Lecture Notes Set 3 - Measurement Systems

MFE 3102
Design of Mechatronic Systems
Measurement Systems
Dr Conrad Pace
MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

C. Pace
Page 3.1
Introduction to Measurement Systems

Role of Measurement Systems
Detection receive an external stimulus (ex.
Displacement)
Selection measurement of one property of that stimulus
(ex. direction of displacement, filtering our disturbances)
Signal Management transform signal that represents
the measured property in a form legible by the information
processor (ex. amplification, linearisation, digital
conversion)
Communication communicate signal to the observer/
information processor

C. Pace
Page 3.2
Introduction to Measurement Systems

A sensor is a device capable of detecting a physical parameter
Receives energy from the measured medium (stimulus)
It produces a signal output which depends on the stimulus
Will always extract energy from the measured medium
Transducers are devices which convert a physical parameter into another

(often being a conversion from a physical parameter into an electrical
quantity).
Not all transducers are sensors but all sensors are transducers
Change in
temperature
Transducer
(Thermistor)
Change in
Resistance
The measurand is the quantity, property, or condition that is measured (i.e.

sensed and converted into a usable electrical output), by a transducer

C. Pace
Page 3.3
Transducer Classification
Transducer classification measurand
based or physical effect based.
Classification by Measurand
Classification by Physical Effect
Displacement
Velocity
Acceleration
Angle
Angular Velocity
Torque
Pressure
Flow rate
Time
Temperature
Radiation
Magnetic Flux, etc..
Variable Resistance
Variable Capacitance
Variable Inductance
Deformation of elastic materials
Seismic masses
Piezo-electric effect
Optical interference
Electro-magnetic induction
Hall effect
Thermo-resistivity
Thermo-expansion
Thermo-electric (Seebeck) effect
Photo-electric effect, etc..

C. Pace
Page 3.4
Measurand Sensor Output Relation

The relation between the measurand and the sensor output is generally clearly
identifiable and linear.
Sensor
Output
O/P = Const x Measurand
Measurand

C. Pace
Page 3.5
Overview of Sensor Technologies

Displacement Contact Type Sensors
Analogue Type
Resistance (Potentiometric, Strain

Gauge)
Capacitive
Inductive
Digital Type Encoders

C. Pace
Page 3.6

Cantilever beam
R
Vref
(1-k)
Vout
(k)
Strain deflection
(for measuring small
distances
RL
Strain Gauge Application

Potentiometer Application
C. Pace
Page 3.7

Core displacement
x
g
x
Secondary 1
Primary
Secondary 2
Inductive Application
g
l
1
x
Capacitive
Application

C. Pace
Page 3.8

LED
Light
Sensor
Disc
Digital Rotary Encoder

C. Pace
Page 3.9

Displacement Non-Contact Type Sensors
Transducer
(primary sensing
element)
Signal
Conditioning
stage
Triggering
stage
Amplification
Stage
Detect proximity of object to sensor

Various technologies are used for proximity sensors
including Capacitive and Inductive.
C. Pace
Page 3.10

Other Strain Gauge Sensor Applications
Note: rounded corners to
avoid stress concentration
Force
Diaphragm
Cavity
Force
Strain gauge
Strain gauge
Load cell
PRESSURE
FORCE
Seismic mass
Strain gauges
Torque
Torque
Beam
Strain gauges (mounted at 45
to measure shear strain)
TORQUE
Support
ACCELERATION

C. Pace
Page 3.11

Force Sensors
Measuring small displacements caused by the force.
Strain Gauge Load Cells
Piezo-Electric Load Cells
Force
PiezoElectric
Material
LOAD CELLS using

Strain Gauges
C. Pace
+++++++
----------
Surfaces
become
charged
Piezo-Electric effect
Piezo-Electric Application
Page 3.12

Temperature Sensors
Use of expansion/ contraction of solids or liquids

Measurement of gas pressures
Change in electrical resistance
Thermoelectric e.m.f.
Radiation measurement

