Magnetic Properties in Solids

Chapter 5: Magnetic Properties

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A Term Paper
Presented to the
Mechanical and Engineering Sciences Department
College of Engineering
MSU-Iligan Institute of Technology

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In Partial Fulfillment for the Course

ES 67
Elements of Material Science and Engineering

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JIM DAVID Dosdos ANG

November 2016
INTRODUCTION

Magnetism is a physical phenomenon that are mediated by magnetic fields.

Electric currents and the magnetic moments of elementary particles give rise to a
magnetic field, which acts on other currents and magnetic moments. The most familiar
effects occur in ferromagnetic materials, which are strongly attracted by magnetic fields
and can be magnetized to become permanent magnets, producing magnetic fields
themselves.

The types include ferrimagnetic, diamagnetic and ferrimagnetic which

can be considered part of ferromagnets but with oppositely aligned moments that
essentially weakens the materials magnetic properties.
Only a few substances are ferromagnetic; the most common ones are iron, nickel
and cobalt and their alloys. The prefix ''ferro-'' refers to iron, because permanent
magnetism was first observed in lodestone, a form of natural iron ore called magnetite,
Fe3O4. Although ferromagnetism is responsible for most of the effects of magnetism
encountered in everyday life, all other materials are influenced to some extent by a
magnetic field. Paramagnetic substances such as aluminum and oxygen are weakly
attracted to an applied magnetic field; diamagnetic substances such as copper and carbon
are weakly repelled; while antiferromagnetic materials such as chromium and spin
glasses have a more complex relationship with a magnetic field. The force of a magnet on
paramagnetic, diamagnetic, antiferromagnetic materials is usually too weak to be felt, and
can only be detected by laboratory instruments, so in everyday life these substances are

often described as non-magnetic. The magnetic state of a material depends on

temperature and other variables such as pressure and the applied magnetic field.
Definition of Terms

Anti-ferromagnetic

Phenomenon in some magnetically ordered

materials in which there is an anti-parallel
alignment of spins in two interpenetrating
structures so that there is no overall bulk
spontaneous magnetization.

Ferromagnetic

Strongly attracted to a magnet. Phenomenon

in some magnetically ordered materials in
which there is a bulk magnetic moment and the
magnetization is large.

Magnetic

Noticeably attracted to a magnet.

Magnetic after heating

Attracted to a magnet after heating the sample.

Moderately Magnetic

Noticeably attracted to a magnet.

Naturally strong

Strongly attracted to a magnet.

Naturally weak

Weakly attracted to a magnet.

Nonmagnetic

Not attracted to a magnet.

Paramagnetic

Weakly attracted to very strong magnetic

fields.

Strongly magnetic

Strongly attracted to a magnet

Weakly magnetic

Weakly attracted to a magnet.

Weakly paramagnetic

Weakly attracted to very strong magnetic

fields.

Slightly magnetic

Weakly attracted to a magnet.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Magnetism was first discovered in the ancient world, when people noticed that
lodestones, naturally magnetized pieces of the mineral magnetite, could attract iron. The
word magnet comes from the Greek term for lodestone, "magntis lthos", which means a
stone from the region of Magnesia. In ancient Greece, Aristotle attributed the first of
what could be called a scientific discussion of magnetism to the philosopher Thales of
Miletus, who lived from about 625 BC to about 545 BC. Around the same time, in
ancient India, the Indian surgeon Sushruta was the first to make use of the magnet for
surgical purposes.
In ancient China, the earliest literary reference to magnetism lies in a 4th-century
BC book named after its author, The Master of Demon Valley.
The 2nd-century BC annals, Lshi Chunqiu, also notes:
"The lodestone makes iron approach, or it attracts it."
The earliest mention of the attraction of a needle is in a 1st-century work Lunheng
: "A lodestone attracts a needle."
The 11th-century Chinese scientist Shen Kuo was the first person to write in the
Dream Pool Essays of the magnetic needle compass and that it improved the accuracy
of navigation by employing the astronomical concept of true north.

