n pastoral therapists a n d
pastors that is preventative rather t h a n corrective. Such endeavors
would b e focused u p o n p r o m o t i n g healthy leadership for churches a n d
o t h e r settings. Having engaged in a n u m b e r of s u c h relationships over
t h e years, I a m convinced of t h e validity of t h e concept. C h u r c h e s
would d o well to s u p p o r t such relationships financially a n d emotionally,
Careful a t t e n t i o n n e e d s to b e paid to t h e d e v e l o p m e n t in local c o m m u n i
ties of referral n e t w o r k s for pastoral therapy. Such n e t w o r k s as n o w
exist t e n d to b e informal a n d h a p h a z a r d . P r o b l e m s of pastoral t u r n o v e r
are great. As a result, m o s t a n n u a l conferences a n d c o m m u n i t i e s have
only scratched t h e surface of t h e issue.
T h e identification of m o d e l s for t h e funding of pastoral counseling a n d
t h e r a p y ministries is a great need. N o d o u b t m u c h e x p e r i e n c e exists
t h r o u g h o u t t h e world, b u t this information is difficult t o o b t a i n a n d
n o t readily available to interested churches. Plans will have t o b e
creative a n d realistic, h o n o r i n g t h e constraints of c h u r c h b u d g e t s a n d
liability issues. Significant research n e e d s to b e d o n e t o codify parish
m o d e l s of pastoral t h e r a p y ministry.
Progress o n these a n d o t h e r related issues will m o v e t h e field of
pastoral t h e r a p y forward. However, at root t h e a c c e p t a n c e of t h e hard-won
a m a l g a m of pastoral identity a n d psychological sophistication a n d training
as a viable, legitimate ministry is crucial. At this point, w i t h reference t o t h e
possibilities, t h e field of pastoral t h e r a p y r e m a i n s in its infancy.
Richard Bruehl is Diplomate Pastoral Counselor in independent practice in

Nashville, Tennessee.
WINTER 2005 389

W . V I C T O R M A L O Y
I n 1976,1 m a d e t h e transition from parish ministry to t h e ministry of

pastoral counseling. Back t h e n , pastoral counseling as a specialized
e x t e n s i o n of ministry, w i t h its o w n professional organization (the
A m e r i c a n Association of Pastoral C o u n s e l o r s [AAPC]), h a d b e e n in exis
t e n c e a scant twelve years. The field w a s m a r k e d by t h e e n e r g y a n d excite
m e n t t h a t a c c o m p a n i e s a n e w v e n t u r e . There w a s a s t r o n g sense a m o n g
pastoral c o u n s e l o r s t h a t w h a t t h e y w e r e d o i n g was d e e p l y relevant to
society's n e e d s a n d a n i m p o r t a n t e x t e n s i o n of t h e church's ministry.
In t h e first t w o d e c a d e s of its professional existence, t h e field of
pastoral counseling was d o m i n a t e d by white, male, o r d a i n e d clergy, m a n y
of w h o m for o n e r e a s o n o r a n o t h e r h a d n o t found a comfortable fit in
parish ministry. T h o s e first t w e n t y years saw t h e fairly rapid g r o w t h of t h e
discipline of pastoral counseling a n d of t h e r a n k s of t h o s e e n t e r i n g this
n e w expression of ministrythe integration of t h e o l o g y a n d psychology in
providing counseling. Early on, t h e A A P C d e v e l o p e d a certification process
for t h o s e seeking to b e c o m e pastoral counselors. In addition t o a formal
theological e d u c a t i o n a n d o r d i n a t i o n in a d e n o m i n a t i o n , t h e applicant
w e n t t h r o u g h a rigorous training a n d s u p e r v i s i o n process t h a t led t o certifi
cation by t h e AAPC.
T h e training led t o a professional identity t h a t was relatively well
defined. O n e w a s a n o r d a i n e d minister, recognized by o n e ' s faith g r o u p ,
a n d h a d additional training to provide counseling from a theological a n d
psychological perspectiveand t h a t training was certified by a professional
pastoral counseling organization.
Importantly, m a n y of t h o s e w h o first b e c a m e pastoral counselors w e r e
United M e t h o d i s t ministers, a n d t h a t t r e n d has c o n t i n u e d . AAPC's first
p r e s i d e n t was a U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t minister, as w e r e a n u m b e r of subse
q u e n t presidents, including myself a n d t h e association's c u r r e n t president.
Why s h o u l d so m a n y United M e t h o d i s t ministers b e drawn to t h e
specialized field of pastoral counseling a n d give leadership to t h e profes
sion? I believe t h e r e a s o n lies in J o h n Wesley's theological e m p h a s i s o n
e x p e r i e n c e alongside Scripture, reason, a n d tradition a n d his passion for
bringing t h e message of grace t o t h e vulnerable a n d t h e marginalized.
Writing in t h e Virginia United Methodist Heritage, James Logan says it
this way:

W. VICTOR MALOY
Wesley was consumed with this message of grace already working preve-
niently in all people and universally available to all as justifying and sanctifying
grace. This theology of grace was readily understood by the masses, even
those with little or no educational background. It was a theology simple and
1
yet experientially deep and probing.
Pastoral counseling is built u p o n t h e clinical pastoral-education move

m e n t , f o u n d e d by A n t o n Boisen. Like Wesley, Boisen e m p h a s i z e d experi
e n c e t h r o u g h w h a t h e t e r m e d "the s t u d y of t h e living h u m a n d o c u m e n t . "
By t h a t Boisen m e a n t t h a t t h e way ministers could b e c o m e a d e p t at
providing pastoral care was t h r o u g h t h e experience of providing care a n d
t h e n reflecting o n t h a t e x p e r i e n c e . The training c o n t e x t t h a t Boisen devel
oped, n o t unlike Wesley's field preaching, w a s general a n d psychiatric
hospitals, w h e r e t h e d e p t h of h u m a n suffering w o u l d b e e x p e r i e n c e d first
h a n d b y t h o s e b e i n g t r a i n e d t o b e c o m e ministers.
Therefore, our Wesleyan heritage, w i t h its e m p h a s i s o n m e e t i n g
h u m a n suffering w h e r e v e r it manifests itself, is a natural fit w i t h pastoral
counseling's e m p h a s i s o n bringing t h e message of grace in t h e c o n t e x t of
t h e counseling r o o m as p e o p l e c o m e to talk a b o u t their depression,
anxiety, loss of faith, a n d alienation. It is a version of p r e a c h i n g in t h e
streets, a n d in that way pastoral counseling is a natural expression of
Wesleyan t h e o l o g y for t h o s e of u s w h o are U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t ministers.
T h e past two d e c a d e s have s e e n a variety of changes w i t h i n t h e field of
pastoral counseling. A growing n u m b e r of w o m e n have e n t e r e d t h e field,
along w i t h a smaller n u m b e r of m i n o r i t y p e r s o n s . A n increasing n u m b e r of
n o n o r d a i n e d p e r s o n s working in o t h e r mental-health fields have b e c o m e
interested in learning t o integrate t h e theological perspective into their
counseling practice a n d in belonging to a professional organization t h a t
r e p r e s e n t s t h a t integration. In r e s p o n s e , t h e A A P C h a s created a non-certi
fied category of m e m b e r s h i p for t h o s e seeking affiliation from o t h e r
mental-health disciplines, a n d a certified category for t h o s e from o t h e r
mental-health disciplines w h o have a formal theological e d u c a t i o n b u t are
n o t ordained.
T h e m o v e m e n t toward increased inclusiveness a n d pluralism has occa
s i o n e d t h e m o s t significant challenge facing U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t pastoral
counselors today, n a m e l y defining and maintaining their professional identity
as pastoral counselors. To s o m e d e g r e e t h e issue of professional identity is
WINTER 2005 391

a n extension of t h e impact of pluralism o n religion a n d o n United

M e t h o d i s t s generally in o u r p o s t m o d e r n society.
C o m m e n t s Logan, " C o n t e m p o r a r y U n i t e d M e t h o d i s m is confronted
w i t h a lack of clarity regarding its theological identity a n d missional
p u r p o s e . Lay a n d clergy p e o p l e alike are clamoring for a n o p p o r t u n i t y to
reclaim their theological heritage as Wesleyans a n d to apply t h e e n e r g y of
2
t h a t heritage t o t h e d e m a n d s of t h e p o s t m o d e r n society in which we live."
United M e t h o d i s t pastoral c o u n s e l o r s w i t n e s s this lack of clarity every
day in o u r clientsan identity crisis p r o d u c e d by an increasingly shallow,
media-driven culture. O p i n i o n s are formed t h r o u g h s o u n d bytes a n d
fleeting images, feeding t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d b e quick, simple
solutions to life's m o s t complex p r o b l e m s .
Fewer a n d fewer p e o p l e w h o seek t h e h e l p of pastoral counselors are
r o o t e d in a long-standing faith tradition. As a c o n s e q u e n c e , o u r clients
have fewer faith resources to h e l p t h e m u n d e r s t a n d a n d c o n s t r u c t m e a n i n g
from their p a i n a n d t h u s t o sustain t h e m .
T h e p r i m a r y challenge a n d o p p o r t u n i t y before U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t
pastoral c o u n s e l o r s t o d a y is to m a i n t a i n t h e clarity of o u r o w n professional
identity as t h o s e w h o integrate t h e o l o g y a n d psychology, while h e l p i n g
clients find a greater s e n s e of m e a n i n g in their lives.
Pastoral counseling as practiced by U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s should b e a
reflection of w h a t J a m e s Logan h a s called Wesley's evangelistic zeal,
passion for t h e poor, organizational skills, a n d "catholic spirit."
W. Victor Maloy is Executive Director of the Virginia Institute of Pastoral Care

and past president of the American Association of Pastoral Counselors.
Endnotes
1. James Logan, "Wesley's Theology a n d t h e Calvinist Challenge," Virginia
United Methodist Heritage XXLX/2; 21.
2. Ibid.

A N N E ROSS STEWART
A N N E R O S S S T E W A R T
I t is hard for m e to see t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y situation as challenging only t o

U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t pastoral counselors. In m y c u r r e n t role as p r e s i d e n t of
t h e A m e r i c a n Association of Pastoral C o u n s e l o r s (AAPC), I have t h e o p p o r
t u n i t y to affirm a n d p r o m o t e t h e ministry of pastoral counseling in a n
e c u m e n i c a l a n d interfaith e n v i r o n m e n t . Also, as a n affiliate faculty m e m b e r
of t h e Loyola College in Maryland's Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g D e p a r t m e n t for
t h e past t w e n t y years, I have enjoyed b e i n g in a Jesuit school w i t h a multi-
faith, multicultural faculty a n d s t u d e n t body. Finally, as a pastoral counselor
I have always b e e n a p a r t of agencies w i t h an interfaith staff, w i t h U n i t e d
M e t h o d i s t c h u r c h e s h o s t i n g m a n y of t h e counseling locations.
In r e c e n t m o n t h s I have b e e n w o r k i n g w i t h A A P C colleagues t o define
o u r mission a n d goals for 2 0 0 5 - 2 0 0 9 . As we have looked at ways to
p r o m o t e o u r profession a n d t h e practice of pastoral counseling a n d train
t h e next generation of pastoral counselors, w e have s o u g h t t o identify t h e
challenges a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s before us. W h a t w e have found is t h a t it will
c o n t i n u e to b e i m p o r t a n t to advocate t h e ministry of pastoral counseling,
w h i c h integrates psychology, theology, a n d spirituality. Part of o u r strategic
plan is to c o n t i n u e participating in t h e C o m m i s s i o n o n Ministry in
Specialized Settings (COMISS) n e t w o r k a n d to find ways to increase o u r
visibility a m o n g e n d o r s i n g d e n o m i n a t i o n s a n d judicatories r e p r e s e n t e d in
o u r m e m b e r s h i p . We are also working w i t h o t h e r pastoral care a n d coun
seling cognate g r o u p s t h r o u g h t h e Council o n Collaboration to affirm
c o m m o n s t a n d a r d s of ethics a n d practice in o u r professions as chaplains
a n d pastoral counselors.
D u r i n g t h e past q u a d r e n n i u m , I served as t h e pastoral counselor
c o n s t i t u e n t representative to t h e t h e n Section of Chaplains and Related
Ministries (now t h e United M e t h o d i s t E n d o r s i n g Agency) of t h e United
M e t h o d i s t General Board of Higher E d u c a t i o n a n d Ministry (GBHEM). It
has b e e n g o o d to k n o w that t h e d e n o m i n a t i o n c o n t i n u e s to s u p p o r t a n d
e n d o r s e t h e specialized ministry of pastoral counseling. In working w i t h t h e
United M e t h o d i s t E n d o r s i n g Agency, A A P C will c o n t i n u e to s u p p o r t o u r
ordained elders and deacons, as well as laypersons, w h o are called to t h e
ministry of pastoral counseling. Respecting differing d e n o m i n a t i o n a l poli
ties while maintaining s t a n d a r d s of credentialing c o n t i n u e s to b e a high
value for AAPC. AAPC has w e l c o m e d a representative from t h e religious
WINTER 2005 393

e n d o r s i n g b o d y network to b e a participant w i t h t h e A A P C Certification

C o m m i t t e e as o n e way of fostering m u t u a l accountability a n d dialogue.
O n e of t h e challenges that is facing pastoral counselors is t h e n e e d to
protect and p r o m o t e our right to b e providers of mental-health services for
t h e general public. In t h e United States this m e a n s that pastoral counselors
must m e e t state requirements for licensure. Pastoral counselors may b e
licensed as professional counselors, marriage a n d family therapists, or, in
s o m e cases, as social workers or psychologists. Only a few states have licenses
for pastoral counselors per se. The g o o d n e w s a b o u t t h e requirement for licen
sure is that it protects t h e public, ensuring that consumers have highly trained
professionals providing their counseling or therapy. T h e challenge for pastoral
counselors is that legislation, regulations, and policies that affect the practice
of pastoral counseling m u s t be monitored in every state and t h e District of
Columbia. Sometimes this m e a n s advocating/lobbying for the inclusion of
certified pastoral counselors as states develop and change their legislative
policies, as h a p p e n e d recently in t h e State of N e w York.
U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t pastoral c o u n s e l o r s share t h e challenge of letting
o u r light s h i n e m o r e brightly s o t h a t t h e general public, faith a n d spiritual
c o m m u n i t i e s , a n d mental-health a n d h e a l t h c a r e providers recognize us as
trusted a n d respected colleagues.
T h e I n t e r n e t m a y h e l p pastoral c o u n s e l o r s gain greater recognition.
While pastoral c o u n s e l o r s still rely o n referrals from congregations a n d
pastoral colleagues, t h e r e is t h e n e e d to b e available t o t h e w i d e r c o m m u n i
ties in w h i c h w e live.
M a n y pastoral counselors have b e e n accepted o n "insurance panels"
a n d are working w i t h clients w h o found information a b o u t t h e m o n insur
ance websites, w h e r e t h e y are listed as qualified service providers. S o m e
pastoral counselors are also providing services for businesses t h r o u g h
employee-assistance programs. A large challenge a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e s e n e w e r
o p p o r t u n i t i e s is t h e time-consuming p a p e r w o r k of verifying a n d submitting
insurance claims. For s o m e pastoral counselors a n d clients, this hassle is n o t
w o r t h t h e effort. For o t h e r clients, t h e fact t h a t pastoral counselors are a
p a r t of their insurance network is a great blessing. In t h e future, t h e r e m a y
b e m o r e p e o p l e opting to use H e a l t h Savings A c c o u n t s (HSA), which will
give t h e m m o r e control in choosing their m e n t a l health providers.
O n e of AAPC's goals is to b e c o m e an active p a r t n e r w i t h pastoral
counselors a n d o t h e r faith-based mental-health practitioners o u t s i d e N o r t h

A N N E ROSS STEWART
America. It is imperative in o u r global e n v i r o n m e n t t o provide o p p o r t u n i

ties for cross-cultural training. J o h n Wesley r e m i n d e d us t h a t t h e world is
o u r parish. While n o t a tool for evangelism, t h e pastoral counseling profes
sion is definitely a ministry of healing and c o m p a s s i o n for t h o s e in need.
As p a r t of a world church, U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t pastoral c o u n s e l o r s have a
responsibility to join w i t h colleagues in e x p a n d i n g t h e profession a n d
s u p p o r t i n g t h o s e w h o serve outside N o r t h America. A A P C plans to
develop a Web-based clearinghouse for individuals w h o are seeking oppor
tunities to train or teach active counseling ministries in settings o t h e r t h a n
their h o m e countries. Partnering w i t h key training institutions o u t s i d e
N o r t h A m e r i c a will e n h a n c e global o p p o r t u n i t i e s to serve.
As w i t h o t h e r ministries of t h e church, t h e future of t h e pastoral coun
seling ministry m e a n s t h a t n e w pastoral counselors m u s t b e recruited a n d
trained a n d t h o s e active in this ministry n e e d to b e sustained. In t h e past
q u a d r e n n i u m , I have b e e n pleased to see G B H E M r e a c h o u t to t h o s e in
pastoral counseling ministries a n d e n c o u r a g i n g e n d o r s e d c o u n s e l o r s to
a t t e n d retreats t h e b o a r d has s c h e d u l e d for t h e m . As n e w p r o m o t i o n a l
materials are developed a n d as G B H E M s website is utilized for informa
tion, it will b e i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e ministry of pastoral counseling b e
featured as a specialized ministry in T h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t Church.
United M e t h o d i s t clergy a n d pastoral counselors are required to partic
ipate in o n g o i n g e d u c a t i o n a n d formation. To this end, G B H E M m u s t look
for n e w ways to p a r t n e r w i t h seminaries, g r a d u a t e p r o g r a m s in pastoral
counseling, and cognate g r o u p s s u c h as A A P C to provide o p p o r t u n i t i e s for
s u p p o r t , collegiality, a n d c o n t i n u i n g learning. While s o m e of t h e s e oppor
tunities m a y b e at educational facilities or in retreat settings, t h e r e m a y b e
s o m e creative ways to use electronic m e d i a for interactive education.
In conclusion, o u r profession, like m u c h of o u r culture, is in a "white-
water rapids" period of change a n d transition. We are working faithfully to
navigate t h e s e paradigm shifts while c o n t i n u i n g t o provide high-quality
pastoral counseling services.
Anne Ross Stewart is Executive Director of InterFaith Counseling Services,