C. Pace
Page 3.13

Temperature Sensors
T e m p e ra tu re
Range
M e a su rin g
In stru m e n t
M e th o d o f M e a su re m e n t
0 .6 5 K to 5 K
G a s T h e rm om ete r
M e a su rem e nt of va p o u r p re ssu re s of
H e (h e liu m ) u sin g sp e c ified e qua tio n s.
3 K to 24 .6 K
G a s T h e rm om ete r
M e a su rem e nt fro m a co n sta nt vo lu m e

ga s th e rm o m e te r
1 4 K to 3 0 3 K
P la tin um re sista n ce
th e rm o m e te r (P R T )
S p e cified refe re n ce fu n ctio n to ge the r

w ith a d e via tio n e q u atio n w h o se
co efficien ts a re d ete rm in e d in the
ca lib ra tio n a g a in st th e fixe d p o in ts.
0 .0 1 C
9 6 2 C
P la tin um re sista n ce
th e rm o m e te r (P R T )
S p e cified refe re n ce fu n ctio n a nd a

d e via tio n e qu atio n
R a d ia tio n p yro m e te r
D e fin e d b y P la n cks la w ta kin g th e

ra d ia tio n em itted from the b o d y.
9 6 2 C a n d
a b o ve
to

C. Pace
Page 3.14
Basic Measurement System Components

Data storage/
playback
Element
Measurand
Measured
Medium
Primary
sensing
Element
Signal
Conditioning
Element
Signal
Processing
Element
Data
Transmission
Element
Data
Presentation
Element
Presented
Data
Observer
Power supply

C. Pace
Page 3.15
Basic Measurement System Components

Example of a Measurement System
Resistance
Input
True Weight
(Measurand)
Pillar
Load Cell
Strain
Primary
Strain
Gauge
Bridge
Circuit
Measured
Weight
Amplifier
Circuit
V
Secondary
Sensing
Output
mV
Visual
Display
Unit
Data Presentation

C. Pace
Signal Conditioning
Microprocessor
(linearisation and
error compensation)
A/D
Converter
Signal Processing
Page 3.16
Application Areas of Measurement Systems

Monitoring of Processes and Operations
Control of Processes and Operations
Most common application in mechatronic products and
processes.
Experimental Engineering Analysis

In solving engineering problems, two general methods are
available: theoretical and experimental.
Measurement systems are a fundamental component of
experimental work.

C. Pace
Page 3.17
Sensory Characteristics
Measurand Characteristics
Electrical Characteristics
Mechanical Characteristics
Performance Characteristics

C. Pace
Page 3.18
Sensor Measurand Characteristics

Sensor Type is often defined by the Measurand
Sensors can be used to measure other parameters
indirectly due to a known relation between the parameter
of interest and the measurand.
The Range of the sensor is given by the upper and

lower limits of measurand values to which the sensor
will respond to within specified performance
tolerances
The Span is the algebraic difference between the
two limits of the range.
Example : Force Sensor Range 10 to 50kN
Span 40kN
C. Pace
Page 3.19
Sensor Electrical Characteristics

Power
Supply
Zin
Measurand
Transducer
Output
Zout
ZL
Load
Sensor Output Types

Analogue Resistance Change, Capacitance Change,
Inductance Change, Voltage Change, Charge build-up,
frequency output
Digital discrete function of the measurand

C. Pace
Page 3.20
10
Sensor Mechanical Characteristics

Mechanical Characteristics define the Physical
interface of the sensor
Mode of mounting
Sensor Orientation
Environmental Conditions to which the sensor is
exposed (ex. vibration and mechanical stress)

C. Pace
Page 3.21
Sensor Performance Characteristics

Classification of Performance Characteristics
Static
Dynamic
Environmental

C. Pace
Page 3.22
11

Static (steady state) Performance Characteristics
Steady-state relation
Pressure (kPa)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
100
5.0
90
4.5
Sensor output
given as a % of the
Full Scale Output
(%FSO)
Output (% FSO)
70
60
50
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
40
2.0
30
1.5
20
1.0
10
0.5
Output (Volts dc)
80
0.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Measurand (% Range)

C. Pace
Page 3.23

Pressure (kPa)
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
100
5.0
90
4.5
80
4.0
70
3.5
60
3.0
50
2.5
40
2.0
Relationship is derived either
30
1.5
(a) By calculation from a known

theoretical response
20
10
1.0
0.5
(b) By calibration
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Output (Volts dc)
Output (% FSO)
0.0
80
90
100
Measurand (% Range)

C. Pace
Page 3.24
12

Pressure (kPa)
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
100
90
Sensitivity =
80
900
1000
5.0
4.5
Change in Output
4.0
Change in Measurand
70
Output (% FSO)
800
100kPa
3.5
60
3.0
Sensitivity = 5mV/kPa
50
2.5
40
2.0
30
1.5
20
1.0
10
0.5
0.5V
Output (Volts dc)
0.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Measurand (% Range)

C. Pace
Page 3.25

Resolution
The smallest change in measurand value that can be
detected.
For an Ideal ANALOGUE Sensor an infinitesimally
small change in measurand will result in an equivalent
change in output
In practice the smallest detectable change is limited
due to various reasons (electrical noise, friction, inertia,
etc..)