By the 12th century the Chinese were known to use the lodestone compass for
navigation. They sculpted a directional spoon from lodestone in such a way that the
handle of the spoon always pointed south.
Alexander Neckam, by 1187, was the first in Europe to describe the compass and
its use for navigation. In 1269, Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt wrote the Epistola de
magnete, the first extant treatise describing the properties of magnets. In 1282, the
properties of magnets and the dry compass were discussed by Al-Ashraf, a Yemeni
physicist, astronomer, and geographer.
In 1600, William Gilbert published his De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et
de Magno Magnete Tellure. In this work, he describes many of his experiments with his
model earth called the terrella. From his experiments, he concluded that the Earth was
itself magnetic and that this was the reason compasses pointed north or a large magnetic
island on the north pole that attracted the compass).
An understanding of the relationship between electricity and magnetism began in
1819 with work by Hans Christian rsted, a professor at the University of Copenhagen,
who discovered by the accidental twitching of a compass needle near a wire that an
electric current could create a magnetic field. This landmark experiment is known as
rsted's Experiment. Several other experiments followed, with Andr-Marie Ampre,
who in 1820 discovered that the magnetic field circulating in a closed-path was related to
the current flowing through the perimeter of the path; Carl Friedrich Gauss; Jean-Baptiste
Biot and Flix Savart, both of whom in 1820 came up with the BiotSavart law giving an
equation for the magnetic field from a current-carrying wire; Michael Faraday, who in
1831 found that a time-varying magnetic flux through a loop of wire induced a voltage,

and others finding further links between magnetism and electricity. James Clerk Maxwell
synthesized and expanded these insights into Maxwell's equations, unifying electricity,
magnetism, and optics into the field of electromagnetism. In 1905, Einstein used these
laws in motivating his theory of special relativity, requiring that the laws held true in all
inertial reference frames.
Electromagnetism has continued to develop into the 21st century, being
incorporated into the more fundamental theories of gauge theory, quantum
electrodynamics, electroweak theory, and finally the standard model.
Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources: electric current and spin magnetic
moments of elementary particles.
The magnetic moments of the nuclei of atoms are typically thousands of times
smaller than the electrons' magnetic moments, so they are negligible in the context of the
magnetization of materials. Nuclear magnetic moments are very important in other
contexts, particularly in nuclear magnetic resonance and magnetic resonance imaging.
Ordinarily, the enormous number of electrons in a material are arranged such that
their magnetic moments cancel out. This is due, to some extent, to electrons combining
into pairs with opposite intrinsic magnetic moments as a result of the Pauli exclusion
principle, or combining into filled subshells with zero net orbital motion. In both cases,
the electron arrangement is so as to exactly cancel the magnetic moments from each
electron. Moreover, even when the electron configuration is such that there are unpaired
electrons and/or non-filled subshells, it is often the case that the various electrons in the
solid will contribute magnetic moments that point in different, random directions, so that
the material will not be magnetic.

However, sometimeseither spontaneously, or owing to an applied external

magnetic fieldeach of the electron magnetic moments will be, on average, lined up.
Then the material can produce a net total magnetic field, which can potentially be quite
strong.
The magnetic behavior of a material depends on its structure, particularly its
electron configuration, for the reasons mentioned above, and also on the temperature. At
high temperatures, random thermal motion makes it more difficult for the electrons to
maintain alignment.
Diamagnetism appears in all materials, and is the tendency of a material to oppose
an applied magnetic field, and therefore, to be repelled by a magnetic field. However, in a
material with paramagnetic properties, the paramagnetic behavior dominates. Thus,
despite its universal occurrence, diamagnetic behavior is observed only in a purely
diamagnetic material. In a diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired electrons, so the
intrinsic electron magnetic moments cannot produce any bulk effect. In these cases, the
magnetization arises from the electrons' orbital motions, which can be understood
classically as follows:
In a paramagnetic material, there are unpaired electrons, i.e. atomic or molecular
orbitals with exactly one electron in them. While paired electrons are required by the
Pauli exclusion principle to have their intrinsic magnetic moments pointing in opposite
directions, causing their magnetic fields to cancel out, an unpaired electron is free to align
its magnetic moment in any direction. When an external magnetic field is applied, these
magnetic moments will tend to align themselves in the same direction as the applied
field, thus reinforcing it.

