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Deep drawing is a manufacturing process that is used extensively in the forming of sheet
metal into cup or box like structures. Pots and pans for cooking, containers, sinks, automobile
parts, such as panels and gas tanks, are among a few of the items manufactured by sheet
metal deep drawing. This process is sometimes called drawing and is not to be confused with
the bulk deformation process of drawing discussed earlier. A basic deep drawing operation
could be the forming of a flat sheet into a three dimensional cup, or a box. The shape of a deep
drawn part is not limited to a circle or square, more complex contours are possible. However,
as the complexity goes up, the manufacturing difficulties increase rapidly. It is best to design
the shape of a deep drawing to be as simple as possible. For the primary sheet metal deep
drawing process the part will have a flat base and straight sides.
Figure:291
The Process
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Deep drawing of sheet metal is performed with a punch and die. The punch is the desired
shape of the base of the part, once drawn. The die cavity matches the punch and is a little
wider to allow for its passage, as well as clearance. This setup is similar to sheet metal cutting
operations. As in cutting, clearance is the lateral distance between the die edge and the punch
edge. The sheet metal work piece, called a blank, is placed over the die opening. A
blankholder, that surrounds the punch, applies pressure to the entire surface of the blank,
(except the area under the punch), holding the sheet metal work flat against the die. The punch
travels towards the blank. After contacting the work, the punch forces the sheet metal into the
die cavity, forming its shape.
Equipment for sheet metal deep drawing processes would involve a double action, one for the
blank holder and one for the punch. Both mechanical and hydraulic presses are used in
manufacturing industry. Typically the hydraulic press can control the blankholder and punch
actions separately, but the mechanical press is faster. Punch and die materials, for the deep
drawing of sheet metal, are usually tool steels and iron. However, the range of materials for
punch and die can span from plastics to carbides. Parts are usually drawn at speeds of 4 to 12
inches per second.
Figure:292
Figure:293
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Drawing Ratio
Measurement of the amount of drawing performed on a sheet metal blank can be quantified.
This can be done with the drawing ratio. The higher the drawing ratio, the more extreme
the amount of deep drawing. Due to the geometry, forces, metal flow and material
properties of the work, there is a limit to the amount of deep drawing that can be performed
on a sheet metal blank in a single operation. Drawing ratios can help determine the
maximum amount of deep drawing possible. The drawing ratio is roughly calculated as,
DR = Db/Dp.
Db is the diameter of the blank and Dp is the diameter of the punch. For shapes that are
noncircular the maximum diameter is sometimes used, or occasionally drawing ratio is
calculated using surface areas. The limit to the drawing ratio for an operation is usually 2 or
under. Actual limits to the amount of drawing possible are also dependant upon the depth of
drawing, punch radius, die radius, anisotropy of the sheet and the blank's material.
Reduction
Another way to express drawing ratio is the reduction (r). Reduction is measured using the
same variables as drawing ratio. Reduction can be calculated by r = (Db - Dp)/(Db).
Db and Dp being blank and punch diameters respectively. Reduction should be .5 or under.
Often expressed as the percent reduction r = (Db - Dp)/(Db) X 100%. In this case the
reduction should be 50% or under.
Figure:294
The amount of forming of the sheet metal that can be accomplished on the first redraw is
less than on the original draw. For the original drawing of the blank 50% reduction is
rarely used during industrial manufacturing practice. The initial reduction is usually 35%
to 45%. First redraw is commonly performed at a 20% to 30% reduction. Second redraw
can typically range from 13% to 16% reduction. If a severe amount of deep drawing is to
be performed and several redrawing operations are necessary, then the part should be
annealed every two operations. This will recover the material for further redrawing.
Deep drawing process design must include the drawing of intermediate part shapes, in
situations requiring redrawing. For every redraw to be performed there will be one
intermediate part.
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Figure:295
Intermediate shape design is important and unique tooling and setup will be required for
each intermediate step. Each operation will affect the next one and analysis must be done
for each step. When designing intermediate shapes, the sheet metal reduction should be
considered and in most cases it can be assumed that the surface area of the blank, any
intermediate shapes and the part, to be the same.
Reverse redrawing of sheet metal, or reverse drawing, is sometimes used to redraw parts.
In reverse redrawing, the intermediate part is flipped over before being placed on the die
for the next operation. This will cause the sheet metal to now be drawn in the opposite
direction as the first draw.
Figure:296
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Figure:297
It can be illustrated that more material is being forced into smaller spaces, since the same
material from the peripheral is moving into a circle of smaller diameter.
Figure:298
Metal flow can be observed in the figure above. As the deep drawing progresses metal from
zone A is forced into zone B, metal from zone B is forced into zone C and metal from zone C
is forced into the die cavity. This continues until eventually, (providing no flange in the final
product), even the material in zone A is forced into the cavity. The constriction of space will
cause compressive forces to act within the material. Tensile forces will also be present in the
flange because of the drawing of the metal into the die.
Figure:299
Compressive forces on material elements in the flange can be related to the analogy of a metal
beam in compression, such as the one illustrated in the following figure.
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Figure:300
Now imagine decreasing the width of the beam. If the width becomes low enough, relative to
length, the beam will tend to buckle under stress.