C. Pace
Page 3.26
13

Resolution
Analogue Sensors Limited by noise
Digital Sensors Limited by the value of the least significant bit of
the digital output signal
Resolution is often defined as a percentage of the full-scale output
(% FSO)
Example - Angular velocity sensor

minimum change in speed detected 2 rad/s
Maximum measurable input 200 rad/s
Resolution = 1.0 %FSO
C. Pace
Page 3.27

Accuracy and Errors (uncertainty)
Errors distort the expected relationship between the measurand
and sensor output
Error = Measured Value True Measurand Value
The Accuracy of a sensor is the ability to give an indication
equivalent to the true value of the measurand (it is a reflection of
the maximum error to be expected from the sensory device).

C. Pace
Page 3.28
14

Accuracy
Dependent on the Errors to which the sensor is subjected
Reflects the precision of calibration of the sensor
Is stipulated as a %FSO
Example : Temperature Sensor

Range 0 to 200C
Sensor Max. Error of 10C
Sensor Accuracy = 5% FSO

C. Pace
Page 3.29

Error Types REPEATABILITY
The ability of the sensor to give the same output for
repeated applications of the same input measurand
value
Repeatability = Maximum Minimum Values Given
x 100%
FSO

C. Pace
Page 3.30
15

Error Types HYSTERESIS
The maximum difference in sensor output for a specific measurand
value when the value is approached, first with increasing and then
with decreasing measurand.
100
90
Output (% FSO)
80
Decreasing Measurand
70
60
50
40
Hysteresis Error
30
20
Increasing Measurand
10
0
0
10
20
30

C. Pace
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Measurand (% Range)
Page 3.31

Error Types NON-LINEARITY
Deviation from an idealised linear relationship
Reasons for non-linearity
Techniques/ Phenomena used for sensing the
measurand
Non-linear characteristics of certain parameters
arising from manufacturing variations (ex.
Diaphragm properties)

C. Pace
Page 3.32
16

Error Types NON-LINEARITY
Interpretations of Non-Linearity Errors
Terminal non-Linearity
Independent non-Linearity
Measured
Output
Line of
best fit
Measured
Output
Actual
Ideal
Actual
Maximum
deviation gives
the non linearity
error
Maximum
deviation gives
the non linearity
error
Measurand
(a) Terminal non-linearity
C. Pace
Measurand
(b) Independent non-linearity
Page 3.33

Error Types Offset and Gain Errors
Offset Error (Zero Shift)
Shift of the straight line relationship from the origin
Gain Error (Sensitivity Shift)

Change in the straight line slope
Reasons for zero shift/ sensitivity shift

Environmental conditions (temperature fluctuations)
Wear in sensor components, etc..
C. Pace
Page 3.34
17

Error Types Offset and Gain Errors
Measured
Output
Actual
Ideal
Measured
Output
Gain error
Actual
Ideal
Offset error
Measurand
(a) Offset Error
Measurand
(b) Gain Error

C. Pace
Page 3.35

Error Types Stability
The ability to give the same output when
subjected to a constant measurand input over a
period of time.
Commonly referred to as the sensor drift or
creep.

C. Pace
Page 3.36
18

Error Types Dead Band
The measurand range for which there is no
output
Measured Output
Dead-band
Actual
Measurand

C. Pace
Page 3.37

Dynamic Performance Characteristics
Define the transient behaviour of the sensor
The importance of dynamic characteristics
depends on the rapidity of the sensor response
required (compared to the system under control)
Typical dynamic responses of interest
Step Response (step change in measurand)
Frequency Response (sinusoidal frequency change in
measurand)
C. Pace
Page 3.38
19

Frequency Response
Amplitude Ratio = Sensor Output Magnitude/
Measurand Magnitude
Phase Shift = Phase lag between Sensor output and
Measurand

C. Pace
Page 3.39

Frequency Response
Frequency range A
Frequency range B
Response
Curve A
C. Pace
Response
Curve B
Page 3.40
20