A ferromagnet, like a paramagnetic substance, has unpaired electrons. However,

in addition to the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment's tendency to be parallel to an
applied field, there is also in these materials a tendency for these magnetic moments to
orient parallel to each other to maintain a lowered-energy state. Thus, even in the absence
of an applied field, the magnetic moments of the electrons in the material spontaneously
line up parallel to one another.
Every ferromagnetic substance has its own individual temperature, called the
Curie temperature, or Curie point, above which it loses its ferromagnetic properties. This
is because the thermal tendency to disorder overwhelms the energy-lowering due to
ferromagnetic order. Ferromagnetism only occurs in a few substances; the common ones
are iron, nickel, cobalt, their alloys, and some alloys of rare earth metals.
The magnetic moments of atoms in a ferromagnetic material cause them to
behave something like tiny permanent magnets. They stick together and align themselves
into small regions of more or less uniform alignment called magnetic domains or Weiss
domains. Magnetic domains can be observed with a magnetic force microscope to reveal
magnetic domain boundaries that resemble white lines in the sketch. There are many
scientific experiments that can physically show magnetic fields.
When a domain contains too many molecules, it becomes unstable and divides
into two domains aligned in opposite directions so that they stick together more stably as
shown at the right.
When exposed to a magnetic field, the domain boundaries move so that the
domains aligned with the magnetic field grow and dominate the structure as shown at the
left. When the magnetizing field is removed, the domains may not return to an

unmagnetized state. This results in the ferromagnetic material's being magnetized,

forming a permanent magnet.
When magnetized strongly enough that the prevailing domain overruns all others
to result in only one single domain, the material is magnetically saturated. When a
magnetized ferromagnetic material is heated to the Curie point temperature, the
molecules are agitated to the point that the magnetic domains lose the organization and
the magnetic properties they cause cease. When the material is cooled, this domain
alignment structure spontaneously returns, in a manner roughly analogous to how a liquid
can freeze into a crystalline solid.
In an antiferromagnet, unlike a ferromagnet, there is a tendency for the intrinsic
magnetic moments of neighboring valence electrons to point in opposite directions. When
all atoms are arranged in a substance so that each neighbor is 'anti-aligned', the substance
is antiferromagnetic. Antiferromagnets have a zero-net magnetic moment, meaning no
field is produced by them. Antiferromagnets are less common compared to the other
types of behaviors, and are mostly observed at low temperatures. In varying
temperatures, antiferromagnets can be seen to exhibit diamagnetic and ferromagnetic
properties.
In some materials, neighboring electrons want to point in opposite directions, but
there is no geometrical arrangement in which each pair of neighbors is anti-aligned. This
is called a spin glass, and is an example of geometrical frustration.
Ferrimagnets retain their magnetization in the absence of a field. However, like
antiferromagnets, neighboring pairs of electron spins like to point in opposite directions.
These two properties are not contradictory, because in the optimal geometrical

arrangement, there is more magnetic moment from the sublattice of electrons that point in
one direction, than from the sublattice that points in the opposite direction. Most ferrites
are ferrimagnetic. The first discovered magnetic substance, magnetite, is a ferrite and was
originally believed to be a ferromagnet; Louis Nel disproved this, however, after
discovering ferrimagnetism.
Superparamagnetism is a ferromagnet or ferrimagnet sufficiently small, it acts like
a single magnetic spin that is subject to Brownian motion. Its response to a magnetic field
is qualitatively similar to the response of a paramagnet, but much larger.
An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by
an electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off.
Electromagnets usually consist of a large number of closely spaced turns of wire that
create the magnetic field. The wire turns are often wound around a magnetic core made
from a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material such as iron; the magnetic core
concentrates the magnetic flux and makes a more powerful magnet.
The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the
magnetic field can be quickly changed by controlling the amount of electric current in the
winding. However, unlike a permanent magnet that needs no power, an electromagnet
requires a continuous supply of current to maintain the magnetic field.
Electromagnets are widely used as components of other electrical devices, such as
motors, generators, relays, loudspeakers, hard disks, MRI machines, scientific
instruments, and magnetic separation equipment. Electromagnets are also employed in
industry for picking up and moving heavy iron objects such as scrap iron and steel.
Electromagnetism was discovered in 1820.