Montgomery County, Maryland, and an affiliate faculty member at Loyola
College in Maryland, Baltimore, She currently serves as President of the American
Association of Pastoral Counselors (AAPC).
WINTER 2005 395

Outside The Theme
Wesley, the Constitution, and

Secular Humanism
T H E O D O R E W . J E N N I N G S , J R .
T o d a y t h e studied indifference toward religion e n s h r i n e d in t h e

C o n s t i t u t i o n has c o m e u n d e r attack from t h e Religious Right in s u c h
matters as school prayer a n d t h e sort of t e x t b o o k s used in t h e schools. This
has resulted in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a political a g e n d a designed to p r o t e c t
t h e interests of religion from t h e onslaught of w h a t is often called "secular
humanism."
Meanwhile, t h e r e are t h o s e w h o m a i n t a i n t h a t c u r r e n t practice d o e s
n o t properly reflect t h e indifference of t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n toward religion
t h a t this m u s t b e t a k e n to its logical conclusion t h r o u g h s u c h m e a s u r e s as
eliminating official chaplaincy in g o v e r n m e n t a l institutions such as t h e
military a n d t h e legislature; t h e elimination of tax e x e m p t i o n for churches;
a n d t h e elimination of g o v e r n m e n t subsidies for quasi-religious celebra
tions (Christmas displays, a n d so on).
M o r e recently, this d e b a t e has i m p r o b a b l y focused o n t h e q u e s t i o n of
t h e display of t h e Ten C o m m a n d m e n t s in state c o u r t r o o m s . W h a t is
remarkable is t h e d e g r e e of passion for t h e law displayed by t h o s e w h o call
themselves "evangelicals." Scarcely less remarkable has b e e n t h e fervor of
t h e a t t a c h m e n t t o a "graven image" of a D e c a l o g u e t h a t forbids graven
images. T h e r e was t h e famous vignette caught o n national n e w s of a m a n
fervently w r a p p i n g himself a r o u n d t h e granite m o n u m e n t to t h e Ten
C o m m a n d m e n t s , crying, "They can't take away m y God!" Yet such was t h e
passion g e n e r a t e d by t h e decision of Alabama's Chief Justice Roy M o o r e to
display a 5,000-pound granite m o n u m e n t engraved w i t h t h e w o r d s of t h e
Law (a decision o n t h e basis of w h i c h t h e g o o d citizens of Alabama h a d
elected h i m to his h o n o r a b l e p o s t in 2000) t h a t t h e State of Alabama h a d

VOLUME 25. N U M B E R 4, WINTER 2005
T H E O D O R E W. JENNINGS, JR,
b e e n t h r u s t into constitutional crisis. A l t h o u g h Judge M o o r e was r e m o v e d

from office b e c a u s e of his refusal to o b e y t h e o r d e r of t h e courts, t h e
related cases c o n t i n u e d to b e litigated. O n J u n e 2 8 , 2 0 0 5 , t h e U n i t e d States
S u p r e m e Court, in a sharply divided opinion, ruled t h a t t h e display of t h e
Ten C o m m a n d m e n t s in c o u r t h o u s e s a n d o t h e r public buildings, w h e r e t h e
display h a d clear religious o v e r t o n e s or intent, was prohibited u n d e r t h e
First Amendmenta ruling t h a t even s o m e o n t h e c o u r t regarded as a n
attack u p o n religion. (One w o n d e r s w h a t t h e attraction is of a m o n u m e n t
t h a t forbids covetousness a n d m u r d e r in a n a t i o n w h o s e existence
d e p e n d e d to a significant d e g r e e o n t h e g e n o c i d e of Native Americans; a
m o n u m e n t t h a t forbids theft in a region w h o s e e c o n o m y was built o n t h e
stealing of h u m a n beings from their native Africa.)
Of course, this is only t h e m o s t d r a m a t i c (or dramatized) of t h e strug
gles c o n c e r n i n g t h e role of religion in relation to t h e state. Certainly t h e
a t t e m p t b y m a n y of J u d g e M o o r e ' s s u p p o r t e r s t o p a s s a constitutional
a m e n d m e n t e n s h r i n i n g t h e allegedly biblical definition of marriage as
b e t w e e n o n e m a n a n d o n e w o m a n (a definition t h a t w o u l d have astonished
any of t h e patriarchs or kings of Israel) is a n o t h e r a p p a r e n t a t t e m p t to
e n s h r i n e certain "Christian values" into t h e basic law of this land.
In this way t h e d e b a t e a b o u t t h e Constitution, w h i c h b e g a n m o r e t h a n
t w o - h u n d r e d years ago, c o n t i n u e s today a n d r e m a i n s focused o n t h e issue
of t h e p r o p e r relation of C h u r c h a n d State. We U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s have
recently b e e n celebrating t h e t h r e e - h u n d r e d t h anniversary of t h e b i r t h of
J o h n Wesley. W h a t has J o h n Wesley to d o w i t h t h e U.S. C o n s t i t u t i o n a n d
t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y d e b a t e a b o u t t h e relation of religion to t h e republic?
It is generally well k n o w n t h a t J o h n Wesley strongly disapproved of t h e
rebellion of Britain's N o r t h A m e r i c a n colonies (or, as w e like t o say, t h e
1
A m e r i c a n Revolution). But Wesley's attitude toward certain o t h e r aspects
of t h e U.S. heritage is less well k n o w n . Two-hundred years ago t h e n e w U.S.
C o n s t i t u t i o n was still in t h e process of b e i n g ratified. T h e C o n v e n t i o n in
Philadelphia had d o n e its job. N o w it was t h e time for d e b a t e a n d discus
siona process that culminated in t h e ratification of t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a n d
t h e Bill of Rights in 1791. It is a p p r o p r i a t e to recall t h e a t t i t u d e t a k e n by
Wesley toward o n e of t h e central t e n e t s of t h a t d o c u m e n t as it was finally
ratified. T h e only aspect of t h e e m e r g i n g constitutional g o v e r n m e n t o n
w h i c h Wesley explicitly c o m m e n t e d was its attitude toward religion. That
a t t i t u d e was e m b o d i e d in t h e provision t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d b e n o religious
WINTER 2005 397

WESLEY, THE CONSTITUTION, A N D SECULAR H U M A N I S M
test for t h e holding of public office (Article VI) a n d ultimately in t h e First

A m e n d m e n t establishing g o v e r n m e n t a l indifference toward religion.
To b e sure, t h e views of an e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y evangelical c a n n o t b e
held t o b e b i n d i n g o n U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s today. Still, Wesley's views are
especially interesting since t h e y s h o w h o w a leader of t h e eighteenth-
c e n t u r y Evangelical Revival viewed t h e religious indifferentism t h e n o n its
way to b e i n g e n s h r i n e d in t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n .
In m a n y respects, Wesley's views a p p e a r t o parallel t h o s e of c o n t e m p o
rary evangelicals. H e was a tireless evangelist, p r e a c h i n g t h r e e times a d a y
for m o r e t h a n a half centurya feat t h a t n o m o d e r n evangelist c o m e s
remotely close to matching. Moreover, his credentials in c o m b a t i n g t h e
spread of w h a t was t h e n called "Deism" (the f o r e r u n n e r of "secular
humanism") are u n i m p e a c h a b l e . H e tirelessly fought t h e erosion of biblical
faith w i t h i n t h e c h u r c h a n d fearlessly o p p o s e d t h o s e w h o s u p p o s e d it t o b e
possible t o offer a w a t e r e d - d o w n Christianity t h a t catered t o m o d e r n tastes
in place of "the plain old gospel."
It m a y therefore c o m e as a s u r p r i s e t o l e a r n t h a t Wesley found t h e reli
gious indifferentism of t h e n e w A m e r i c a n g o v e r n m e n t to b e a signal act of
divine providencel Far from attacking t h e stark s e p a r a t i o n of C h u r c h a n d
State in t h e A m e r i c a n Constitution, h e w e l c o m e d it a n d even p o i n t e d t o it
as a sign of t h e action of G o d in history!
H o w d o e s Wesley c o m e to s u c h a n astonishing view? A n d w h a t insight
d o e s it offer as w e p o n d e r t h e conflicting views of t h e relation b e t w e e n
g o v e r n m e n t a n d religion today?
Wesley's view w i t h respect to t h e religious indifferentism of t h e n e w
A m e r i c a n g o v e r n m e n t is t o b e found in his s e r m o n "Of F o r m e r Times,"
published in final form as p a r t of a collection of s e r m o n s t h e year following
t h e signing of t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n in 1788. Albert O u t l e r gives this a c c o u n t of
t h e writing of t h e s e r m o n .
The written sermon was produced in June 1787, in the midst of Wesley's long stay
in Ireland that year; it is dated Dublin, June 27, which would have been the day
following Thomas Coke's return from a missionary journey to America: "We were
agreeably surprised with the arrival of Dr. Coke, who came from Philadelphia in
nine and twenty days and gave us a pleasing account of the work of God in
America." {Journal, 26 June 1787] It was published in the Armenian Magazine in
2
the winter of that same year (November and December, X. 566-72,620-25).

T H E O D O R E W. JENNINGS, JR.
O n this reckoning C o k e h a d left Philadelphia as t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l

C o n v e n t i o n was getting u n d e r w a y (it was s u p p o s e d t o have b e g u n o n M a y
14, achieved a q u o r u m for t h e first time o n May 25, a n d b e g a n serious
discussion o n May 29, or a b o u t t h e t i m e C o k e left). With Wesley's k e e n
interest in politics it is safe t o a s s u m e t h a t h e grilled C o k e o n w h a t w a s
going o n in Philadelphia. T h e C o n v e n t i o n a d j o u r n e d o n S e p t e m b e r 17, t w o
m o n t h s before Wesley first published t h e s e r m o n in question. His refer
e n c e to "the g o v e r n m e n t t h e r e " m a y b e t a k e n to refer t o t h e p r o p o s e d
C o n s t i t u t i o n or to t h e various state c o n s t i t u t i o n s (several of w h i c h insisted
o n s e p a r a t i o n of C h u r c h a n d State) or to all of these, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e
Articles of Confederation. In any case, of m o s t interest t o Wesley was t h e
principle of total separation of C h u r c h a n d State, w h i c h eventually c a m e to
b e formulated in t h e First A m e n d m e n t b u t already in 1787 was a principle
recognized by several of t h e states a n d by t h e m o s t influential m e m b e r s of
t h e Constitutional C o n v e n t i o n .
In "Of F o r m e r Times," Wesley is c o n c e r n e d to c o m b a t t h e view t h a t
things u s e d to be betterthe religious a n d secular nostalgia t h a t looked
u p o n s o m e p a r t of t h e past as t h e golden age of w i s d o m or faith. Of course,
this is t h e very attitude t h a t is expressed in t h e y e a r n i n g of m a n y m o d e r n
evangelicals to restore a religiously h o m o g e n e o u s past.
Wesley's c o n t e n t i o n , w h i c h w e will consider at l e n g t h in a m o m e n t , is
t h a t w h a t e v e r may b e t h e case w i t h respect to o t h e r values it is clear t h a t at
n o t i m e before h a d t r u e Christianity h a d so clear a n advantage as at t h e
e n d of t h e e i g h t e e n t h century. A n d t h a t w h i c h creates s u c h a favorable
climate is t h e d a w n i n g of t h e age of religious toleration. Let us see Wesley's
o w n words:
For whoever makes a fair and candid inquiry, will easily perceive that true reli
gion has in nowise decreased, but greatly increased in the present century. To
instance in one capital branch of religion, the love of our neighbor. Is not
persecution well nigh vanished from the face of the earth? In what age did
Christians of every denomination show such forbearance to each other? . . .
Nothing like this has been seen since the time of Constantine; no, not since
3
the time of the Apostles.
Unquestionably, for Wesley, as for t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y generally, t h e

e n d of religious warfare was a major achievement. But Wesley is n o t
WINTER 2005 399

u n a w a r e t h a t t h e spirit of toleration so lately spread over t h e face of

E u r o p e was. in p a r t at least, t h e c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e rise of Deism, o r w h a t
would t o d a y b e called "secular humanism."
If it be said, "Why, this is the fruit of the general infidelity, the Deism which
has overspread all Europe," I answer, Whatever be the cause, we have reason
greatly to rejoice in the effect: And if the all-wise God has brought so great
and universal a good out of this dreadful evil, so much the more should we
4
magnify his astonishing power, wisdom, and goodness herein.
It is clear t h a t Wesley is n o friend of D e i s m (he calls it "this dreadful

evil"); b u t h e d o e s see t h a t it has b e e n m a d e t o serve t h e divine p u r p o s e
of bringing an e n d t o religious persecution. T h e benefit derived from t h e
e m e r g e n c e of p a g a n toleration is n o t merely negative, namely, to e n d t h e
calamities of religious p e r s e c u t i o n a n d warfare. T h e r e is a positive benefit
as well, o n e n e a r to t h e h e a r t of a n y t r u e "evangelical":
Indeed, so far as we can judge, this was the most direct way whereby nominal
Christians could be prepared, first, for tolerating, and, afterwards, for receiving,
real Christianity. While the governors were themselves unacquainted with it,
nothing but this could induce them to suffer it. O the depth both of the
wisdom and knowledge of God; causing a total disregard for all religion, to
5
pave the way for the revival of the only religion that was worthy of God!
To this p o i n t Wesley has b e e n m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t t h e r e is a c o n n e c t i o n

b e t w e e n an official "total disregard for all religion" a n d t h e possibility of
i n t r o d u c i n g g e n u i n e Christianity to t h e general populace. O n l y a n entire
indifference to religion o n t h e p a r t of t h e g o v e r n m e n t m a k e s it possible for
a g o v e r n m e n t to tolerate t r u e Christianity. To p u t it a n o t h e r way: if t h e
g o v e r n m e n t were itself religious, t h e n it w o u l d inevitably persecute t r u e
Christianity. Wesley, evangelical a n d priest of a n established church, main
tains t h a t t h e cause of t r u e or vital Christianity is b e s t served by a govern
m e n t infested w i t h Deism, a n d t h a t t r u e Christianity is imperiled w h e n
s o m e version of Christianity receives official sanction!
It is in this c o n n e c t i o n that Wesley r e m a r k s u p o n t h e e m e r g i n g consti
tutional g o v e r n m e n t of England's former N o r t h A m e r i c a n colonies:

T H E O D O R E W. JENNINGS, JR.
I am not assured whether this [toleration] be the case or no in France and