Step Response
Transient Response
100
Steady-State
Response
95%
Percent of output change
90
Time
Constant
80
70
63.2%
60
Response Time
50
40
Rise Time
30
20
10
Dead
Time
5%
0
0
Time

Application of Measurand Change
C. Pace
Page 3.41

Step Response
160
Percent of output change
140
Maximum
Overshoot
120
100
Steady state
output value
80
60
40
20
0
0
Application of Measurand Change

C. Pace
Page 3.42
21

Environment Characteristics
Describe the environmental effects on the sensor
performance
Example
Temperature Offset and Gain Errors (amongst the most
common environmental effects on sensors)
%FSO per C change in temperature
Temperature Offset Error is often given as a

Temperature Sensitivity change in output which is
solely due to changes in temperature

C. Pace
Page 3.43

Reducing Temperature Effects
Controlling the sensors ambient temperature
Compensating for temperature effects
Using dummy sensors (a dummy sensor is subjected only to
temperature effects and not the measurand change)
Active temperature measurement and compensation
Using low temperature coefficient materials/ low

power dissipation components
Repeated calibration in smart sensors
C. Pace
Page 3.44
22

Other environmental factors that can influence the
sensor output
Humidity
Pressure
Mechanical Stress/ Strain
Vibrations
Electro-magnetic interference
Electrostatics

C. Pace
Page 3.45
Designing Measurement Systems

Measurement Systems form a principal component
within the design concept of a Mechatronic System
Establish
Information
Requirements
What information is required
to be gathered and
managed by the system

C. Pace
Design
Measurement
Systems
Identify Appropriate
Sensory Technology and
Signal Processing,
Manipulation and
communication
requirements
Page 3.46
23

Consideration of the following factors
The information required and the identification of the
system physical parameters that must be measured in
order to provide this information.
The nature, quality and performance of the
measurement in terms of parameters such as linearity,
accuracy and resolution.
A determination of the most inaccurate measurement
that would be acceptable (required accuracy)
The effect on the system performance of any drift in the
measurement circuit (zero or sensitivity)
C. Pace
Page 3.47

Consideration of the following factors (continued)
The environmental conditions under which the sensors
are expected to operate
The cost targets to be met
The nature and form of the information transfer required
The reliability of the system
The form of the interface to adjacent modules in the
system.

C. Pace
Page 3.48
24

When designing Measurement Systems care should be taken
not to provide too much or too little information
Too Much Information
Added cost
Added Processing burden
Too Little Information

Inadequate Accuracy
Insufficient Update Rate
Lack of Desired Performance

C. Pace
Page 3.49
25

Lecture Notes Set 3 - Measurement Systems

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MFE 3102

Design of Mechatronic Systems

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

Introduction to Measurement Systems

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

Introduction to Measurement Systems

Transducers are devices which convert a physical parameter into another

The measurand is the quantity, property, or condition that is measured (i.e.

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

Classification by Physical Effect

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

Measurand Sensor Output Relation

O/P = Const x Measurand

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

Overview of Sensor Technologies

Resistance (Potentiometric, Strain

Digital Type Encoders

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

Overview of Sensor Technologies

Strain Gauge Application

Overview of Sensor Technologies

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

Overview of Sensor Technologies

Digital Rotary Encoder

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

Overview of Sensor Technologies

Detect proximity of object to sensor

Overview of Sensor Technologies

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

Overview of Sensor Technologies

LOAD CELLS using

Overview of Sensor Technologies

Use of expansion/ contraction of solids or liquids

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

Overview of Sensor Technologies

M e a su rem e nt fro m a co n sta nt vo lu m e

S p e cified refe re n ce fu n ctio n to ge the r

S p e cified refe re n ce fu n ctio n a nd a

D e fin e d b y P la n cks la w ta kin g th e

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

Basic Measurement System Components

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

Basic Measurement System Components

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

Application Areas of Measurement Systems

Experimental Engineering Analysis

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

Sensor Measurand Characteristics

The Range of the sensor is given by the upper and

Sensor Electrical Characteristics

Sensor Output Types

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

Sensor Mechanical Characteristics

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

Sensor Performance Characteristics

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

Sensor Performance Characteristics

Output (Volts dc)

MFE3102 Design of Mechatronic Systems

Sensor Performance Characteristics

Relationship is derived either

(a) By calculation from a known