CAE-CAD in Injection Molding

CAE/CAD in Injection
Molding, Blow
Molding, and Foam
Molding-The Shortest
Way to Mold Design*
Th. Schacht, U.Maier, K. Esser, 0.Kretzschmar, and Th. Schmidt

Communication from the Institute for Plastics Processing [IKV]
Technical University of Rhein-Westfalen, Aachen W . Germany
ABSTRACT
One of the basic prerequisites for rational and
high quality production of plastic parts is a tool layout tailored to the production process. To date, both
design and construction have generally been based
on values acquired by experience. This first, necessitates highly qualijied personnel and second, involves what is frequently time consuming and costly
finishing work. Experience acquired so far with
computer-aided layout of injection molds shows that
even a designer with little experience reaches the
target more quickly and more reliably. At the same
time he is able to draw on the results of intricate
calculation and simulation methods which he was
unable to apply in the past for reasons of time alone,
This paper thus sets out the possibilities currently
open and the experience available for computer-aided
*The studies presented in this report were made possible through the
financial support received from the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Industrieller Forschungsvereinigungen e.V. (AIF) [Work Group of Industrial Research Associations, a registered organization (AIF)] and the Deutsche Forschungsvereinigung (DFG) [German Research Association (DFG)] for which we
express our thanks. We thank the companies Hasco, BASF, Bayer and CWH
for supporting our work with test materials. We received valuable encouragement and suggestions in discussions with members of the Expert Advisory
Groups for Blow Molding, Design and Injection Molding and with member
companies of the IKV Support Association.
ADVANCES IN POLYMER TECHNOLOGY
mold layout. The chief point of focus here is a system

for the layout of injection molds. Working on from
this system, however, the potentials for computer
application are presented for blow mold- and foaming mold-design. After finding the mold principle,
mold layout essentially divides up into two major
areas, namely dimensioning calculations (CAE)and
compilation of production documents (CAD). In dimensioning, the different functional elements of the
mold are calculated. The aids that have been developed and the potentials of computer-aideddimensioning are presented with examplesfrom the fields
of rheological, thermal, and mechanical mold layout. Computer-aided rheological layout divides up
into two steps. The first gives information on qualitative filling behavior elling picture, flow paths)
and the second provides quantitative results (pressures, shear stresses, temperatures). Computer-aided
thermal layout similarly divides up into part steps.
These are a rough overall energy balance, a rough
layout of the tempering system, a segmented layout,
and a homogeneity check, which involves simulating
the temperature conditions in the mold by means of
difference methods. When it comes to mechanical
99
CAEJCAD IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

layout of the mold, programs are available for deformation calculations on basic cases and these will
frequently be suflcient. For more complex cases of
loading and deformation, a finite element program
is used. Graphic data processing units can be used
to supply extra facilities-first, to provide an aid for
the simulation programs in dimensioning and second, to rationalize the compilation of the production
documents. An illustration of a CAD workplace is
given, incorporating the necessary computer configuration and peripherals. Compiling production documents is essentially a problem of variant design.
The variants in this case are the individual components of the mold and a number of standardized
accessories that can be called up as standardized
components. The mold cavity, however, always has
to be afree design. Allprograms are dialogue driven
and are in a standardized manner so that even de-
signers with no data processing experience can use

the computer as an aid. The CADICAE system presented duly fu@lls all these requirements. It allows
the designer, at a single computer work station, to
cany out both simulation and dimensioning calculations, to obtain information on material data, and
to compile production documents on the basis of
variant and free design. This provides the designer
with a readily manageable aid and makes a considerable contribution towards improving the design result. Finally, the capacity of different computer concepts and the CAEICADICAM systems on the market
are discussed. For the future it will be possible to
establish a computer-aidedlink between the different
areas of design, from development of the molded
part, via mold design and production, through setting the processing parameters of the injection molding machine.
1. WHAT IS COMPUTER-AIDED
MOLD DESIGN?
molded parts and the increasing number of required