Germany; but it is so beyond all contradiction in North-America: The total
indifference of the government there, whether there be any religion or none,
leaves room for the propagation of true, scriptural religion, without the least let
6
or hindrance.
A n u m b e r of p o i n t s call for c o m m e n t here. In t h e first place, w e s h o u l d

recall t h a t this is a b o u t t h e only g o o d t h i n g Wesley h a s to say a b o u t t h o s e
h e generally regarded as i m p i o u s rebels. A n d t h e g o o d t h i n g h e says refers
to t h e "total indifference of t h e g o v e r n m e n t there, w h e t h e r t h e r e b e a n y
religion or none." Precisely that which occasions so much consternation among
the adherents of the Religious Right is for Wesley an instance of divine providence!
It is w o r t h noting in this connection that Wesley's reading of t h e intent
of t h e F o u n d i n g Fathers s u p p o r t s t h e a r g u m e n t of t h o s e w h o maintain that
t h e intent of t h e Constitution is n o t only n o t to establish any religion b u t
also to b e utterly indifferent to religion. Wesley k n e w w h a t m a n y have
forgotten, namely, that t h e founders of o u r form of g o v e r n m e n t were t h e m
selves entirely pagan in their philosophical c o m m i t m e n t s . In Wesley's day
this was called "Deism"; today it is called "secular humanism." T h e framers of
t h e Constitution decided to protect t h e rights of "any religion or none." Thus,
t h e a r g u m e n t that t h e Constitution does n o t p e r m i t school prayer (which at
t h e very least would favor religion over atheism a n d give privileged status to
religion as such) is clearly s u p p o r t e d b y t h e evidence of at least o n e eigh
teenth-century reading of t h e "intent" of t h e framers of t h e Constitution.
But Wesley d o e s m o r e t h a n give s u p p o r t to a h u m a n i s t r e a d i n g of t h e
C o n s t i t u t i o n . H e also m a i n t a i n s t h a t this v e r y h u m a n i s m - t h i s v e r y indif
ference to religionis t h e providential condition for t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n of t r u e
Christianity. Thus, any a t t e m p t to m a k e g o v e r n m e n t m o r e "religious" m u s t
have t h e effect of i m p e d i n g t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n of evangelical Christianity. If
t h i s is so, t h e n t h e p r o g r a m of t h e Religious Right m u s t b e regarded as self-
stultifying or as subversive of t r u e Christianity. A n d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s t a n c e
of a n evangelical Christianity w o r t h y of t h e n a m e w o u l d b e to s u p p o r t a
view of g o v e r n m e n t t h a t m a k e s it t h e expression of secular h u m a n i s m . In
o r d e r to see h o w this is so, let u s a t t e m p t to clarify s o m e of Wesley's
r e a s o n s for taking a view t h a t is so at o d d s w i t h w h a t m a n y p e o p l e t o d a y
w o u l d consider " c o m m o n wisdom."
T h e basis for Wesley's view is supplied in t h e s a m e s e r m o n w h e n h e
WINTER 2005 401

replies to t h e position of a b i s h o p of his o w n established church. T h e

b i s h o p held t h a t t h e greatest d a y in t h e history of t h e Christian C h u r c h
was t h e d a y E m p e r o r C o n s t a n t i n e declared himself a Christian a n d so
e n d e d t h e p e r s e c u t i o n of t h e Christians. It is n o t surprising that a b i s h o p
of England's State c h u r c h should take s u c h a view. W h a t is surprising is
t h a t J o h n Wesley, w h o regarded himself as a zealous priest of that s a m e
church, should so v e h e m e n t l y disagree. H e r e is his reply.
I cannot, in any wise, subscribe to the Bishop's opinion in this matter. So far
from it, that I have long been convinced from the whole tenor of ancient
history, that this very event, Constantine's calling himself a Christian, and
pouring that flood of wealth and honour on the Christian Church, the clergy
in particular, was productive of more evil to the Church than all the ten perse
cutions put together. From the time that power, riches, and honour of all kinds
were heaped upon the Christians, vice of all kinds came in like a flood, both
on the Clergy and the laity. From the time that the Church and State, the king
doms of Christ and of the world, were so strangely and unnaturally blended
together, Christianity and Heathenism were so thoroughly incorporated with
each other, that they will hardly ever be divided till Christ comes to reign upon
earth. So that, instead of fancying that the glory of the New Jerusalem covered
the earth at that period, we have terrible proof that it was then, and has ever
7
since been, covered with the smoke of the bottomless pit.
Wesley's position, derived we recall from t h e s t u d y of "the w h o l e t e n o r

of ancient history," is that t r u e Christianity is fatally c o m p r o m i s e d w h e n it
enters into a n alliance with wealth a n d power. It t h e n t u r n s away from its
task of a n n o u n c i n g g o o d n e w s to t h e p o o r a n d b e c o m e s t h e guardian of
privilege. It forsakes t h e following of t h e Crucified to b e c o m e t h e h a n d m a i d
of imperial power. It was this c o r r u p t i o n against which t h e Reformers h a d
protested t w o centuries earlier. But t h a t protest had unleashed a fresh wave
of violence as c h u r c h e s allied themselves w i t h a n d b e c a m e t h e p a w n s of
c o n t e n d i n g princes a n d principalities. Thus, in Wesley's view, history itself
m a d e clear that t r u e Christianity m u s t ever b e t h e victim of any alliance
w i t h t h e State. For this was to mix "the k i n g d o m s of Christ a n d of t h e
world." F r o m this vantage point, then, t h e e m e r g e n c e of a studied indiffer
ence to religion as t h e c o r n e r s t o n e of political philosophy in t h e e i g h t e e n t h
c e n t u r y could b e viewed as an act of divine providence t h a t delivered t h e

gospel from its Babylonian captivity to t h e C o n s t a n t i n i a n temptation.

Wesley's view of t h e d a n g e r of a n alliance of t h e c h u r c h w i t h wealth
and p o w e r was derived n o t only from an a c a d e m i c s t u d y of t h e history of
t h e church, It was also a p r o d u c t of his o w n e x p e r i e n c e in leading t h e
Evangelical Revival of t h e e i g h t e e n t h century. Wesley's a t t e m p t to call
p e o p l e from a merely nominal, or conventional, Christianity to a truly
evangelical c o m m i t m e n t to t h e gospel was m e t w i t h p r o n o u n c e d opposi
tion o n t h e part of t h e established c h u r c h a n d t h e wealthy a n d powerful of
England. T h e story of t h e p e r s e c u t i o n of t h e M e t h o d i s t s by m o b s incited
by influential clergy a n d wealthy m e r c h a n t s a n d of t h e courage of t h e early
p r e a c h e r s like G e o r g e Whitefield a n d t h e Wesley b r o t h e r s r e m a i n s a fasci
n a t i n g tale even today.
W h a t Wesley learned from this p e r s e c u t i o n was t h a t w h e n t h e church
b e c o m e s hostage to t h e status q u o in a particular society, it reacts p u n i -
tively against any a t t e m p t to alter t h a t status q u o , especially w h e n s u c h a n
a t t e m p t calls for real r e p e n t a n c e a n d t h u s reversal of t h a t context. Thus, t h e
c h u r c h was m a d e to b e a n o p p o n e n t of t h e gospel by t h e very m e a n s by
w h i c h it s o u g h t t o acquire a position of p r o t e c t i o n or privilege in t h e world.
This p e r s e c u t i o n was n o t e n d e d by an e n l i g h t e n e d decision o n t h e p a r t
of t h e church, It c a m e a b o u t by way of t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of Deists, espe
cially t h e much-maligned King George, t h a t t h e State w o u l d protect t h e
right of any religious expression, or n o n e . That is, t h e C r o w n d e c i d e d o n
deistic or h u m a n i s t i c g r o u n d s t h a t n o p e r s e c u t i o n o n t h e basis of religious
expression would b e tolerated. Practically, this m e a n t that, as Wesley
expressed it, "there was a law even for Methodists." M u c h later, Wesley gave
this a c c o u n t in his s e r m o n "On G o d ' s Vineyard":
God stirred up the heart of our late gracious Sovereign [George II] to give such
orders to his Magistrates as, being put in execution, effectually quelled the
madness of the people. It was about the same time that a great man applied
personally to his Majesty, begging that he would please to "take a course to
stop these run-about preachers." His Majesty, looking sternly upon him,
answered without ceremony, like a King, "I tell you, while I sit on the throne,
8
no man shall be persecuted for conscience' sake."
T h e King's magistrates w e r e instructed to p u n i s h t h o s e w h o attacked

evangelicals because the King was officially (and also personally) indif-
WINTER 2005 403

ferent t o religion. To u n d e r s t a n d this it is only n e c e s s a r y t o ask w h a t w o u l d

have b e e n t h e result if t h e King h a d b e e n a zealot for t h e C h u r c h of
England (of which, after all, h e was t h e head)? In s u c h a case, if it a p p e a r e d
t h a t t h e evangelicals w e r e u n d e r m i n i n g t h e position of t h a t church, h e
would have b e e n p e r s u a d e d easily b y his o w n b i s h o p s t o o p p o s e t h e
Methodists, T h e King's indifference t o religion m a d e it possible for h i m t o
protect M e t h o d i s t s from p e r s e c u t i o n .
W h a t t h e framers of t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n m a n a g e d to d o was t o t u r n this
religious indifferentism i n t o t h e v e r y f o u n d a t i o n of a m o d e r n state. A s a
c o n s e q u e n c e , Wesley could hail t h e e m e r g i n g constitutional g o v e r n m e n t of
t h e U n i t e d States as a singular act of Providence in spite of h i s o p p o s i t i o n
b o t h to t h e revolution t h a t m a d e it possible a n d to t h e D e i s m that was its
philosophical basis.
W h a t Wesley knew, a n d w h a t m a n y of today's evangelicals have
forgotten, is t h a t t h e possibility of u n h i n d e r e d p r o c l a m a t i o n of evangelical
Christianity is best assured by a g o v e r n m e n t t h a t m a k e s indifference t o
religion a m a t t e r of p e r m a n e n t , strict, a n d unwavering policy. The call t o d a y
o n t h e p a r t of certain evangelicals for t h e State t o b e t h e p a t r o n a n d
protector of religion r e p r e s e n t s a terrible confusion w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e
character of b o t h d e m o c r a c y a n d t h e Christian faith. It s e e k s t o r e m a k e t h e
C o n s t a n t i n i a n alliance b e t w e e n t h e c h u r c h a n d t h e structures of this world.
In s o doing, it u n d e r m i n e s t h e v e r y f r e e d o m of t h e gospel t h a t is at t h e
h e a r t of a truly evangelical piety.
T h e a g e n d a of t h e Religious Right w o u l d m a k e t h e State t h e protector
of religion. It w o u l d d o this, for example, t h r o u g h a d d i n g a n a m e n d m e n t to
allow schools to e n c o u r a g e prayer. T h e r e are o t h e r s w h o w o u l d require
schools to teach religious d o c t r i n e (as in t h e case of scientific creationism).
Still o t h e r s would have t h e State subsidize private religious instruction. In
all of t h e s e ways, t h e State w o u l d b e m a d e t h e p a t r o n a n d p r o t e c t o r of reli
gious interests.
W h a t is n o t clearly s e e n is t h a t this m u s t lead to t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e
gospel itself. A s Wesley saw, t h e m i n u t e t h e State b e c o m e s t h e protector of
religion it takes a n interest in defending religion from attack. But w h a t it
m a y b e led t h u s t o defend religion against m a y in fact b e t h e gospel itself.
A n d t h o s e it p u n i s h e s for impiety m a y b e t h o s e w h o are seeking t o
proclaim t h e a u t h e n t i c gospel, real as o p p o s e d t o formal religion. This is
n o t a m e r e fantasy. T h e R o m a n p e r s e c u t i o n of Christianity was possible

b e c a u s e t h e State was t h e defender of R o m a n religion. A n d t h e t h r e a t of

p e r s e c u t i o n directed against early evangelicals was motivated by calls for
t h e State t o defend t h a t religion of w h i c h it was t h e c h a m p i o n . T h e twen
tieth-century witnesses continual illustrations of t h e s a m e t e n d e n c y of
putatively religious states to attack t h e religious convictions of t h o s e w h o
are d e e m e d to be harmful t o their interests. For Christians t o willingly
place their necks in this n o o s e is a tribute to o u r s h o r t n e s s of m e m o r y a n d
o u r p e r e n n i a l desire t o s u p p l e m e n t t h e w o r k of t h e H o l y Spirit w i t h t h e
trappings of respectability, wealth, a n d power.
For its part, there are always t h o s e w h o , in t h e interest of t h e p o w e r and
prestige of t h e State a n d its policies, are only t o o h a p p y to w r a p themselves
in t h e robes of piety. They are eager to p e r s u a d e us t h a t n o t only wise policy
b u t also piety require of us allegiance to their causes a n d programs. T h e
cynical manipulation of piety to cloak t h e interests of avarice a n d arrogance
was d e n o u n c e d by t h e prophets. It c o n t i n u e s to b e o n e of t h e chief strate
gies of worldly power. But t h e F o u n d i n g Fathers realized t h a t this was inim
ical to democratic government. For t h a t which w r a p s itself in t h e r o b e s of
religion d o e s so w i t h t h e aim of n o t submitting itself to question, of
s t a n d i n g s o m e h o w above criticism. W h e n this h a p p e n s , though, t h e exercise
of d e m o c r a c y b e c o m e s impossible. Thus, in t h e n a m e of t h e responsible
exercise of political rights it was necessary to banish religion from t h e
s p h e r e of t h e State. In so doing, religion was set free for t h e first time in
history to b e itself. That is w h a t Wesley called a "singular providence."
Instead of seeking to s t r e n g t h e n t h e ties t h a t b i n d religion a n d govern
m e n t , evangelicals should b e seeking to c o m p l e t e t h e w o r k of this separa
tion. T h e v e r y protections t h a t w e enjoy (special tax exemptions, freedom
from military service for clergy, a n d so on) derive from Constantinefrom
t h a t v e r y alliance b e t w e e n church a n d e m p i r e t h a t resulted in t h e c o r r u p
tion of t h e gospel a n d t h e absolute d o m i n i o n of t h e State over t h e Church.
For t h e sake of t h e freedom of t h e gospel, t h e s e privileges s h o u l d b e
renounced.
While we are at it, it w o u l d b e a very g o o d idea if o u r c h u r c h e s w e r e t o
have t h e courage to get A m e r i c a n flags o u t of their sanctuaries. T h e pres
e n c e of t h e s e flags in t h e w o r s h i p s p a c e p r o v i d e s g r o u n d s for t h e confu
sion b e t w e e n ultimate a n d earthly loyalty, w h i c h is t h e fertile s e e d b e d of
idolatry. Removing t h e flag s h o u l d in n o way b e c o n s t r u e d as a n unpatri
otic act. O n t h e contrary, it would b e a gesture of solidarity w i t h t h e
WINTER 2005 405

framers of t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n in perfecting their work of separating C h u r c h

a n d State.
There m a y b e t h o s e w h o would p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e framers of t h e
C o n s t i t u t i o n did n o t themselves c a r r y m a t t e r s to this extreme. That w o u l d
b e true. But, as in t h e case of t h e e n f r a n c h i s e m e n t of w o m e n and t h e aboli
tion of slavery, t h e w o r k of t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n is o n g o i n g . It requires of us
t h e willingness t o take further t h a n t h e framers d a r e d t h e basic principles
t h a t a n i m a t e d their work. Just as a c o m m i t m e n t to justice led successors of
t h o s e w h o w r o t e t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n t o abolish slavery; as a c o m m i t m e n t to
d e m o c r a c y led o t h e r s to recognize t h e right of t h e poor, African-
A m e r i c a n s , a n d w o m e n to voteso also a p r o p e r regard for t h e achieve
m e n t of t h e F o u n d i n g Fathers w o u l d rightly lead us t o c o n t i n u e a n d
perfect their w o r k of separating C h u r c h a n d State.
W h o k n o w s , w e m a y discover in this effort t h a t secular h u m a n i s t s a n d
evangelicals m a y again recognize a c o m m o n purposeone t h a t p r o m o t e s
b o t h d e m o c r a t i c freedoms a n d t h e freedom of t h e gospel.
Theodore W. Jennings, Jr., is Professor of Biblical and Constructive Theology at

Chicago Theological Seminary, Chicago, Illinois.
Endnotes
1. For a discussion of Wesley's political views in this regard, see my Good News
to the Poor: John Wesley's Evangelical Economics (Nashville: Abingdon, 1990), 199-
222.
2. The Bicentennial Edition of The Works of John Wesley, ed. by Albert C. Outler
(Nashville: Abingdon, 1986), 3:441 (hereafter Works).
3. Ibid., 451.
4. Ibid., 451-52.
5. Ibid., 452.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid., 450.
8. John Wesley, "On God's Vineyard," in Works, 3:513.

I ill M
The Church in Review
How can The United Methodist Church most effectively employ

licensed local pastors in ministry?
G A R Y D. M O O D Y J A M E S L. M A Y F I E L D
T he United Methodist Church

has a long history of using local
pastors to facilitate ministry in rural
T h e o p t i o n of p e r s o n s serving
The U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h
as licensed local pastors gives o u r
a n d small-church settings. A d e n o m i n a t i o n practical flexibility in
perceived shortage of o r d a i n e d providing pastoral leadership t o
clergy has b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e prolif local churches. F o u r of t h e ways in
eration of p e r s o n s c h o o s i n g local- w h i c h o u r d e n o m i n a t i o n is well
pastor ministry in answer t o t h e call served by having this o p t i o n have
of t h e c h u r c h for affordable clergy b e e n a r o u n d for s o m e time. A fifth
for o u r small churches. A s a result, is relatively new.
w e n o w have m o r e t h a n 6,500 full- W h a t t h e s e five o p t i o n s have in
a n d part-time local pastors u n d e r c o m m o n is t h a t t h e y h e l p T h e
a p p o i n t m e n t in o u r churches, n o t U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h provide
c o u n t i n g t h e associate m e m b e r s clergy leadership to congregations.
u n d e r t h e 1992 Discipline, I believe Let m e explain.
t h a t if T h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t First, t h e r e is w h a t I call "the
C h u r c h w e r e to b e innovative in its a p p r e n t i c e pastor" u s e of licensed
d e p l o y m e n t of t h e s e individuals local pastors. This takes t w o basic
w h o , o u t of their d e e p e x p e r i e n c e s forms. O n e is t h e s t u d e n t a p p r e n
of faith have r e s p o n d e d to t h e tice w h o is serving as a pastor of a
church's call for m o r e clergy, t h e congregation while s h e or h e is
d e n o m i n a t i o n would find itself enrolled in formal education,
o n c e again growing in places w h e r e p r e p a r i n g for seminary, o r
s e n d i n g o r d a i n e d clergy w o u l d n o t c o m p l e t i n g h e r or his s e m i n a r y
b e cost effective. degree. T h e s e licensed local pastors
We n e e d to develop t h e n e w are serving congregations as a way
ideas for pastoral ministry t h a t have of e a r n i n g m o n e y to help t h e m
already b e g u n to b e a r fruit in m a n y c o n t i n u e their j o u r n e y toward a
continued on page 408 continued on page 411

LICENSED LOCAL PASTORS
continued from page 407

a n n u a l conferences, For example, t h e N o r t h w e s t Texas a n d Florida a n n u a l
conferences are using local pastors w i t h great success in new-church starts
as well as in transformational a p p o i n t m e n t s for marginal churches. M a n y of
o u r a n n u a l conferences have "transitional c h u r c h e s " t h a t are o n t h e b r i n k
of b e i n g closed. S o m e of t h e s e c h u r c h e s are in t r o u b l e b e c a u s e t h e y are
located in areas w h e r e t h e p o p u l a t i o n is shrinking. O t h e r s are in n e e d of
"intentional interim" clergy b u t c a n n o t afford t h e m . In m a n y of t h e s e situa
tions, cooperative ministry efforts o r multi-charge a p p o i n t m e n t s could b e
designed t h a t could b e served very well b y local pastors.
Local pastors are ideal for transitional c h u r c h settings for several
reasons. First, their lower salary p r e s e n t s less risk a n d enables marginal
c h u r c h e s t o have pastoral ministry. Second, local pastors' life e x p e r i e n c e
often r e s o n a t e s well w i t h t h e life e x p e r i e n c e s of p e r s o n s in small c h u r c h e s ,
t h u s m a k i n g it easier to s p e a r h e a d innovative ministry. I k n o w of a local
pastor in Florida, a former a u t o m o b i l e dealer, w h o has o n e of t h e fastest-
growing c h u r c h e s in his district. His abilities m a t c h e d t h e n e e d of his
congregation a n d h e c o n t i n u e s t o lead t h e m forward in ministry. This
pastor's time a n d effort have t u r n e d o u t b e a v e r y g o o d i n v e s t m e n t for t h e
congregation. Third, quite often t h e children of local pastors are grown.
Thus, t h e s e pastors d o n ' t have t o w o r r y a b o u t t h e educational and family
issues t h a t arise for clergy w i t h school-age children. Local pastors are very
itinerant clergy.
Rural districts could b e very creative w i t h a p p o i n t m e n t s in situations
w h e r e medium-size c h u r c h e s t h a t are s u r r o u n d e d by a n u m b e r of small
rural c h u r c h e s n e e d part-time associate pastors. Forty p e r c e n t of s t u d e n t s
currently enrolled in t h e C o u r s e of S t u d y have bachelor's or m o r e
1
advanced d e g r e e s a n d are trained, e x p e r i e n c e d teachers. W h y n o t u s e
s u c h a pastor to serve simultaneously as a part-time associate pastor in a
medium-size c h u r c h a n d also as p a s t o r in o n e of t h e s u r r o u n d i n g rural
churches? In fact, a significant n u m b e r of local pastors a n d associate
m e m b e r s have extensive e x p e r i e n c e in b u s i n e s s administration o r profes
sional careers t h a t could b e used w i t h great effect in t h e s e settings.
A n o t h e r innovative o p p o r t u n i t y for using local pastors is t o deploy
ethnicparticularly Hispaniclocal pastors in c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h large,
growing e t h n i c p o p u l a t i o n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , local pastors could serve in
c o m m u n i t y - a n d social-service ministry while also p a s t o r i n g a local church.