Figure:301
This is similar to the situation in the flange during a sheet metal deep drawing operation. As
mentioned, the force exerted on the beam is similar to the compressive forces acting on the
blank's material. Reducing the width of the beam is equivalent to reducing the thickness of the
sheet metal. The buckling of the beam is manifested in the wrinkling of the sheet metal. The
thicker beam has a high enough width to allow for proper metal flow. A metal beam of greater
width is equivalent to a thicker sheet metal blank. It is now evident that the lower the sheet
metal thickness the more likely it is to wrinkle during deep drawing. Wrinkles start in the
flange. Once wrinkling starts, it will continue to propagate. Wrinkles that start in the flange
are pulled into the die and will end up in the part's walls.
Figure:302
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In order to solve the problem of sheet metal wrinkling a blank holder is used. By applying
pressure to the surface of the blank, the blank holder can prevent wrinkling for many parts.
The blankholder would be the equivalent to force applied over the side of the thinner beam,
causing it to compress properly, rather than buckle. However, remember this is only an
analogy to help understand the mechanics occurring. The actual situation is different,
since forces and material flow are also occurring simultaneously in other directions.
Figure:303
Sheet metal thickness is an important aspect of deep drawing process design. Thickness to
diameter ratio is a main factor used to quantify the geometry of a blank and can be calculated
by t/Db. Thickness is represented by t, and Db is the diameter of the blank. For noncircular
sheet metal parts the maximum diameter is sometimes used. Usually it is expressed as a
percent t/Db X 100%. Blankholders are generally effective for thickness ratios of 1% and
over. Ratios of .5% to 1% are marginal and for thickness ratios under .5% even a blankholder
may not prevent wrinkling.
Die corner radius and punch corner radius are important in force distribution and material
flow during the sheet metal deep drawing process.
Figure:304
Corner radius, for deep drawing manufacturing, should be sufficient to allow for smooth metal
flow. If a radius is too small, the sheet metal can tear. Often this occurs as the material is
traveling over the corner. Optimization of corner radius should be achieved, because if the
radius is too large it may cause wrinkling. While low corner radius can be a source of stress,
that can initiate tearing at another location in the part. However, sometimes the location of the
occurrence of the tear, in the sheet metal, will be an indication of the cause.
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Figure:305
Forces involved in the formation of the part wall are also important.
Figure:306
As the punch progresses, it draws material from the flange into the die cavity, increasing the
length of the part wall. Metal forming the part's walls is in tension. Even though material is
constantly being drawn from the flange region to supply the growing part walls, the tension
forces will tend to create a thinning effect. Thinning will usually be greatest near the part's
base. The decrease in thickness, occurring in the walls of a deep drawn part, is mitigated by
control of process parameters. A certain level of thinning is usually unavoidable. Often, the
manufacturing process of ironing is employed to finish deep drawn parts by evening the wall
thickness.
Punch force and blankholder force should be determined when designing a particular sheet
metal deep drawing operation. Punch force will vary throughout the operation. Commonly,
the punch force will reach its maximum at about 1/3 of the stroke. Both punch force and
blankholder force are dependent on punch and die geometry, punch and die radius, blank
geometry, blank thickness, blank material and friction. Although it will differ, a common
value for the blankholder force is about 30% to 40% of the maximum punch force. References
are available to calculate these forces, based on these variables.
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Metal flows faster and easier into the die cavity from the sides of the blank than from the
corners. More complex metal flow at the corners causes more impedance to material
movement. Less metal is drawn from these sections as a result. Removal of material, from
areas such as this, will improve metal flow and reduce forces. The optimal blank shape will
vary for different parts and contours. Computer programs have been developed to predict such
shapes, given the parameters. However, it should be remembered that actual trail and error
testing is a vital part of deep drawing process design and sheet metal manufacturing.
Figure:307
Die and blankholder surfaces for deep drawing sheet metal must be as smooth as possible,
they should be ground and lapped to mitigate friction. Any type of friction will increase force,
hence stresses in the material. Friction between the punch and work surfaces, as well as
friction over corners, can be a source of failure. Lubrication is important in deep drawing of
sheet metal. Lubrication will allow for easier metal flow and more uniformly distributed metal
strains, due to decreasing friction. Lubrication also helps to reduce wear on tooling and
machinery. Lubricants are applied to both sides of the sheet metal blank. Common lubricants
used in deep drawing include oil, soap, emulsions, wax and sometimes solid lubricants.
Wrinkling is another common defect and was discussed in detail earlier. Wrinkling may often
occur if the blankholder force is too low. Therefore optimization of blankholder force is
necessary, since too high a force will cause excess friction. Sheet metal thickness is an
essential parameter. As stated earlier, with a thickness ratio of .5% or under even a
blankholder may not stop wrinkling. If corner radius is not high enough tearing may occur,
but if the corner radius is excessive this may also cause wrinkling. Corner radius, like holding
force, must obtain an optimum value.
Earing is a problem characteristic to deep drawing. Earing is the formation of wavy edges at
the open end of the drawn cup. These are usually trimmed. The anisotropy of a particular
sheet metal blank is the predominant source of earing.
Surface scratches or irregularities may appear on drawn parts. Make sure punch and die
surfaces are smooth. Other causes of surface scratching could be improper clearance, or
inadequate lubrication.
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Drawbeads
Drawbeads are sometimes used to help regulate metal movement during deep drawing
manufacture. Drawbeads bend and unbend metal as it travels into the die cavity, thus altering
its flow. Drawbeads can reduce the necessary blankholder force.
Figure:308
Figure:309
Embossing
Embossing is a sheet metal forming operation related to deep drawing. Embossing is typically
used to indent the metal with a design or writing. This manufacturing process has been
compared to coining. Unlike coining, embossing uses matching male and female die and the
impression will affect both sides of the sheet metal.
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