Magnetism, electricity, and special relativity

As a consequence of Einstein's theory of special relativity, electricity and
magnetism are fundamentally interlinked. Both magnetism lacking electricity, and
electricity without magnetism, are inconsistent with special relativity, due to such effects
as length contraction, time dilation, and the fact that the magnetic force is velocitydependent. However, when both electricity and magnetism are taken into account, the
resulting theory is fully consistent with special relativity. In particular, a phenomenon that
appears purely electric or purely magnetic to one observer may be a mix of both to
another, or more generally the relative contributions of electricity and magnetism are
dependent on the frame of reference. Thus, special relativity mixes electricity and
magnetism into a single, inseparable phenomenon called electromagnetism, analogous to
how relativity mixes space and time into space-time.
All observations on electromagnetism apply to what might be considered to be
primarily magnetism, e.g. perturbations in the magnetic field are necessarily
accompanied by a nonzero electric field, and propagate at the speed of light.

DISCUSSION

The magnetization of a material is expressed in terms of density of net magnetic

dipole moments m in the material. We define a vector quantity called the magnetization
M by:

M = total/V
.
Then the total magnetic field B in the material is given by:

B = B0 + 0M
where 0 is the magnetic permeability of space and B0 is the externally applied
magnetic field. When magnetic fields inside of materials are calculated using Ampere's
law or the Biot-Savart law, then the 0 in those equations is typically replaced by just
with the definition

= Km0
where Km is called the relative permeability. If the material does not respond to
the external magnetic field by producing any magnetization, then K m = 1. Another
commonly used magnetic quantity is the magnetic susceptibility which specifies how

much the relative permeability differs from one.

Magnetic susceptibility:

m = Km - 1

For paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials, the relative permeability is very

close to 1 and the magnetic susceptibility very close to zero. For ferromagnetic materials,
these quantities may be very large.
Another way to deal with the magnetic fields which arise from magnetization of
materials is to introduce a quantity called magnetic field strength H. It can be defined by
the relationship:

H = B0/0 = B/0 - M
and has the value of unambiguously designating the driving magnetic influence
from external currents in a material, independent of the material's magnetic response. The
relationship for B above can be written in the equivalent form

B = 0(H + M)
H and M will have the same units, amperes/meter.

Ferromagnetic materials will undergo a small mechanical change when magnetic

fields are applied, either expanding or contracting slightly. This effect is called
magnetostriction.

Materials that are said to be paramagnetic follow Curie's law:

All atoms have inherent sources of magnetism because electron spin contributes a
magnetic moment and electron orbits act as current loops which produce a magnetic field.
In most materials, the magnetic moments of the electrons cancel, but in materials which
are classified as paramagnetic, the cancelation is incomplete.
If the magnetic field is constant, the magnetic flux passing through a surface of
vector area S is

B = B S = B S cos ,
where B is the magnitude of the magnetic field having the unit of Wb/m2 (tesla),
S is the area of the surface, and is the angle between the magnetic field lines and the
normal (perpendicular) to S.

For a varying magnetic field, we first consider the magnetic flux through an
infinitesimal area element dS, where we may consider the field to be constant:

dB=BdS
A generic surface, S, can then be broken into infinitesimal elements and the total
magnetic flux through the surface is then the surface integral

B=SBdS
From the definition of the magnetic vector potential A and the fundamental
theorem of the curl the magnetic flux may also be defined as:

B = S A d
where the line integral is taken over the boundary of the surface S, which is
denoted S.

A ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material below their Tc exhibits small-volume

typically microscopic in sized regions referred to as domains. While adjacent domains are
defined by their boundaries or are separated by domain walls within each domain there is

a mutual alignment in the same direction of all magnetic dipole moments magnetized to
its saturation magnetization, not necessarily having the same orientations. The magnitude
of the M field for the entire solid is the vector sum of the magnetizations of all the
domains, each domain contribution being weighted by its volume fraction. For an
unmagnetized specimen, the appropriately weighted vector sum of the magnetizations of
all the domains is zero.
The size and shape of the hysteresis curve for ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic
materials is of considerable practical importance. The area within a loop represents a
magnetic energy loss per unit volume of material per magnetizationdemagnetization
cycle; this energy loss is manifested as heat that is generated within the magnetic
specimen and is capable of raising its temperature.
Magnetic materials are important in the area of information storage; in fact,
magnetic recording has become virtually the universal technology for the storage of
electronic information. This is evidenced by the preponderance of disk storage media like
computers, iPods and MP3 players, and high-definition camcorder hard drives,
credit/debit cards (mag stripes), and so on. In computers, semiconductor elements serve
as primary memory, magnetic hard disks are normally used for secondary memory
because they are capable of storing larger quantities of information and at a lower cost;
however, their transfer rates are slower. Furthermore, the recording and television
industries rely heavily on magnetic tapes for the storage and reproduction of audio and
video sequences. In addition, tapes are used with large computer systems to back up and
archive data. In essence, computer bytes, sound, or visual images in the form of electrical
signals are recorded magnetically on very small segments of the magnetic storage

mediuma tape or disk. Transference to and retrieval from the tape or disk is
accomplished by means of a recording system that consists of read and write heads. For
hard drives, this head system is supported above and in close proximity to the magnetic
medium by a self-generating air bearing as the medium passes beneath at relatively high
rotational speeds. On the other hand, tapes make physical contact with the heads during
read and write operations.

SUMMARY
The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of
interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the
constituent atoms. The magnetic field strength (H) within a coil of wire is proportional to
the number of wire turns and the magnitude of the current, and inversely proportional to
the coil length. Magnetic flux density and magnetic field strength are proportional to one
another. In a vacuum, the constant of proportionality is the permeability of a vacuum.
When some material is present, this constant is the permeability of the material
Associated with each individual electron are both orbital and spin magnetic moments.
The magnitude of an electrons orbital magnetic moment is equal to the product of the
value of the Bohr magneton and the electrons magnetic quantum number. An electrons
spin magnetic moment is plus or minus the value of the Bohr magneton. The net
magnetic moment for an atom is just the sum of the contributions of each of its electrons,
wherein there will be spin and orbital moment cancellation of electron pairs. When
cancellation is complete, the atom will possess no magnetic moment.
Diamagnetism results from changes in electron orbital motion that are induced by
an external field. The effect is extremely small and in opposition to the applied field. All
materials are diamagnetic. Paramagnetic materials are those having permanent atomic
dipoles, which are acted on individually and aligned in the direction of an external field.

Diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials are considered nonmagnetic because the

magnetizations are relatively small and persist only while an applied field is present.

Ferromagnetism are large and permanent magnetizations may be established

within the ferromagnetic metals (Fe, Co, Ni). Atomic magnetic dipole moments are of
spin origin, which are coupled and mutually aligned with moments of adjacent atoms.
Anti-ferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism occurs at antiparallel coupling of
adjacent cation spin moments is found for some ionic materials. Those in which there is
total cancellation of spin moments are termed antiferromagnetic. With ferrimagnetism,
permanent magnetization is possible because spin moment cancellation is incomplete.
For soft magnetic materials, domain wall movement is easy during magnetization
and demagnetization. Consequently, they have small hysteresis loops and low energy
losses. Domain wall motion is much more difficult for the hard-magnetic materials,
which results in larger hysteresis loops; because greater fields are required to
demagnetize these materials, the magnetization is more permanent.
Information storage is accomplished using magnetic materials; the two principal
types of magnetic media are hard disk drives and magnetic tapes. These grains are
oriented such that their direction of easy magnetization is perpendicular to the plane of
the disk. For tape-memory storage, either needle-shaped ferromagnetic metal particles or
plate-shaped ferromagnetic bariumferrite particles are employed. Particle size is on the
order of tens of nanometers.
Superconductivity has been observed in a number of materials; upon cooling and
in the vicinity of absolute zero temperature, the electrical resistivity vanishes For type I,
field penetration is complete once HC is exceeded. This penetration is gradual with
increasing magnetic field for type II materials.

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