GARY D . MOODY
They could serve in specialized ministry in hospital a n d industrial chap

2
laincy as o n e c o m p o n e n t of their pastoral ministry. Their c o m m u n i t i e s
a n d their congregations could benefit greatly from this.
T h e d e p l o y m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s for local pastors a n d associate m e m b e r s
are limited only by t h e inability or t h e reluctance of T h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t
C h u r c h to b e innovative in t h e way it prepares t h e m for their work, Called
to ministry o u t of t h e m i d s t of o u r c h u r c h e s , local p a s t o r s r e p r e s e n t t o t h e
d e n o m i n a t i o n t h e vast secular w o r k e x p e r i e n c e of t h e p e o p l e in our
congregations. The d e n o m i n a t i o n should capitalize o n this reservoir of
e x p e r i e n c e a n d use local pastors' zeal to serve G o d in pastoral ministry. It
is time for t h e G e n e r a l Board of Higher E d u c a t i o n a n d Ministry to review
t h e C o u r s e of Study School system in light of t h e n e e d s of small-member
ship c h u r c h e s as well as financially challenged medium-size c h u r c h e s a n d
to design a curriculum t h a t will use local pastors a n d associate m e m b e r s to
facilitate n e w and effective ministry in t h e s e settings.
D o we n e e d chaplains w h o are able to w o r k in isolated a n d low-paying
situations? Let us train a n d a p p o i n t local pastors to this work. D o we n e e d
p e r s o n s w i t h financial, educational, or administrative skills w h o also feel
called to pastor small churches? Let us give t h e m specific training to serve
b o t h as associate pastors in medium-size c h u r c h e s as well as t h e ministry
a n d leadership training t h e y n e e d for p a s t o r i n g small churches. Are n e w -
c h u r c h starts t o o expensive for s e m i n a r y graduates? A p p o i n t local p a s t o r s
a n d associate m e m b e r s w h o have s h o w n abilities in t h e s e areas to start
n e w c h u r c h e s that will k e e p T h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h alive a n d vitally
active in serving Christ.
Finally, I would like to look at two i m p o r t a n t actions t h a t will impact
t h e possibilities for deploying local pastors a n d associate m e m b e r s in t h e
future. First is t h e r e i n s t a t e m e n t of t h e category of "associate m e m b e r " of
t h e a n n u a l conference by t h e 2004 G e n e r a l Conference. T h o u g h s o m e w h a t
different from its 1992 definition, this category affords local p a s t o r s a level
of social and vocational a c c e p t a n c e w i t h i n o u r clergy system. T h e o p p o r t u
nity to b e c o m e associate m e m b e r s of t h e conference is a significant b o o s t
to t h e morale of local pastors a n d also e x p a n d s their usefulness.
T h e second action is t h e study of ministry assigned to t h e G e n e r a l
Board of Higher Education and Ministry by General Conference last year.
The study is an o p p o r t u n i t y to help t h o s e engaged in ministry to define
w h a t t h e y d o and h o w best to d o it. In a recent article in The Source, Robert
WINTER 2005 409

Kohler, assistant general secretary in t h e Board's Division of O r d a i n e d

Ministry, says t h a t t h e s t u d y "will engage t h e O r d e r of D e a c o n s , the O r d e r
of Elders, t h e Fellowship of Local Pastors a n d Associate M e m b e r s , a n d t h e
laity of t h e c h u r c h in a discussion of t h e mission of t h e church, t h e o r d e r i n g
of ministry, a n d their effect o n t h o s e w h o minister in t h e n a m e of Jesus
Christ.'^
H o w can T h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h m o s t effectively deploy local
pastors in ministry? While t h e responsibility for a n s w e r i n g this q u e s t i o n
finally rests w i t h t h e w h o l e d e n o m i n a t i o n , w e m u s t t r u s t G o d to s h o w us
h o w to w o r k it o u t together.
Gary D. Moody is an Associate Member in the Oklahoma Annual Conference

and editor of The Source, a newsletter of the National Fellowship of Associate
Members and Local Pastors of The United Methodist Church.
Endnotes
1. Ellis L. Larsen, "What Is the F u t u r e N e e d for Local Pastors?" The Source
(March 2005): 3.
2. The 2004 General Conference has made it possible for licensed local pastors
to be appointed to extension ministries. See The Book of Discipline of The United
Methodist Churcb-2004 (Nashville: The United Methodist Publishing House,
2004), 1 316.
3. R o b e r t F. Kohler, " C o m m i s s i o n o n t h e S t u d y of M i n i s t r y W e l c o m e s
Participation of Local Pastors," The Source (May 2005): 2.

JAMES L. MAYFIELD
continued from page 407

s e m i n a r y degree; a n d t h e y are also learning a b o u t b e i n g a pastor, t h e way
any a p p r e n t i c e learns h e r or his craft or profession. T h e congregations
served by t h e s e s t u d e n t a p p r e n t i c e pastors n o t only receive ministry b u t
also have a special o p p o r t u n i t y to participate in t h e ministry of e d u c a t i n g
pastors.
Second, t h e use of licensed local pastors in a n a p p r e n t i c e role also
m a k e s conference m e m b e r s h i p a possibility for p e r s o n s for w h o m t h e
s e m i n a r y r o u t e to o r d i n a t i o n a n d conference m e m b e r s h i p is n o t a realistic
option. This route is analogous to o t h e r a p p r e n t i c e r o u t e s to professional
c o m p e t e n c e and certification. T h e major p o r t i o n of their e d u c a t i o n is n o t
in t h e classroom b u t in on-the-job training. This g r o u p of licensed local
p a s t o r s is focused only o n serving local congregations as pastors a n d n o t
o n ministries t h a t require m o r e formal theological e d u c a t i o n a n d special
ized training.
Third, licensed local pastors w h o m I a m calling "second-career s e r v a n t
pastors" are t h o s e p e r s o n s w h o have retired from s o m e o t h e r type of work
a n d have financial resources sufficient to free t h e m from d e p e n d i n g u p o n a
congregation as their only source of i n c o m e . Because of b o t h their stage in
life a n d their financial freedom, t h e s e pastors t e n d to b e remarkably free
from w h a t I call "preacher ambition" a n d t e n d to b e c o n t e n t w h e r e t h e y are
a p p o i n t e d , w i t h minimal c o n c e r n a b o u t their next a p p o i n t m e n t .
T h e s e second-career servant pastors differ from a p p r e n t i c e licensed
local pastors in that t h e y have n o desire to move toward conference
m e m b e r s h i p . Their goal is t o b e u s e d b y t h e b i s h o p t o serve a local church.
In m y a n n u a l conference, t h e y usually serve small, rural congregations that
n e e d a pastor w h o "loves t h e Lord a n d will love t h e folks."
F o u r t h , a n o t h e r g r o u p , "part-time worker-pastors," are licensed local
pastors w h o s e p r i m a r y e m p l o y m e n t is n o t related to t h e c h u r c h b u t w h o
serve small congregations o n a part-time basis. I r e m e m b e r a m a n d u r i n g
m y c h i l d h o o d w h o worked in a local b a n k b u t w h o , for m a n y years, each
week-end served a tiny congregation in a rural t o w n w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n of
approximately 750 p e o p l e located 30 miles from his h o m e . Part-time
worker-pastors are n o t available to be sent a n y w h e r e in t h e a n n u a l confer
e n c e b u t are willing to serve small congregations w i t h i n a reasonable
driving distance from w h e r e t h e y live a n d w o r k d u r i n g t h e week.
Fifth, a relatively recent use of t h e licensed local pastor o p t i o n is by
WINTER 2005 411

p e r s o n s w h o have c o m p l e t e d s e m i n a r y a n d are qualified in every w a y b u t

o n e for conference m e m b e r s h i p a n d ordination. T h e y are n o t able h o n e s t l y
to say t h e y are willing to go w h e r e v e r t h e b i s h o p would s e n d t h e m . T h e y
have t o o m u c h integrity to play "word games," m u c h less t o lie in o r d e r t o
b e o r d a i n e d . So t h e y offer t h e m s e l v e s in pastoral ministry as licensed local
pastors, to b e u s e d by t h e b i s h o p a n d t h e c h u r c h within certain geograph
ical limits as n e e d e d .
Two of t h e associate pastors of t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n I serve are licensed
local pastors. They are a m o n g t h e m o s t gifted a n d effective clergy w i t h
w h o m I have h a d t h e privilege to work. T h e y are licensed local pastors b u t
have m o r e formal e d u c a t i o n t h a n m o s t o r d a i n e d clergy. H e l e n A l m a n z a
has B.A.. M.A., Ph.D., a n d M.Div. degrees, while Ron C a m p b e l l has B.A.,
M.Ed., M.Div., L.P.C., a n d D.Min. degrees. Both are u n a b l e to say w i t h
integrity t h a t t h e y are willing t o go w h e r e v e r t h e b i s h o p w i s h e s t o a p p o i n t
t h e m . Both m u s t stay w i t h i n t h e Austin area for family reasons. So rather
t h a n play w o r d g a m e s or lie, t h e y have c h o s e n t h e r o u t e of licensed local
pastor a n d serve at t h e will of t h e b i s h o p a n d t h e n e e d of t h e conference.
W h e n t h e y can b e of use in t h e Austin area, t h e y will serve t h e church; b u t
should t h e b i s h o p c h o o s e n o t to u s e t h e m in this area, t h e y will e a r n their
daily b r e a d in o t h e r ways. Ron has g o n e back to w o r k for t h e public
schools at least twice since e a r n i n g his D.Min. degree, b e c a u s e there was
n o a p p o i n t m e n t for h i m in or n e a r Austin.
The o p t i o n of e m p l o y i n g licensed local pastors gives o u r d e n o m i n a t i o n
additional practical flexibility in providing n e e d e d pastoral leadership to
congregations.
W h a t is t h e p r i m a r y difference b e t w e e n t h e ministry of t h e licensed
local pastor a n d t h a t of t h e o r d a i n e d elder in T h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t
Church? In o u r c u r r e n t practice, t h e difference has less t o d o w i t h t h e
a u t h o r i t y t o administer s a c r a m e n t s a n d m o r e to d o w i t h issues of c h u r c h
order in regard to (1) supervision, (2) t h e c o v e n a n t b e t w e e n t h e a n n u a l
conference a n d elders w i t h reference to a p p o i n t m e n t s , a n d (3) issues
related to t h e o r d e r i n g of the c h u r c h at large (especially issues related to
t h e annual, jurisdictional, a n d general conferences).
T h e implied w i s d o m is t h a t t h e p r i m a r y responsibility for clergy input
a n d leadership in t h e o r d e r i n g of t h e c h u r c h is best served by t h o s e w i t h
formal theological e d u c a t i o n a n d e x p e r i e n c e t h a t includes b u t also goes
b e y o n d on-the-job-training of serving congregations.

JAMES L. MAYFIELD
O n e final question. Would it n o t b e wise to provide d e a c o n s w i t h t h e

s a m e sacramental a u t h o r i t y we currently accord licensed local pastors?
Again, as it s t a n d s now, t h e p r i m a r y practical difference b e t w e e n elders
a n d d e a c o n s has primarily to d o w i t h w h o supervises w h o m rather t h a n
w i t h w h o is a u t h o r i z e d to administer t h e sacramentsa relationship n o t
unlike t h a t b e t w e e n t h e elder a n d t h e licensed local pastor. I a m convinced
that, if d e a c o n s had t h e s a m e sacramental responsibilities as licensed local
pastors, m a n y w h o feel called to specialized ministries o n c h u r c h staffs or
b e y o n d t h e local c h u r c h w o u l d b e m o r e appropriately o r d a i n e d d e a c o n
a n d have t h e deacon's relationship to t h e a p p o i n t m e n t process.
James L, Mayfield is Senior Pastor at Tarrytown United Methodist Church in

Austin, Texas, and an elder in the Southwest Texas Annual Conference.
WINTER 2005 413

Lectionary Study
C A T H I E L E I M E N S T O L L
E piphanyl T h e w o r d itself is surely h e a r d as a n exclamation, for a n

e p i p h a n y is a n e x p e r i e n c e of divine revelation. H o w could o n e
acknowledge s u c h a manifestation w i t h o u t s h o u t i n g "Glory."? T h e celebra
tion of E p i p h a n y is t h e oldest e l e m e n t of t h e three-part C h r i s t m a s cycle
a n d was t h e third Christian holy day established, following Easter a n d
Pentecost. In s o m e areas, this celebration day m a y have b e e n in place as
early as t h e late s e c o n d century. Originally, E p i p h a n y signified t h e b i r t h of
Jesus, t h e revealing of G o d to t h e world. However, in t h e fourth century,
w h e n C h r i s t m a s was eventually established a n d c o n n e c t e d to a particular
date, E p i p h a n y was refocused o n t h e b a p t i s m of Jesus. J o h n C h r y s o s t o m
explained t h e m e a n i n g of E p i p h a n y to a c o n g r e g a t i o n in A n t i o c h in 387
C.E. w i t h t h e s e words:
For this is the day on which he was baptized and made holy the nature of the
waters. . . . Why then is this day called Epiphany? Because it was not known
when he was born that he became manifest to all, but when he was baptized;
1
for up to this day he was unknown to the multitudes.
Over t h e years, this r e m a i n e d t h e focus of t h e day in t h e East, b u t t h e

West m a d e E p i p h a n y t h e c o m m e m o r a t i o n of t h e visit of t h e Magithe
manifestation of t h e Divine to t h e Gentiles.
A l t h o u g h t h e Sundays following E p i p h a n y have n o t constituted a
special s e a s o n per se, t h e Lectionary passages certainly lend themselves t o
s u c h a t r e a t m e n t . Between E p i p h a n y a n d Lent, G o d is revealed in t h e
G o s p e l a c c o u n t s of Jesus' b a p t i s m a n d ministry. Additionally, t h e t h e m e s
of light o v e r c o m i n g darkness, of G o d ' s active involvement in t h e world,
a n d of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of transforming e n c o u n t e r s w i t h G o d in t h e
concrete events of life are teachings t h a t a p p e a r t h r o u g h o u t t h e Scripture
selections of t h e s e weeks. H e l p i n g w o r s h i p e r s c o n n e c t t h e events a n d

CATHIE LEIMENSTOLL
t h e m e s of t h e Scriptures w i t h t h e s e a s o n of t h e Christian year can surely

e n r i c h u n d e r s t a n d i n g s a n d reinforce o u r o w n o p p o r t u n i t i e s for e p i p h a n i e s
in t h e day-to-day living of t h e n e w year,
T h e passages from t h e Book of Psalms for t h e Sundays following
E p i p h a n y c o n n e c t well w i t h t h e overall t h e m e s of t h e season, a n d t h e y link
in interesting ways to t h e o t h e r lectionary passages for e a c h week. M a n y
p e o p l e express great love for t h e psalms, b u t t h a t fondness often reflects
their familiarity a n d comfort w i t h only certain well-known psalms. M a n y
m o r e psalms are s e l d o m read or h e a r d as t h e topics of s e r m o n s . However,
as N a h u m M. Sarna p o i n t s out, t h e u n i q u e n e s s a n d p o w e r of t h e psalms
2
are as a record of t h e " h u m a n q u e s t for God." In t h e Law a n d t h e
Prophets, G o d reaches o u t to h u m a n beings. T h e initiative is w i t h G o d a n d
t h e m e s s a g e that is shared is a divine word. G o d s p e a k s a n d p e o p l e listen.
But in t h e Psalms, it is h u m a n beings t h a t reach o u t t o G o d . T h e p e o p l e
initiate t h e conversation a n d h u m a n language is t h e vehicle of c o m m u n i c a
tion. In this sharing, G o d receives a n d c h o o s e s to r e s p o n d b a s e d o n divine
3
w i s d o m . Thus, t h e h u m a n l a m e n t s a n d praises, t h e struggles a n d h o p e s ,
expressed in the psalms e m p h a s i z e i m p o r t a n t t r u t h s a b o u t t h e j o u r n e y of
faith: G o d listens to t h e praises of o u r lips a n d t h e n e e d s of o u r hearts.
G o d e n t e r s into o u r struggle to align o u r beliefs w i t h t h e d i s s o n a n t experi
e n c e s of life; and, like Jacob at Penuel, t h e r e are blessings in t h e struggle.
T h e s e are t r u t h s w i t h w h i c h w o r s h i p e r s c a n identify: their q u e s t for God,
their struggle to h a r m o n i z e faith a n d life, their y e a r n i n g t o b e blessed. With
G o d ' s grace, e p i p h a n i e s a b o u n d .
January 8 2006First Sunday after the Epiphany

f
P s a l m 2 9 ; Gen. 1:1-5; Acts 19:1-7; Mark 1:4-11

C o n s e n s u s suggests t h a t Psalm 2 9 reflects an older C a n a a n i t e psalm t h a t
was t a k e n over by Israel a n d refocused o n t h e absolute p o w e r of Yahweh.
T h e ability to a b s o r b a n d a d a p t ideas a n d beliefs from t h e various cultures
a r o u n d t h e m is a well-known aspect of t h e H e b r e w faith. Originally, this
psalm m a y have b e e n a s o n g of praise to Baal, t h e C a n a a n i t e w e a t h e r god,
w h o was believed to have p o w e r over floods a n d waters. But n o w t h e psalm
expresses t h e sovereignty of Yahweh over all o t h e r gods, over t h e forces of
n a t u r e , a n d over c h a o s in general. S o m e scholars have identified this as a
praise psalm following t h e form of a b e g i n n i n g imperative t o w o r s h i p
(w. 1-2); a listing of r e a s o n s for t h a t worship, s h o w n in t h e descriptions of
WINTER 2005 415

LECTIONARY STUDY
G o d ' s p o w e r over life a n d events ( w . 3-9); a n d a c o n c l u s i o n s h o w i n g G o d

e n t h r o n e d as King offering s t r e n g t h a n d blessings (w. 10-11). However,
Walter B r u e g g e m a n n labels Psalm 29 a "psalm of e n t h r o n e m e n t " a n d
further identifies it as a p s a l m of "new orientation." T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of
Yahweh as King b r i n g s o r d e r a n d well-being to t h e world. This o r d e r over
c o m e s t h e anxieties a n d t h r e a t s of life a n d "the very act of singing t h e s o n g
4
is itself a practice of t h a t n e w order." T h e s o n g r e m i n d s believers t h a t G o d
is o n t h e t h r o n e a n d all is u n d e r divine c o m m a n d .
W i t h o u t a d o u b t , Psalm 29 p r e s e n t s G o d as a G o d of ultimate power.
This p o w e r is e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h G o d ' s voice t h a t t h u n d e r s above t h e
waters. It is a voice of p o w e r a n d s p l e n d o r t h a t flashes fire (v. 7). It can
"break t h e c e d a r s of L e b a n o n " (v. 5fr)-an e x a m p l e m e a n t t o get p e o p l e ' s
attention. T h e cedar is a tree of great h e i g h t a n d strength; a n d King
S o l o m o n c h o s e t h e c e d a r s of L e b a n o n for w o o d w h e n t h e t i m e c a m e t o
build t h e Temple. G o d ' s voice d o e s n o t shatter just any tree; it can shatter
t h e strongest of trees. G o d ' s voice c a n m a k e t h e m o u n t a i n s of L e b a n o n
"skip like a calf, a n d Sirion [ a n o t h e r n a m e for M o u n t H e r m o n ] like a y o u n g
wild ox" (v. 6). G o d ' s voice c a n affect all of n a t u r e . In light of such power,
t h e psalmist suggests, t h e only a p p r o p r i a t e r e s p o n s e is to w o r s h i p - t o cry
"Glory!" (v. 9b).
This act of w o r s h i p c o m e s from a g r o u p of "heavenly beings" w h o are
i n t r o d u c e d at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e p s a l m as p a r t of t h e call to worship.
"Ascribe to t h e LORD, O heavenly beings, ascribe to t h e LORD glory a n d
strength" (v. 1). This e x p r e s s i o n s e e m s to reflect t h e older image of a heav
enly c o u r t c o m p r i s e d of lesser g o d s a n d / o r angels. A l t h o u g h t h e m e m b e r s
of this c o u r t are c o m m a n d e d to w o r s h i p , their e x p r e s s i o n of "Glory!"
c o m e s only after t h e y see t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n of G o d ' s power, t h a t is, after
t h e y w i t n e s s e d a n epiphany, if y o u will. O n l y t h e n are t h e y m o v e d to an
appropriate response.
T h e psalm e n d s w i t h G o d e n t h r o n e d forever a n d above all: above heav
enly beings, chaos, a n d creation, from w h e r e G o d gives s t r e n g t h to G o d ' s
p e o p l e a n d blesses t h e m w i t h peace. G o d ' s p o w e r is n o t p o w e r for p o w e r ' s
sake b u t r a t h e r p o w e r t h a t b r i n g s o r d e r to a world of anxiety a n d t h r e a t so
t h a t p e o p l e c a n live in s t r e n g t h a n d p e a c e .
Psalm 2 9 p r e s e n t s several t h e m e s to explore in s e r m o n preparation.
Both t h e t r a n s c e n d e n c e a n d i m m a n e n c e of G o d are reflected in t h e presen
tation of G o d ' s m i g h t y p o w e r a n d in G o d ' s desire a n d willingness to bless.

CATHIE LEIMENSTOLL
T h e "heavenly beings" serve as a kind of m o d e l for h u m a n worshipers. Like

t h e heavenly court, h u m a n beings are called to w o r s h i p God, recognize
G o d ' s strength a n d splendor, a n d r e s p o n d appropriately. In a sense, e a r t h is
challenged to mirror heaven a n d cry "Glory!" Recognizing and exploring
this call to appropriate w o r s h i p m a y b e o n e a p p r o a c h to a s e r m o n focused
o n Psalm 29. In his b o o k The Bible Jesus Read, Philip Yancey suggests t h a t
U.S. A m e r i c a n s struggle to express praise a n d a d o r a t i o n to G o d . Sports fans
a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t afficionados s e e m to have n o trouble idolizing a n d
worshiping o u t s t a n d i n g athletes or famous singers or actors. But w h e n it
c o m e s to praising t h e Lord w h o m a d e heaven a n d earth, p e o p l e s e e m inhib
5
ited a n d u n s u r e . O n e way to m a k e this psalm c o m e alive m a y b e to preach
"around" t h e events of a w o r s h i p servicesharing t h e call t o w o r s h i p a n d
discussing to w h a t p e o p l e feel t h e y are being called. W h a t might b e G o d ' s
expectation of G o d ' s p e o p l e in a worship setting? T h e h y m n s , t h e Scripture,
t h e proclamation of t h e Wordall are examples of G o d ' s p o w e r a n d glory
that should lead to appropriate r e s p o n s e (i.e., affirmation of faith, offering,
etc.). All t h e s e are ways of proclaiming "Glory!"
Several images in this psalm c o n n e c t in interesting ways t o t h e o t h e r

lectionary texts of t h e day. First a n d foremost, Psalm 29 d e s c r i b e s t h e
d e m o n s t r a t i o n of divine s p l e n d o r as h a p p e n i n g t h r o u g h t h e p o w e r of
G o d ' s voice. A l t h o u g h G o d ' s voice is r e p r e s e n t e d as affecting m a n y aspects
of creation, controlling t h e n a t u r e of water is m e n t i o n e d m o r e t h a n once.
Both of t h e s e imagesvoice a n d waterare central t o t h e G e n e s i s a n d
M a r k a n lections. In t h e o p e n i n g creation story, t h e Spirit of G o d is
hovering, brooding, over t h e face of t h e watersand t h e n G o d speaks.
G o d ' s powerful voice calls light into being a n d separates light from dark
ness. As in Psalm 29, here is a G o d w i t h a voice t h a t brings order from
c h a o s a n d light from d a r k n e s s a n d w h o blesses G o d ' s p e o p l e . This s a m e
p o w e r of voice a n d s t r e n g t h a p p e a r s in t h e M a r k a n baptismal story. As
s o o n as Jesus c o m e s u p o u t of t h e water, h e sees t h e h e a v e n s b e i n g "torn
apart" (v. 10), t h e Spirit d e s c e n d s o n him, a n d a voice from h e a v e n says,
"You are m y Son, t h e Beloved; w i t h y o u I a m well pleased" (v. 11). This is a
voice t h a t tears o p e n t h e heavens, t h a t claims Jesus as Son, a n d creates a
m o m e n t of epiphany. In t h e M a r k a n pericope, a b a p t i s m of t h e Spirit is
also i n t r o d u c e d by J o h n t h e Baptist, w h o confesses t h a t this is n o t a
b a p t i s m h e c a n offer b u t o n e t h a t will b e given b y t h e p r o m i s e d O n e w h o
is coming. T h e baptism of t h e Spirit is often expressed w i t h t h e image of
WINTER 2005 417

LECTIONARY STUDY
fire as at Pentecost, a n image used also in Psalm 29:7, "The voice of t h e

LORD flashes forth flames of fire." This image c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e third
lection for this Sunday, w h i c h describes Paul at E p h e s u s talking w i t h
believers w h o h a d received only John's baptism of r e p e n t a n c e . Paul
p r o c e e d s to b a p t i z e t h e m in t h e n a m e of t h e Lord Jesus a n d t h e y receive
t h e Holy S p i r i t Clearly, t h e s e images lend t h e m s e l v e s to a s e r m o n o n
baptism t h a t stresses t h e centrality of G o d / C h r i s t as Lord of our lives.
January 15,2006Second Sunday after the Epiphany

P s . 139:1-6,13-18; 1 Sam. 3:1-10; 1 Cor. 6:12-20; John 1:43-51
T h e lection uses only a p a r t of this psalm, avoiding t h e section t h a t asks
G o d to kill t h e e n e m i e s of t h e psalmist, w h o m t h e writer also identifies as
G o d ' s e n e m i e s . T h e section of Psalm 139 t h a t is t h e focus of t h e lectionary
reading p r e s e n t s a n all-knowing, ever-present G o d w h o encircles t h e
psalmist and k n o w s every t h o u g h t a n d every action. This is a G o d w h o is
so closely c o n n e c t e d to t h e writer t h a t G o d has k n o w n h i m or h e r since his
o r her creation in t h e w o m b a n d will c o n t i n u e in this intimate relationship
to t h e e n d of his o r h e r life.
This beautifully w r i t t e n psalm expresses t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g that w e are
fully a n d completely k n o w n by G o d . There is n o w h e r e we c a n r u n o r hide
a n d n o w h e r e we can b e overtaken by d a r k n e s s b e c a u s e t h e Divine a n d t h e
light of t h e D i v i n e are always p r e s e n t w i t h us. G o d s h a n d is u p o n us. This
is a message t h a t c a n b e h e a r d from t w o different perspectives; and s o m e
times t h e s e perspectives are even held t o g e t h e r in a kind of intellectual/
emotional paradox. For example, a great s e n s e of comfort issues from t h e
reassurance that, w h e r e v e r we find ourselves, G o d is w i t h us. We are never
cut off from t h e c o n s t a n t p r e s e n c e of t h e Divine. G o d "hems" us in,
"behind a n d before" (v. 5)words reminiscent of t h e pillar of cloud a n d fire
t h a t w e n t before t h e H e b r e w s as t h e y left slavery in Egypt a n d that m o v e d
b e h i n d t h e m to p r o t e c t t h e m from t h e p u r s u i n g Egyptian army. Put in t h e
vernacular of o u r day, "God has o u r backs." This is o n e perspective. Yet, o n
t h e o t h e r hand, d o w e really w a n t to b e k n o w n so completely that even o u r
v e r y t h o u g h t s are divinely ascertained? This is a perspective that often
leads t o feelings of u n w o r t h i n e s s a n d fears of b e i n g judged. In t h e
Companions in Christ Bible study, t h e story of Jesus' e n c o u n t e r with t h e
Samaritan w o m a n at t h e well is discussed in t e r m s of h o w m u c h Jesus
k n e w a b o u t t h e w o m a n . T h e writer includes t h e verses above from Psalm

CATHIE LEIMENSTOLL
139 in t h e discussion, suggesting t h a t we w o r s h i p a G o d w h o b o t h k n o w s

6
us intimately and loves us c o m p l e t e l y After p r e s e n t i n g this material in a
s t u d y g r o u p I was facilitating, I ask t h e participants, "How d o y o u feel
w h e n y o u think a b o u t G o d k n o w i n g y o u so completely?" Immediately, a
shy y o u n g w o m a n in t h e g r o u p exclaimed w i t h a feigned look of terror,
"Aaahl" Even w h e n w e realize t h a t G o d ' s c o m p l e t e knowledge of u s is
t e m p e r e d w i t h love, we still e x p e r i e n c e mixed feelings. Perhaps Psalm 139
gives t h e preacher t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to e m p h a s i z e t h a t G o d ' s knowledge of
us allows o u r n e e d s to b e k n o w n so that G o d ' s love for us can address
t h o s e n e e d s . We are k n o w n a n d loved as we are, so that, in turn, we can
b e c o m e t h e p e o p l e G o d is calling us to be.
Viewing the divine knowledge a n d love that call us into a d e e p e r rela
tionship w i t h G o d in this way enables a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e o t h e r
lectionary texts of t h e day. T h e G o s p e l story is Jesus' call of Philip a n d
N a t h a n a e l to discipleship. A l t h o u g h N a t h a n a e l is skeptical of Philip's
e x u b e r a n t reporting of having found t h e Messiah, h e agrees to "come a n d
see" (John 1:46). W h e n Jesus sees Nathanael, h e identifies h i m as an
"Israelite in w h o m there is n o deceit!" (v. 47). W h e n N a t h a n a e l skeptically
inquires h o w Jesus could possibly k n o w that, Jesus informed N a t h a n a e l that
h e saw h i m "under t h e fig tree before Philip called you" (v. 48). T h e p o i n t is,
Jesus, t h e manifestation of t h e Divine, k n o w s p e o p l e intimately a n d lovingly
calls t h e m b e y o n d w h o t h e y are to b e t h e p e o p l e t h e y c a n b e c o m e ,
Call is also t h e focus in 1 Sam. 3:1-10. Samuel is p r e s e n t e d as trust
w o r t h y a n d is called to carry t h e Lord's m e s s a g e of c h a n g e a n d p u n i s h
m e n t to t h e h o u s e of Eli. G o d knows t h e w i c k e d n e s s of Eli's s o n s a n d
a n n o u n c e s t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h a t wickedness. This is a G o d w h o k n o w s
p e o p l e intimately a n d acts o n t h a t knowledge for blessing a n d p u n i s h m e n t .
Certainly, this passage recalls t h e paradoxical feelings w h e n w e realize just
h o w intimately G o d k n o w s us a n d yet calls us to faithful, r i g h t e o u s living.
January 22, 2006Third Sunday after the Epiphany

P s . 62:5-12; Jonah 3:1-5,10:1 Cor. 7:29-31; Mark 1:14-20
This section of Psalm 62 p r e s e n t s t h e t h e m e of t r u s t i n g in G o d . Psalm 62
is a r e m i n d e r of t h e musical n a t u r e of t h e Book of Psalms. M a n y of us
l e a r n e d in s e m i n a r y t h a t t h e Book of Psalms was t h e " h y m n b o o k of t h e
Second Temple," Psalm 62 carries musical directions a n d n o t a t i o n s t h a t
r e m i n d us that this psalm was i n d e e d p a r t of t h e w o r s h i p e x p e r i e n c e of t h e
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people. T h e instruction T o t h e leader" suggests t h a t t h e n o t a t i o n s w e r e

b e i n g given t o a g r o u p of musicians o r a particular musical director r e s p o n
sible for leading t h e congregational singing. "According t o J e d u t h u n " m a y
7
relate t o a particular style of singing, a n d t h e o b s c u r e t e r m selah could
have m a r k e d a congregational r e s p o n s e of s o m e sort. At a n y rate, w e are
r e m i n d e d o n c e again that, even t h o u g h a psalm m a y express a p e r s o n a l
situation, t h e c o m m u n i t y is t h e place w h e r e w o r s h i p occurs a n d w h e r e
faith informs e x p e r i e n c e .
Psalm 62:5-12 expresses t h e psalmist's trust in Godin G o d alone d o e s
t h e psalmist feel safe, protected, a n d r e d e e m e d (w. 6-7). This trust is s o
unwavering t h a t t h e writer can advise t h e c o m m u n i t y to claim t h e s a m e
trust (v. 8). Placing t r u s t in o t h e r p e o p l e or s t a t u s or wealth is useless (v. 10).
Such success a n d p o w e r are only illusions; t h e y are h e r e t o d a y a n d g o n e
tomorrow. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , G o d ' s faithfulness is rock solidstrong as a
fortress (v. 6). G o d provides t h e refuge t h a t gives rest t o t h e weary, strength
to t h e weak, a n d h o p e to t h e hopeless. Surely, m e m b e r s of m o d e r n congre
gations y e a r n to h e a r s u c h r e a s s u r a n c e as t h e y struggle to b e faithful a n d to
p u t their trust in G o d in t h e m i d s t of cultural influences t h a t point instead
to status, wealth, a n d d i s h o n e s t y as sources of security.
The t h e m e of trust can also c o n n e c t this psalm to t h e o t h e r lectionary
passages for this Sunday. T h e preacher m a y w a n t t o explore n o t only Jonah's
inability t o trust in G o d a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h a t for J o n a h b u t also t h e
c o n s e q u e n c e s for t h e Ninevites w h e n Jonah grudgingly follows G o d ' s call.
T h e passage from 1 Corinthians is a warning that t h e e n d is near and people
should respond accordingly. Certainly, trusting in t h e Lord would be impera
tive in anticipating t h e day of judgment, t h e fulfillment of salvation. Finally,
t h e Gospel passage is Mark's t r e a t m e n t of Jesus' calling of t h e first disciples.
T h e distinctive element in Mark's account of t h e calling is his use of t h e word
"immediately." Mark wants to stress t h e urgency of Jesus' ensuing ministry.
However, in t h e context of trust, t h e word m a y also suggest that Simon,
Andrew, James, a n d J o h n r e s p o n d e d to Jesus' call because t h e y immediately
trusted t h e O n e w h o called them, t h e manifestation of t h e Divine. H e r e w e
have a "seashore epiphany."
January 29, 2006Fourth Sunday after the Epiphany

P s a l m 111; Deut 18:15-20; 1 Cor. 8:1-13; Mark 1:21-28
Psalm 111 c a n b e identified in several different ways. It is a psalm of praise.

CATHIE LEIMENSTOLL
T h e psalmist begins w i t h t h e imperative "Praise t h e LORD!" (v, 1) a n d t h e n

explains t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s of t h e c o m m a n d w i t h a description of t h e
character of God. G o d d o e s great w o r k s full of h o n o r a n d majesty, is right
e o u s a n d merciful, r e m e m b e r s t h e covenant, a n d r e d e e m s G o d ' s p e o p l e .
This description picks u p t h e t h e m e of a n a n c i e n t confession s e e n in Exod.
8
34:6; N u m . 14:18; N e h . 9:17, 31; a n d J o n a h 4:2. Thus, b e c a u s e this is t h e
character of G o d , praise is t h e a p p r o p r i a t e r e s p o n s e of G o d ' s p e o p l e .
O t h e r aspects of this p s a l m c a n lead t o additional identification as t o
form. T h e fact that Psalm 111 is an alphabetic acrostic r e m i n d s o n e i m m e
diately of s o m e of t h e Torah psalms that were u s e d to t e a c h a n d to suggest
t h e orderliness of G o d ' s creation a n d rule. Additionally, v. 10, "The fear of
t h e LORD is t h e b e g i n n i n g of wisdom," hints of a w i s d o m psalm. Walter
B r u e g g e m a n n acknowledges t h o s e t w o possibilities b u t c h o o s e s to catego
rize Psalms 111 a n d 112 as "songs of retribution" a n d p a r t of a larger cate
9
g o r y of p s a l m s h e calls "psalms of orientation." Psalms of o r i e n t a t i o n
"express a confident, s e r e n e s e t t l e m e n t of faith issues. S o m e things are
settled a n d b e y o n d d o u b t , so t h a t o n e d o e s n o t live a n d believe in t h e
m i d s t of o v e r w h e l m i n g anxiety. Such a h a p p y s e t t l e m e n t of life's issues
10
o c c u r s b e c a u s e G o d is k n o w n t o b e reliable a n d trustworthy." The
acrostic form gives a s e n s e of a world of o r d e r a n d stability, a n d t h e text
suggests t h a t recognizing a n d reverencing G o d gives a p e r s o n t h e w i s d o m
n e e d e d t o live appropriately w i t h praise a n d joy.
T h e Gospel lection is t h e first healing Jesus performs. In C a p e r n a u m ,
Jesus is confronted in t h e s y n a g o g u e by a m a n w i t h a n u n c l e a n spirit. This
spirit identifies Jesus as t h e "Holy O n e of G o d " (v. 24), a manifestation of
t h e Divine. As t h e H o l y O n e of G o d , Jesus e m b o d i e s t h e character of God;
a n d this character is just b e g i n n i n g to b e revealed in this first e n c o u n t e r of
healing in t h e synagogue. This is a G o d w h o r e d e e m s peoplein this case,
from a n u n c l e a n spiritand restores their lives to o r d e r a n d stability, It is
just t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e e n c o u n t e r s Jesus will have w i t h a w i d e variety of
people: Simon's mother-in-law, a leper, a paralytic, a n d t h e disciples t h e m
selves. T h e s e e n c o u n t e r s will restore w h o l e n e s s , b r i n g w i s d o m , a n d o r d e r
t h e world in a n e w way.
T h e p e o p l e in C a p e r n a u m are a m a z e d a n d r e s p o n d appropriatelyas
d o wewith praise: "A n e w teachingwith authority!" (v. 27). Epiphany!
Glory!
WINTER 2005 421

LECTIONARY STUDY
Cathie Leimenstoll is Pastor ofRehoboth United Methodist Church in Gallatin,

Tennessee.
Endnotes
1. Hoyt Hickman, D o n B. Saliers, Laurence Hull Stookey, James F. White,
Handbook of the Christian Year (Nashville; Parthenon. 1986), 23.
M
2. N a h u m M. Sarna, "Understanding the Book of Psalms, Bible Review (August
1993): 32.
3. Ibid., 32.
4. Walter Brueggemann, The Message of the Psalms: A Theological Commentary
(Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1984), 143.
5. Philip Yancey, The Bible Jesus Read (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1999), 125.
6. Marjorie J. Thompson and Melissa Tidwell, Companions in Christ: The Way of
Grace, Leader's Guide (Nashville: Upper Room, 2004), 52.
7. Wayne A. Meeks, ed., The Harper Collins Study Bible (London: Harper Collins
Publishers, 1989), n.77:l-20,870.
8. Ibid., no. 103.8, 895.
9. Brueggemann, The Message of the Psalms, 45.
10. Ibid., 25.

Issues In; Science and Religion
J O S E P H A . B R A C K E N , S.J.
F r o m t h e very b e g i n n i n g of Christianity t h e r e have b e e n t e n s i o n s

b e t w e e n t h o s e wishing to u p h o l d t h e p u r i t y of t h e gospel m e s s a g e in a
hostile or indifferent secular world a n d t h o s e h o p i n g to m a k e t h a t s a m e
gospel message m o r e appealing t h r o u g h a c c o m m o d a t i o n to t h e prevailing
t h o u g h t p a t t e r n s of t h e day. O n e n e e d t h i n k only of Tertullian's celebrated
c o m m e n t , "What i n d e e d has A t h e n s to d o w i t h Jerusalem?" a n d contrast it
w i t h t h e m o r e philosophical a p p r o a c h e s to t h e exposition of Christian
d o c t r i n e of Justin Martyr, C l e m e n t of Alexandria, and, above all, Origen. In
fact, even Tertullian used philosophical a r g u m e n t s w h e n it suited his apolo
getic p u r p o s e s . So it is n o t surprising t h a t in t h e Middle Ages T h o m a s
Aquinas, for example, was s u s p e c t e d of h e r e s y b e c a u s e h e u s e d t h e philos
o p h y of Aristotle to u n d e r g i r d his philosophical/theological s c h e m e in t h e
Summa Theologiae a n d o t h e r writings. Of course, in t h e early m o d e r n
period, this t e n s i o n b e c a m e m o r e p r o n o u n c e d b e c a u s e t h e Aristotelianism
o n c e d e e m e d heretical by s o m e h a d b e c o m e s y n o n y m o u s w i t h t h e neces
sary philosophical p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s of t h e Christian faith. A s Galileo found
out, t o q u e s t i o n t h e philosophical worldview implicit in Aristotelianism
was sufficient g r o u n d s for a charge of heresy.
At t h e p r e s e n t time, t h e tension b e t w e e n classical Christian belief a n d
t h e latest advances in science a n d technology centers o n t h e complex of
issues generated by t h e n o t i o n of evolution and, in particular, t h e origin of
t h e h u m a n species. F r o m t h e time of D a r w i n onward, creationism (i.e., t h e
belief that t h e universe was created by G o d in t h e m a n n e r described in
G e n e s i s 1) has always b e e n quite p o p u l a r a m o n g a large s e g m e n t of conser
vatively oriented Christians in N o r t h America. To b e sure, there are "strict
creationists," w h o argue t h a t G o d created t h e world in literally six days, and
t h e r e are "progressive creationists," w h o interpret t h e "days" of t h e biblical
a c c o u n t as different ages of t h e world. Likewise, t h e r e are "scientific
creationists," w h o , at present, are arguing in t h e courts of this c o u n t r y t h a t

SCIENCE A N D RELIGION
t h e creationist hypothesis should b e regarded as a legitimate alternative to

c o n t e m p o r a r y t h e o r i e s of evolution in high-school classrooms. But all
creationists share a c o m m o n presupposition, namely, t h a t G o d ' s Word as
revealed in t h e Bible has t o b e safeguarded against t h e inroads of t h e "athe
istic materialism" implicit in t h e use of c o n t e m p o r a r y scientific m e t h o d . O n
o n e level, of course, t h e y are r i g h t Scientists deliberately prescind from t h e
q u e s t i o n of G o d ' s existence a n d activity in this world so as t o focus o n
purely natural explanations of w h a t h a p p e n s . But this methodological materi
alism d o e s n o t necessarily imply ontological materialism, or atheism, since
m a n y scientists are practicing Christians w h o d o science as p a r t of their
personal mission a n d ministry. Of course, t h e s e s a m e scientists have to
reconcile within their o w n m i n d s a n d h e a r t s t h e s o m e t i m e s conflicting
claims of religion a n d science; a n d this task is n o t always easy.
For example, Charles D a r w i n , while writing t h e Origin of Species (1859),
clearly believed in t h e existence of G o d a n d in divinely o r d a i n e d laws of
nature. But by t h e t i m e h e published The Descent of Man in 1871, h e h a d
b e c o m e a n agnostic, finding it impossible t o believe in t h e existence of a
p e r s o n a l G o d w h o allowed for so m u c h p a i n a n d suffering as a conse
q u e n c e of t h e pitiless workings of t h e principle of natural selection in
nature. But theistic scientists like A s a Gray (1810-1888) in t h e U n i t e d
States saw in evolution G o d ' s m e c h a n i s m for o n g o i n g creation. The differ
e n c e b e t w e e n D a r w i n a n d Grayindeed, t h e difference b e t w e e n material
istic a n d theistic believers in evolution to this dayhas to d o w i t h t h e issue
of chance versus purpose in t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of evolution. D a r w i n a n d his
followers c o n c l u d e d t h a t natural selection was b a s e d o n strictly r a n d o m
c h a n g e s in bodily design which, given a n u n e x p e c t e d alteration in environ
m e n t a l conditions, w o u l d favor certain species over o t h e r species a n d
certain individuals over o t h e r individuals w i t h i n a given species.
Accordingly, evolution is purposelessa process of o n g o i n g e x p e r i m e n t a
tion in n a t u r e w i t h n o evident goal b e y o n d t h e survival of t h e individual.
In contrast, Gray a n d o t h e r theistic scientists (e.g., A r t h u r Peacocke a n d
J o h n Polkinghorne) t o this day insist t h a t c h a n c e in n a t u r e is p a r t of G o d ' s
p l a n for creation. G o d u s e s t h e s p o n t a n e i t y w i t h i n n a t u r e t o b r i n g forth
n e w a n d m o r e c o m p l e x forms of life. While this trial-and-error a p p r o a c h to
t h e work of creation will inevitably involve p a i n a n d suffering for m o s t
creatures, m o r e a d v a n c e d forms of life, s u c h as h u m a n beings, w o u l d
p r e s u m a b l y never have c o m e into existence w i t h o u t it. O n e p r o m i n e n t

JOSEPII A. BRACKEN, S.J.
c o n t e m p o r a r y theologian w h o has m a d e this case for a n "unfinished

universe" quite well is J o h n H a u g h t in his much-acclaimed b o o k s God after
Darwin (2000) and, m o r e recently, Deeper Than Darwin (2004).
A n o t h e r area in w h i c h t e n s i o n has existed b e t w e e n t h e traditional
claims of religion a n d t h e o r i e s b a s e d o n scientific research is in t h e area
k n o w n as sociobiologythe conscious application of t h e principle of
natural selection t o t h e survival and p r o p a g a t i o n of p o p u l a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n
simply of individuals w i t h i n a given population. T h e key issue h e r e is t h e
n o t i o n of altruism, t h e sacrifice of self-interest for t h e sake of another. For
example, Edward O. Wilson, in his b o o k Sociobiology (1975) claims t h a t
altruism is less a conscious choice o n o u r p a r t t h a n a n u n c o n s c i o u s mecha
n i s m in o u r b o d i e s w h e r e b y o u r g e n e s seek to r e p r o d u c e themselves. For
altruism is normally beneficial for b o t h individual a n d g r o u p survival. W h a t
is usually at stake in t h o s e cases w h e r e individuals m a k e u n u s u a l sacrifices
t o m e e t t h e n e e d s of o t h e r s is still enlightened self-interest. O n e has a
vested self-interest in protecting family a n d friends from h a r m . In t h e rare
cases w h e r e assistance is offered to a total stranger, it is d o n e in t h e expec
t a t i o n t h a t this p e r s o n or s o m e o n e else will d o t h e s a m e for m e at a later
date, Richard Dawkins aptly s u m m e d u p this line of t h o u g h t in his contro
versial b o o k The Selfish Gene (1989): G e n e s are ruthlessly selfish but, like
wise, quite clever in finding ways to r e p r o d u c e themselves.
Naturally, this line of thinking represents an affront to t h e traditional
beliefs of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and m o s t of t h e o t h e r world religions.
At least for t h e first three, altruism is g r o u n d e d in G o d ' s a n t e c e d e n t love for
h u m a n beings and all other creatures. We r e s p o n d in love to G o d a n d to o n e
a n o t h e r because we have consciously or unconsciously already experienced
G o d ' s care and c o n c e r n for us. But a simple denial of Wilson's and Hawkins's
claims in t h e n a m e of personal religious experience d o e s little to advance t h e
ongoing religion-and-science dialogue, As w i t h t h e claims m a d e by scientists
a b o u t t h e key role of chance in cosmic evolution, so Christian philosophers
a n d theologians n e e d to learn m o r e a b o u t t h e genetic base of h u m a n
behavior a n d make appropriate qualifications to t h e otherwise sweeping
claims of t h o s e same geneticists. A s a starting point, t h e y may well choose to
read Pitirim Sorokin's classic work The Ways and Power of Love (1954; reissued
2002). A Harvard sociologist, Sorokin sought in that b o o k to study love from
a scientific perspective in all its various dimensions. His work was largely
s n u b b e d by his colleagues in sociology, b u t in recent years has b e e n taken up
WINTER 2005 425

again by S t e p h e n Post a n d his collaborators at t h e Institute for Research o n

Unlimited Love at Case Western Reserve University, with funding from t h e
J o h n Templeton Foundation. A v o l u m e of essays edited by Post, Lynn
U n d e r w o o d , Jeffrey Schloss, a n d William H u r l b u t and published u n d e r t h e
tide Altruism and Altruistic Love (2002) sets forth their findings t h u s far. O n e
contributor, Stephen Pope of Boston College, found a way to c o m b i n e
T h o m a s Aquinas's ordo caritatis (the "proper order of love," beginning w i t h
love toward m e m b e r s of one's i m m e d i a t e family) w i t h theories a b o u t t h e
influence of genes o n h u m a n behavior as indicated above.
A third area w h e r e t h e religion-and-science dialogue has recently inten
sified is in neurophysiology, w h e r e empirical e v i d e n c e is building u p t h a t
t h e classical distinction b e t w e e n t h e soul a n d t h e b o d y or, m o r e specifi
cally, t h e m i n d a n d t h e brain c a n n o t b e sustained. Scientists o n principle
d o not favor dualistic s c h e m e s in w h i c h a break in t h e continuity of natural
processes is stipulated so t h a t a n e w a n d m o r e c o m p l e x form of existence
and activity c a n b e b r o u g h t into being. H e n c e , m a n y w o u l d prefer to t h i n k
of c o n s c i o u s n e s s as a function of t h e h u m a n brain a n d of t h e brain itself as
a p r o d u c t of still-lower-level bodily, even subatomic, processes. O t h e r s are
willing t o a d m i t t o p - d o w n as well as b o t t o m - u p causation w i t h i n t h e
h u m a n b o d y so t h a t t h e m i n d is n o t reducible t o t h e brain b u t nevertheless
is intrinsically d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e brain for its p r o p e r functioning. Thus,
w h e n t h e b r a i n is d a m a g e d , t h e m i n d suffers an irreparable loss; a n d w h e n
brain activity ceases at d e a t h , t h e mind, or soul, dies w i t h it. Faced w i t h
t h e s e alternatives, s o m e theologians have c o n c e d e d t h a t t h e mind, o r soul,
is i n d e e d only functionally distinct from t h e brain a n d o t h e r bodily
processes since t h e p s y c h o s o m a t i c u n i t y of t h e h u m a n b e i n g is b e y o n d
dispute. At t h e s a m e time, t h e y defend traditional belief in personal i m m o r
tality or life after d e a t h o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t G o d reconstitutes a h u m a n
b e i n g as an immaterial reality w i t h a spiritual b o d y i m m e d i a t e l y after d e a t h
so that t h e individual can enjoy eternal life w i t h G o d as p r o m i s e d in t h e
N e w Testament (see, e.g., Whatever Happened to the Soul? [1998]).
However, in his b o o k The Emergent Self (1999), William H a s k e r argues

t h a t o n g o i n g p e r s o n a l identity s e e m s to b e lost w i t h this u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
t h e d o c t r i n e of resurrection. Conceivably G o d could create t w o or m o r e
replicas of t h e d e c e a s e d p e r s o n r a t h e r t h a n just o n e . In addition, w o u l d
e v e n t h e single replica of a d e c e a s e d p e r s o n e x p e r i e n c e itself as identical
w i t h its former bodily self or as a n e w a n d quite different reality? As his

JOSEPH A. BRACKEN, S.J.
o w n solution to t h e issue of bodily resurrection, Hasker argues first t h a t in

place of t h e Platonic dualism of m a t t e r a n d m i n d p r o p o s e d by Ren6
Descartes, or even t h e Aristotelian dualism of m a t t e r a n d form w o r k e d o u t
by T h o m a s A q u i n a s in t h e Middle Ages, Christian p h i l o s o p h e r s a n d theolo
gians should think in t e r m s of "emergent dualism." By t h a t t e r m h e m e a n s
t h a t t h e mind, or consciousness, is i n d e e d e m e r g e n t o u t of t h e h u m a n
brain as s o o n as t h e latter has attained a specific level of complexity b u t
that, o n c e emergent, it can exercise t o p - d o w n causation. M i n d is n o t simply
t h e passive p r o d u c t of n e u r o n a l activity b u t an a g e n t in its o w n right that,
in s o m e m e a s u r e , controls b o t h t h e workings of t h e brain a n d t h e h u m a n
b o d y as a whole. Just as a m a g n e t generates a m a g n e t i c field w i t h proper
ties separate from t h e magnet, so t h e brain generates a field of conscious
n e s s distinct from itself as a n organ of t h e body. Second, h e c o n c l u d e s that
G o d could conceivably sustain this "soul-field" after t h e d e a t h of t h e b o d y
a n d even provide t h e soul-field w i t h a spiritual b o d y fitted t o its n e w level
of existence and activity. H a s k e r stresses t h a t this is only a n analogy, n o t a
causal explanation, since t h e n o t i o n of "field" e v e n a m o n g natural scientists
is so a m b i g u o u s , at least at present.
Underlying Hasker's proposal, of course, is still a n o t h e r issue o n w h i c h
n o t only theologians and natural scientists disagree b u t o n w h i c h theolo
gians a m o n g themselves are divided, namely, t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m o d e l for
t h e G o d - w o r l d relationship. If G o d is Pure Spirit, t h e n h o w could G o d
b r i n g into existence a material world a n d t h e n exercise p r o v i d e n c e over
t h a t world w i t h o u t interfering w i t h its n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n in t e r m s of natural
laws? T h o m a s A q u i n a s provided t h e classical m o d e l for t h e G o d - w o r l d
relationship w i t h his c o n t e n t i o n in Summa Theologiae (I, Q. 8, art. 3) t h a t
G o d , t h o u g h t r a n s c e n d e n t of t h e world as its Creator, is nevertheless
i m m a n e n t within it in virtue of divine knowledge a n d power. C r e a t i o n
exists only because G o d gives it t h e p o w e r to b e at every m o m e n t a n d
guides it in its exercise of t h a t s a m e limited power. But m a n y c o n t e m p o r a r y
t h e o l o g i a n s have n o t e d that, while G o d is t h u s i m m a n e n t w i t h i n t h e world,
t h e world is n o t i m m a n e n t w i t h i n G o d . G o d a n d t h e world are basically
separate realities; a n d t h e p r o b l e m of divine activity first in creating a mate
rial world a n d t h e n in guiding its d e v e l o p m e n t o n c e created still remains.
W h a t t h e s e s a m e theologians p r o p o s e instead is t h e n o t i o n of panen-
theism, i.e., t h a t everything finite exists in G o d as t h e sole infinite b e i n g a n d
yet m a i n t a i n s its o w n existence apart from G o d . Of course, t h e p r o b l e m is
WINTER 2005 427

h o w to explain this non-dual reality of creation apart from G o d w i t h o u t

lapsing into p a n t h e i s m . Charles H a r t s h o r n e , a n early s t u d e n t of t h e
process-oriented p h i l o s o p h y of Alfred N o r t h Whitehead, suggested t h a t
G o d should b e u n d e r s t o o d as t h e "soul" of t h e universe, w i t h t h e universe
itself as G o d ' s "body." S o m e years later, in h e r b o o k Models of God (1987),
Sallie McFague e n d o r s e d t h e s a m e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e G o d - w o r l d rela
tionship b u t w i t h o u t explicit reference to W h i t e h e a d ' s philosophy. In b o t h
cases, G o d is said t o b e i m m a n e n t in t h e world as t h e soul is i m m a n e n t in
t h e body. T h e limitations of t h e analogy, however, are likewise clear. G o d
a n d creatures s e e m t h e r e b y to b e t o o closely aligned w i t h o n e another.
G o d n e e d s a "body" (if n o t this world, t h e n s o m e o t h e r world) in o r d e r t o
b e G o d . Likewise, h u m a n beings a n d o t h e r creatures are r e d u c e d to divine
"body-parts," w i t h little or n o s e n s e of i n d e p e n d e n t existence a n d activity.
In his b o o k Nature, Human Nature, and God (2002), Ian Barbour
suggests t h a t a m o r e apt m o d e l for t h e G o d - w o r l d relationship might b e
t h a t of a cosmic c o m m u n i t y of entities of w h i c h G o d is t h e p r e e m i n e n t
m e m b e r . In this way G o d a n d creatures could share a c o m m o n "space" in
w h i c h t o engage o n e a n o t h e r while m a i n t a i n i n g their n e c e s s a r y differences
from o n e another. In m y o w n work (see The One in the Many [2001]), I have
urged t h a t t h e m o d e l of a cosmic c o m m u n i t y would b e further e n h a n c e d if
G o d were u n d e r s t o o d in explicitly trinitarian t e r m s , i.e., if creation w e r e
conceived as taking place w i t h i n t h e all-encompassing space, or field, of
activity p r o p e r t o t h e divine p e r s o n s in their d y n a m i c interrelation (on this
point, see also D e n i s Edwards, The God of Evolution: A Trinitarian Theology
[1999]). C r e a t u r e s w o u l d t h u s c o m e forth from G o d by divine decree, exist
in G o d consciously o r u n c o n s c i o u s l y d u r i n g their t i m e in this world, a n d
eventually r e t u r n t o G o d so as to s h a r e in eternal life. All this speculation,
of course, o n l y p o i n t s t h e way to w h a t J o h n H a u g h t in Deeper than Darwin
called "a d e e p e r theology," o n e in w h i c h c o n t e m p o r a r y belief in G o d is
linked to a p h i l o s o p h y a n d t h e o l o g y of evolution w i t h conscious reliance
o n explicitly process- a n d future-oriented m o d e s of t h o u g h t . Yet t h e exact
s h a p e of this evolutionary s c h e m e is still n o t agreed u p o n . Readers w i t h
t i m e a n d interest in t h e subject w o u l d b e well advised to read o n a regular
basis t h e articles in t w o academically o r i e n t e d religion-and-science periodi
cals, Zygon a n d Theology and Science. Likewise, for m o r e p o p u l a r presenta
tions of m a n y of t h e s a m e issues, Science and Theology News a n d Science and
Spirit, t w o periodicals s p o n s o r e d by t h e J o h n Templeton F o u n d a t i o n , could

JOSEPH A. BRACKEN, S.J.
b e consulted. Finally, for I n t e r n e t users, t h e w e b site at w w w . m e t a n e x u s . n e t

provides m u c h useful information a b o u t conferences a n d n e w publications
in t h e field of science a n d religion.
Joseph A. Bracken, SJ is Director Emeritus of the Brueggeman Center for Dialogue

at Xavier University in Cincinnati, Ohio.
Works Cited
Altruism and Altruistic Love: Science, Philosophy, Si Religion in Dialogue, ed. by
S t e p h e n G. Post, Lynn G, U n d e r w o o d , Jeffrey B. Schloss, a n d William B.
Hurlbut (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
Barbour, Ian G. Nature, Human Nature, and God (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2002).
Bracken, Joseph A. The One in the Many: A Contemporary Reconstruction of the
God-World Relationship (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001),
Dawkins, Richard. The Selfish Gene (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).
Edwards, Denis, The God of Evolution: A Trinitarian Theology (New York: Paulist,
1999).
Hasker, William. The Emergent Self (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999),
H a u g h t , J o h n F. God after Darwin: A Theology of Evolution (Boulder, C O :
Westview, 2000).
. Deeper than Darwin: The Prospects for Religion in the Age of Evolution
(Boulder, CO: Westview, 2003).
M c F a g u e , Sallie. Models of God: Theology for an Ecological, Nuclear Age
(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987).
Peacocke, Arthur. Theology for a Scientific Age: Being and Becoming-Natural,
Divine, and Human (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993).
P o l k i n g h o r n e , J o h n . Belief in God in an Age of Science ( N e w H a v e n : Yale
University Press, 1998).
Science and Religion: A Historical Introduction, ed. by G a r y B. F e r n g r e n
(Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2002),
Sorokin, Pitirim A. The Ways and Power of Love: Types, Factors, and Techniques of
Moral Transformation (Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press, 2002),
Whatever Happened to the Soul? Scientific and Theological Portraits of Human
Nature, ed. by Warren S. Brown, N a n c e y Murphy, a n d H. N e w t o n Malony
(Minneapolis: Fortress, 1998).
Wilson, Edward O. Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1975).
WINTER 2005 429

The Logic Of Renewal, by William J. A b r a h a m (Grand Rapids:
E e r d m a n s , 2003)
A cross t h e street from o n e of o u r p a r s o n a g e s t h e r e spread o u t a beau

tiful cemetery, a d o r n e d w i t h o a k s a n d graves a n d capacious walkways
from m e a d o w to meadow. In t h e winter, o u r children used t h e hillsides t o
toboggan. In t h e s u m m e r , t h e y played ball across t h e t o m b s . We m a r k e d
t h e fall w i t h long walks amid t h e sarcophagi. I c a n still see m y father lifting
his g r a n d s o n to sit, for a m o m e n t , astride a grave-top elk.
In t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n Jurisdiction of T h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t Church, w e
m a y think of o u r ministry after t h e m a n n e r of children playing in t h e
graveyard. W y o m i n g C o n f e r e n c e lost 5 p e r c e n t of its m e m b e r s h i p in o n e
year (2003). N o r t h Central N e w York is a c o m b i n a t i o n of 70,000 m e m b e r s
from N o r t h e r n a n d 80,000 m e m b e r s from Central a g e n e r a t i o n ago. Today
t h e total m e m b e r s h i p is u n d e r 80,000. N e w Jersey h a d a m e m b e r s h i p of
200,000 thirty years ago; t o d a y it is 100,000. T h o s e of us riding sleds a n d
catching flies a n d g r o u n d e r s in ministry t o d a y d o so a t o p a full graveyard.
In The Logic of Renewal, A b r a h a m cites R. R. Reno's s o b e r i n g words, "As a
believer in t h e n o w late- (or post-) m o d e r n West, I suffer t h e d i m i n i s h m e n t
a n d debilitation of Christianity. T h e c h u r c h . . . is in ruins. If you, t h e
reader, have faith, t h e n y o u suffer this r u i n a t i o n as well To be in t h e
church is t o e n d u r e a b r o k e n form of life" (140). N o t all jurisdictions in t h e
U n i t e d States are so conditionedyet. But t h e e x p e r i e n c e of t h e N o r t h e a s t
awaits others, as building gives way t o rebuilding a n d n e w ministry t o t h e
very different labors of renewal.
For t h o s e (still relatively few) w h o will a d m i t w h a t c o n d i t i o n our condi
tion is in, A b r a h a m ' s b o o k m a y provide s o m e substantive reflection, espe
cially in its last forty pages. There, h e helps us c o m e u p o n a m o s t interesting
voice in his s u m m e r reading collection, that of R. R. Reno. A n d A b r a h a m
"comes clean," if not entirely clear, a b o u t his o w n view of t h e stew.
T h e b o o k provides a "map" of fourteen o p t i o n s in renewal, s u m m a
rized h e r e in a s e n t e n c e each. Draper: Renewal requires a literalistic
reading of Scripture, rejection of existentialism a n d t h e scientific m e t h o d ,

ROBERT ALLAN HILL
a n d avoidance of t h e world's religions. Bennett; Renewal d e p e n d s o n a

particular (Augustinian) e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e Holy Spirit. Newbigin:
Renewal d e p e n d s o n a r o b u s t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of classical d o g m a . Spong;
Renewal d e p e n d s o n total rejection of t h e d o g m a a n d its forms, e s p o u s e d
by Newbigin. Ruether; Renewal requires a kind of free-church c o m m u n i t y ,
characterized by healing, friendship, a n d n u r t u r e . Ratzinger: Renewal
n e e d s t o rely o n t h e u n i t y a n d catholicity of t h e b o d y of Christ, p r o t e c t e d
by t h e Bishop of Rome. King a n d Romero: Renewal will c o m e in t h e
g e n u i n e struggle for justice. S c h m e m a n n : Renewal b e g i n s w i t h eucharistic
revival. Bilezikian: Renewal is s u c h to t h e e x t e n t t h a t it is a n ongoing, care
fully crafted, seeker event. Cupitt: T h e c h u r c h n e e d s to die to m a k e way for
t h e Kingdom, which is secular life as we n o w k n o w it. N o r m a n : Renewal
n e e d s only a p r i e s t h o o d c o m m i t t e d to t h e teaching of revealed doctrinal
t r u t h . Wagner: Renewal requires t h e c o m b i n a t i o n of technical a n d spiritual
principles of church growth. Reno: Renewal requires t h e faithful t o e n d u r e
t h e church's ruin, n e i t h e r r u n n i n g away into distancing n o r clamoring for
separation.
A b r a h a m has c h o s e n t o affirm w i t h o u t qualification t h e struggle for
justice in t h e voices a n d lives of King a n d R o m e r o as a n essential feature of
a u t h e n t i c renewal. O t h e r w i s e , in t h e above list (itself a s u m m a r y of a b o u t
150 pages in Logic, which for their p a r t are a s u m m a r y of 59 b o o k s a n d arti
cles), t h e a u t h o r has found s t r e n g t h s a n d w e a k n e s s e s to c o n s i d e r in e a c h
writer and n o o t h e r single p o i n t of full affirmation. This is a c o m m e n d a b l e
choice. A b r a h a m ' s o w n view of renewal c a n b e s u m m a r i z e d in t w o p o i n t s .
1. T h e logic of real renewal is theological, ecclesiological, simple, paradox
ical, discerning, a n d just. 2. Renewal requires a q u e s t for intellectual
integrity t h a t avoids w h i n i n g pessimism, e s c h e w s universalistic tendencies,
p r o m o t e s justice (narrowly defined), replaces Tillich w i t h Augustine, avoids
C o n g r e g a t i o n a l i s m , affirms Pentecostals, acclaims t h e w o r k of t h e H o l y
Spirit (traditionally construed), eagerly discusses epistemology, a n d takes
t h e long view.
The Logic of Renewal s e e m s to be a n a s s o r t m e n t of n o t e s from s u m m e r
reading, s u m m a r i z e d w i t h liberal citation, in varied a u t h o r i a l p a i r i n g s -
d e n o m i n a t i o n a l , thematic, a n d theological. (The chapters formed t h e basis
of earlier public addresses.) As such, it is a helpful t o p o g r a p h y of s o m e
r e c e n t literature o n renewal. The b o o k ' s treasure c o m e s at t h e e n d in a
c u r s o r y review of t h e work of R. R. Reno. O n c e a n editor at H a r p e r Collins
WINTER 2005 431

LOGIC OF RENEWAL/CLAIMING THEOLOGY IN THE PULPIT
was asked h o w h e could read h u n d r e d s of b o o k s a n d k n o w w h i c h o n e s to

print. "I k n o w in a paragraph, o r a page, w h o c a n write. You k n o w fast. Did
y o u ever listen t o s o m e b o d y sing? You d o n ' t n e e d t h e w h o l e opera. A verse
will do." R e n o c a n sing. I a m going to use t h e h o n o r a r i u m for writing this
review to b u y his b o o k In the Ruins of the Church: Sustaining Faith in an Age
of Diminished Christianity (Grand Rapids: Brazos, 2002).
Robert Allan Hill is Senior Minister at Asbury First United Methodist Church in
Rochester, New York.
Claiming Theology in the Pulpit by B u r t o n Z. C o o p e r a n d J o h n

S. McClure (Louisville: W e s t m i n s t e r / J o h n Knox, 2003)
O ver t h e past t h r e e decades, preaching has b e e n reinvigorated by t h e

"turn to t h e listener," signaled by t h e g r o u n d b r e a k i n g work of Fred
Craddock a n d amplified by a host of teachers a n d preachers. This fruitful
n e w direction in homiletics, especially w i t h t h e appeal of a n inductive form,
has taught us to conceive a n d p r e p a r e s e r m o n s t h a t are m o r e a t t u n e d to t h e
p e r s o n in t h e pew, to t h e way hearers of s e r m o n s listen a n d respond to
preaching. A n y preacher w h o missed this t u r n in t h e t h e o r y and practice of
homiletics m u s t have b e e n locked in t h e church b a s e m e n t for a generation.
While t h e gains for p r e a c h i n g a n d s e r m o n listening have b e e n
i m m e n s e , yellow flags of caution have b e g u n to appear. W i t h all this
c o n c e r n for t h e "fittingness" of a s e r m o n ' s form, particularly a form b a s e d
u p o n t h e listener's a n d preacher's experience, w h a t h a p p e n s t o theology?
In o u r haste t o s h a p e a s e r m o n to t h e c o n t o u r s of t h e listeners' percep
tions, have w e tossed theological integrity aside? Teachers of p r e a c h i n g
have b e g u n to b e c o n c e r n e d that after t h r e e or four years of formal semi
n a r y education, s t u d e n t s ' s e r m o n s are often theologically shallow,
m u d d l e d , o r vapid. O n e fears t h a t t h e s a m e state of affairs broadly prevails
in t h e church. If t h e pulpit has e s c h e w e d theology, s h o u l d we b e s u r p r i s e d
t h a t congregations are also perplexed a b o u t their o w n theological convic
tions? Such a situation begs for a "turn to theology" in preaching, w h i c h is
n o w well underway.
Claiming Theology in the Pulpit is o n e of t h e b e s t guides t h u s far t o
preaching w i t h theological integrity. C o o p e r , professor e m e r i t u s of
Philosophical Theology at Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary,

G. LEE RAMSEY, JR.
a n d McClure, professor of Homiletics at Vanderbilt University Divinity

School, offer sturdy s u p p o r t for p r e a c h e r s w h o w a n t t o gain solid theolog
ical footing for preaching, C o n v i n c e d t h a t p r e a c h i n g m a t t e r s a n d t h a t
"congregations r e s p o n d appreciatively, even enthusiastically to g o o d
preaching," t h e a u t h o r s h e l p t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d well-seasoned p r e a c h e r
u n d e r s t a n d h o w to achieve "a clear a n d consistent theological perspective
in t h e c o n t e n t of t h e s e r m o n " (1).
These wise guides k n o w t h a t w h a t p r e a c h i n g n e e d s is n o t formal
t h e o l o g y per se b u t theological awareness o n t h e p a r t of t h e preacher. They
are n o t appealing for a r e t u r n to d r a b doctrinal s e r m o n s . Rather, t h e y are
calling for a higher level of theological self-awareness o n t h e p a r t of t h e
p r e a c h e r t h a t will translate into lively a n d theologically informed s e r m o n s
t h a t will engage t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n in m o r e faithful u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e m
selves, t h e w o r k of t h e c h u r c h in t h e world, and, ultimately, t h e w o r k of
G o d . They d o n o t w a n t to force theological o r t h o d o x y u p o n t h e preacher.
Instead, recognizing t h e pluralism t h a t is i n h e r e n t in congregational a n d
social life today, t h e y claim t h a t a preacher's s h a r p e n e d awareness of t h e o
logical difference c a n help t o "mitigate m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e s e r m o n ,
provide t h e basis for a n attitude of respectful e n g a g e m e n t w i t h divergent
positions o n theological a n d social issues, a n d w i d e n t h e reach a n d positive
p o w e r of t h e s e r m o n " (5).
T h e b o o k unfolds in two parts. Part 1 lays o u t a theological profile t h a t
covers m e t h o d , authority, a n d worldview (the h i d d e n theological a s s u m p
tions of t h e preacher a n d t h e congregation) a n d e x a m i n e s five consciously
held theological categories: theodicy, a t o n e m e n t , ethics a n d ecclesiology,
t h e relation of Christianity to o t h e r religions, a n d eternal life/eschatology.
A g e n u i n e strength of t h e b o o k is t h e way in w h i c h C o o p e r a n d M c C l u r e
define their categories succinctly yet sufficiently. T h e b u s y p r e a c h e r c a n
begin to locate him- or herself, for example, w i t h respect t o t h e o d i c y or
views of t h e A t o n e m e n t w i t h o u t b e c o m i n g o v e r w h e l m e d by theory. T h e y
include a helpful profile a n d chart in t h e a p p e n d i x t h a t e n c o u r a g e t h e
r e a d e r t o identify his or her o w n theological convictions. Indeed, o n e way
t o read t h e b o o k is to look first at t h e profile a n d chart to get a s e n s e of
C o o p e r a n d McClure's categories a n d t h e n to read t h e text for definitions
a n d clarifications.
Part 2 d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w t h e theological profile c a n b e u s e d in s e r m o n
b r a i n s t o r m i n g a n d preparation. It includes actual transcripts from conver-
WINTER 2005 433

CLAIMING THEOLOGY IN THE PULPIT
sations a m o n g p r e a c h e r s a n d t h e a u t h o r s while working w i t h t h e theolog

ical profiles. In this way, t h e a u t h o r s "show a n d tell" h o w preachers gain
clarity a b o u t their o w n theological a s s u m p t i o n s a n d h o w t h e s e a s s u m p
tions affect t h e c o n t e n t of a s e r m o n . T h e b o o k c o n c l u d e s w i t h sample
s e r m o n s from b o t h C o o p e r a n d M c C l u r e in w h i c h t h e y evaluate each
other's s e r m o n s according to t h e theological profile.
If t h e r e is a slight w e a k n e s s in this book, it is mostly d u e t o its brevity
(142 pages). T h e theological profile will prove so helpful to m a n y w o r k i n g
preachers t h a t t h e y will wish for a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t of o t h e r
categories of Christian doctrine. If so, readers m i g h t consult McClure's
earlier w o r k in The Four Codes of Preaching for a m o r e expansive presenta
tion. Finally, t h e a u t h o r s acknowledge t h a t t h e t h e o l o g y of t h e listener is
dynamically related to t h e theology of t h e preacher. Yet t h e b o o k d o e s n o t
explore t h e t h e o l o g y of t h o s e w h o listen regularly to t h e proclaimed w o r d
o r h o w t h e listeners' theology(ies) b e a r u p o n t h e theological s h a p e of t h e
s e r m o n . This is n o t so m u c h a fault w i t h t h e book, since C o o p e r a n d
McClure d o n o t i n t e n d s u c h exploration, as it is a n anticipation of further
s t u d y in this direction. For example, Ronald Allen a n d M a r y Alice
Mulligan's recently released Believing in Preaching: What Listeners Hear in
Sermons (Chalice, 2005) takes n e w strides d o w n t h e road of u n d e r s t a n d i n g
t h e theology(ies) of t h e s e r m o n listener.
For every p r e a c h e r or t e a c h e r of p r e a c h i n g w h o has w a n t e d b e t t e r
theological grips for s e r m o n c o n c e p t i o n a n d preparation, this b o o k is a gift.
Well-written, clear, a n d concise, it will h e l p t h e p r e a c h e r go to t h e pulpit
w i t h r e n e w e d confidence t h a t proclaiming t h e gospel w i t h theological
integrity is n o t only possible b u t crucial for t h e c h u r c h in t h e world today.
G. Lee Ramsey, Jr., is Professor of Pastoral Care and Pastoral Theology at

Memphis Theological Seminary and the author of Care-full Preaching; F r o m
S e r m o n to C a r i n g C o m m u n i t y (Chalice, 2000).

INDEX TO VOLUME 2 5 , 2 0 0 5
Index to Volume 25, 2005

Editorial
"Blessed A r e t h e Peacemakers," 5-6
C o m e , Holy Spirit, 11546
T h e Promise of Pragmatism for Theology, 225-26
E x t e n d i n g t h e Witness a n d Service of Christ in t h e World, 337-38
Issue Theme
T h e Palestine-Israel Conflict: A Short History, E l a i n e C. H a g o p i a n , 7-30
Reflections of a Recovered Christian Zionist, B a r r y E. B r y a n t , 31-43
U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s a n d t h e Israeli-Palestinian Situation, R h o n d a M c C a r t y ,
44-59
T h e Conflict over Palestine: A Palestinian Christian Response, N a i r n A t e e k ,
60-72
A Jewish Renewal U n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e State of Israel, M i c h a e l L e r n e r ,
73-82
T h e E m e r g i n g Holiness M o v e m e n t , E l a i n e A . H e a t h , 117-25
T h e Theological Significance of t h e H o l i n e s s M o v e m e n t , S a m u e l M .
P o w e l l , 126-40
"The A r t s of Holy Living": Holiness a n d t h e M e a n s of Grace, R e b e k a h
M i l e s , 141-57
H o w A m e r i c a G o t t h e H o l y G h o s t : T h e U n i q u e n e s s of t h e African-
A m e r i c a n E x p e r i e n c e of Holiness, L o v e H e n r y W h e l c h e l , Jr., 158-70
Pragmatism's E m p o w e r m e n t of Religious Life, S t u a r t R o s e n b a u m , 227-40
Pragmatism a n d Theology's Truth, R o b e r t C u m m i n g s Neville, 241-53
So H u m a n a Book: Pragmatism a n d Scriptural Authority, C l i f t o n F.
G u t h r i e , 254-73
M e t h o d i s m a n d Pragmatism: Promise or Peril? T y r o n I n b o d y , 274-91
Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g in t h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t Tradition: H i s t o r y a n d Issues,
D o n a l d C. H o u t s , 339-52
Wesleyan Roots of Pastoral Care a n d Counseling, T h e o d o r e R u n y o n , 353-
64
Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g as Faithful Practice amid Liminality, Uncertainty, a n d
Multiplicity, E m m a n u e l Y. L a r t e y , 366-76
Professional Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g in t h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t M o d e , M i c h a e l
D . P o t t s , 377-86
WINTER 2005 435

I N D E X TO VOLUME 2 5 , 2 0 0 5
United M e t h o d i s t Pastoral C o u n s e l o r s Reflect, R i c h a r d B r u e h l , W. V i c t o r

M a l o y , A n n e R o s s S t e w a r t , 387-95
Outside the Theme

Symposium: Bruce W. Robbins, A World Parish? Hopes and Challenges of The
United Methodist Church in a Global Setting (Nashville: A b i n g d o n , 2004),
T i m M c C I e n d o n , H e i n r i c h Bolleter, R u d i g e r M i n o r , B r u c e R o b b i n s ,
171-89
Coaching, Pastoral Counseling, a n d Ministry, T h o m a s R, H a w k i n s , 292-
303
Wesley, t h e Constitution, a n d Secular H u m a n i s m , T h e o d o r e W. J e n n i n g s ,
Jr., 396-406
The Church In Review

T h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h as a Global Church, D a v i d J. L a w s o n ;
P a t r i c k Streiff, 83-87
T h e Key to Renewal in T h e United M e t h o d i s t Church, E l a i n e S t a n o v s k y ;
R o n a l d K. C r a n d a l l , 190-96
Will This Holy M y s t e r y Serve U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s Well? W i l l i a m
M c D o n a l d ; K a t h y Black, 304-10
H o w can T h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h m o s t effectively employ licensed
local pastors in ministry? G a r y D . M o o d y ; J a m e s L. Mayfield, 407-13
A Word on the Word

Lectionary Study. J o h n C. H o l b e r t (Spring), 89-100; J o h n C o l l e t t (Summer),
197-208; W i l l i a m T u r n e r , Jr. (Fall), 311-22; C a t h i e L e i m e n s t o l l (Winter),
414-22
Issues In: World Mission, J o o n - S i k P a r k (Spring), 101-07; Philosophy of
Religion, W i l l i a m H a s k e r (Summer), 209-15; U.S. L a t i n o / L a t i n a Theology,
H a r o l d J. R e c i n o s (Fall), 323-30; Science a n d Religion, J o s e p h A . B r a c k e n ,
S J . (Winter), 423-29
Book Reviews
Lovett H. Weems, Jr., Take the Next Step: Leading Lasting Change in the
Church (Abingdon, 2003), Elise E s l i n g e r , E l i z a b e t h W o u r m s , R i c h a r d
E s l i n g e r , 108-09
Riley B. Case, Evangelical and Methodist: A Popular History (Abingdon, 2004),
L a c e y e E . W a r n e r , 109-110
Kenda Creasy D e a n , Practicing Passion: Youth and the Quest for a Passionate

INDEX TO VOLUME 25, 2005
Church (Eerdmans, 2004), S u s a n H . H a y , 216-17

K e n n e t h H. Carter, Jr., A Way of Life in the World; Spiritual Practices for United
Methodists (Abingdon, 2004), V o n W. U n r u h , 217-18
Ellis Cose, Bone to Pick: Of Forgiveness, Reconciliation, Reparation, and Revenge
(Atria Books), Y o u t h a H a r d m a n - C r o m w e l l , 219-20
William J. A b r a h a m , The Logic of Renewal (Eerdmans, 2002), R o b e r t A l l a n
Hill, 430-32
B u r t o n Z. C o o p e r a n d J o h n S. McClure, Claiming Theology in the Pulpit
( W e s t m i n s t e r / J o h n Knox, 2003), G. L e e R a m s e y , 432-34
WINTER 2005 437

IN TfflS ISSUE:
Issue Theme:
Practicing Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g in t h e
United M e t h o d i s t M o d e
Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g in the United M e t h o d i s t Tradition:
H i s t o r y a n d Issues
Donald C. Houts
Wesleyan Roots of Pastoral Care a n d C o u n s e l i n g
Theodore Runyon
Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g as Faithful Practice amid Liminality.
Uncertainty, a n d Multiplicity
Emmanuel Y. Lartey
Professional Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g in the U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t M o d e
Michael D. Pot:s
United M e t h o d i s t Pastoral C o u n s e l o r s Reflect
Richard Bruehl
W. Victor Malay
Anne Ross Stewart
Outside the Theme

Wesley, t h e Constitution, a n d Secular H u m a n i s m
Theodore W. Jennings. Jr.
T h e C h u r c h in Review
Effectively Employing Licensed Local Pastors in Ministry
Gary D. Moody
James L. Mayjield
A Word o n t h e Word
Lectionary Study
Cathie Leimenstoll
Issues In: Science a n d Religion

Joseph A. Bracken. S.J.
Book Reviews
The Logic of Renewal, by William J. A b r a h a m (Eerdmans, 2002)
Reviewer R o b e r t Allan Hill
Claiming Iheology in the Pulpit, by B u r t o n Z C o o p e r a n d J o h n S. McClure
( W e s t m i n s t e r / J o h n Knox. 2003) Reviewer. G. Lee R a m s e y

Winter 2005 Quarterly Review - Theological Resources For Ministry

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Editor: Hendrik R. Pieterse

E x t e n d i n g t h e Witness a n d Service of Christ in t h e World 337

Wesleyan Roots of Pastoral Care a n d C o u n s e l i n g 353

Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g as Faithful Practice a m i d Liminality,

Professional Pastoral C o u n s e l i n g in t h e United M e t h o d i s t M o d e 377

U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t Pastoral C o u n s e l o r s Reflect 387

Outside the Theme

Wesley, t h e Constitution, a n d Secular H u m a n i s m 396

H o w can T h e United M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h m o s t effectively e m p l o y licensed

Gary D, Moody 407

Issues In: Science a n d Religion

The Logic of Renewal, by William J. A b r a h a m (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003)

Claiming Theology in the Pulpit, by B u r t o n Z. C o o p e r a n d J o h n S. McClure

I n d e x to Volume 25, 2005 435

Extending the Witness and Service

T h e Book of Discipline describes t h e labor of U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t elders

QUARTERLY REVIEW 337

e n a b l e respectful dialogue w i t h a n d b e t w e e n religious a n d nonreligious

As m e n t i o n e d earlier, this installment is t h e final issue of Quarterly

Hendrik R. Pieterse is the editor of Q u a r t e r l y Review.

338 QUARTERLY REVIEW

Practicing Pastoral Counseling in the United Methodist Mode

Pastoral Counseling in the United

T his issue of Quarterly Review celebrates t h e place of pastoral counseling in

QUARTERLY REVIEW 339

pastoral counselor u n i q u e l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e authority, c o m m i t m e n t , a n d

Pastoral Counseling: Ancient Antecedents

340 QUARTERLY REVIEW

a b o u t o u r acts of charity are c o n s o n a n t w i t h c o n t e m p o r a r y practice of

Liston Mills characterizes Wesley's influence o n t h e m o d e r n pastoral

The Pastoral Counseling Movement: Explicit Beginnings

WINTER 2005 341

of Religious Experience (1902). James's work, along w i t h t h a t of G. Stanley

In 1925, A n t o n Boisen, a clergyman w h o struggled w i t h m e n t a l illness

342 QUARTERLY REVIEW

Methodists) have served as p r e s i d e n t s of A A P C so far: J o h n H, Patton,

WINTER 2005 343

g e n d e r a n d racial bias a n d have effectively b r o a d e n e d b o t h t h e thinking

The Unique Impact of Pastoral Counseling on

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M a r y L. Fraser took over t h e reins. In 1974, t h e Illinois area, u n d e r Bishop

WINTER 2005 345

area a n d a n n u a l conference p r o g r a m s has b e e n t h e ability of conference

346 QUARTERLY REVIEW

developed for assisting judicatories to r e s p o n d effectively a n d p r e e m p

WINTER 2005 347

of its founders, H o w a r d Clinebell w a s again a h e a d of his c h u r c h and his

Continuing Questions for Discussion

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cases, there are reasonable explanations: b o t h s p o u s e s w o r k or parishes

WINTER 2005 349

a n n u a l conferences creates t h e t e m p t a t i o n for b i s h o p s to treat appoint

Elders in appointments extending the ministry of the local United Methodist

W h e t h e r or n o t this "consultation" is a two-way c o m m u n i c a t i o n or

Fortunately, t h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t E n d o r s i n g Agency (UMEA) at t h e

350 QUARTERLY REVIEW

We c o m m i t ourselves to this c o n t i n u i n g challenge.

Donald C. Houts, retired, spent a career in parish ministry, chaplaincy, teaching,