mold functions (core pullers, slides), failures result in
increased production costs and, hence, a greater financial risk. Last but not least, the requirements increase as high quality industrial parts are made to an
increasing extent. This results in the use of a constantly increasing range of special materials possessing troublesome processing characteristics (e.g., poor
flow, shrinkage, distortion, and other properties).
It is clear from these facts that currently, the molds
could become the weakest link in the entire fabrication
chain. Hence, in any efficiency-improving program,
the molds must receive major attention, which should
be concentrated mainly in the area of mold design.
Such efforts should not be directed primarily to design
cost savings, because design costs amount to only
10-20% of the mold fabrication costs. Rather, an effort should be made to improve the entire design process in terms of the results achieved, to accelerate
fabrication start-up, and to enable all designers to
make use of currently available scientific knowledge
in a practicable manner.
Today, the design of molds for plastics processing
is subject to deadline pressures and employs techniques based mainly on experience. There is no time,
and frequently no knowledge, for careful mold dimensioning and calculations. The reason is that mold
designers are supposed to possess thorough and broad
experience, because detailed decisions require a
knowledge of the interaction between different parameters. A change of an individual parameter in a more
1.1. Introduction
In plastics fabrication, in the injection molding,
blow molding, and foam molding fields, the design
of the shaping molds is of critical importance for product quality and efficient processing. In most cases,
mold quality is responsible for the economics of the
entire process. Cycle times, for example, are determined primarily by mold temperature control (cooling
time). The quality of the molded parts is determined
primarily by the mold even though constant machine
conditions, achievable through improved machine
building technology and the use of process control
systems combined with uniform material properties.
certainly are also an essential prerequisite.
Frequently, production problems are traceable to
molds which either show signs of premature wear or
cause processing difficulties because of poor thermal
and rheological design, or else are characterized by
operating tolerances which are too close for the machine with its constant machine parameters to guarantee (Figure 1).
Delays in production start-up are due to the long
time required for mold design and construction and,
especially, to very frequently required mold corrections which, in the last analysis, are attributable to
faulty mold design.
Moreover, because of the ever increasing size of
100
VOL. 5 , NO. 2
CAEICAD IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

favorable direction could have a negative effect on
other critical factors.
Unfortunately, it is currently not possible to satisfy
the demand for such experienced designers. To change
this situation, which is incompatible with the importance that the mold has for the overall process, it is
necessary, on the one hand, to free designers from
unnecessary activities and, on the other, to provide
them with calculation and dimensioning tools. Such
measures must not prolong the design process.
The use of computers as engineering tools is of
prime importance in satisfying this goal. On the one
hand, with the aid of such a tool it is possible to
perform quick, comprehensive dimensioning tasks,
for example, flow calculations for balancing the runner system or for mold cavity design, heat calculations
for the layout of temperature-control systems, or calculations for dimensioning mechanical components,
all of which can lead directly to improved design
results. Such computer-aided mold design, involving
a wide range of computations, must not overtax the
designer with a complicated array of individual program packages. Such design programs, therefore, must
be provided with an adequate guidance system which
will take the designer systematically from step to step,
from one decision to the next. On the other hand, the
use of computers can free the designer from repetitive
tasks, for example, preparing and modifying drawings, consulting catalogs for standardized components, writing parts lists, etc. This, in turn, means
more time for creative design activity and thus contributes indirectly to improvements in design results.
By assembling and constantly maintaining entire
program packages which can be used interactively
with the computer, the designer will always have at
his disposal the latest plant information. He will not
have to screen, read, and process the daily flow of
data, but he will know that all such information (e.g.,
raw material and construction material data), if needed,
is automatically available.
1.2. Designing a Mold and Use of the Computer

The number of tasks facing the designer who must
design a mold is indicated by the large number of
functions the finished mold must perform. For an injection mold, this is exemplified in Figure 2.
The primary purpose of an injection mold consists
Of
receiving and distributing the melt

shaping
FIGURE 1
Effects of mold
design on
subsequent
processes.
Delays
Mold layout
and
hrterr"ptr0"S
desfgn
C"C* m e
OueQ of molded peR

J
Mold Wear
Conecuve measures
FIGURE 2
Functions in a
split mold.
Mem !unctions
Spwelgats
Mold cavw
Temperature control
\Mom
I'
-.Gurdmg
L%moldmg--
0
0
transler
and cenfenng
cooling
demolding
The most important parts of a mold, for accomplishing these primary goals, consist of the:
0
0
0
0
sprue, gate
mold cavity
temperature control system
demolding system
Depending on the requirements to be placed on the

finished product (e.g., maintaining dimensional tolerances, optical properties, etc.) and on the process
itself (e.g., reliable mold filling, short cycle times,
etc.), certain requirements will be placed on individual
parts of the mold, for example:
101

Mold cavity:
0
0
0
0
0
0
shrinkage corrections
rigidities
position of the mold separation line
position of the connections and ejectors
weld lines
vents
Spruetgate:
0
0
0
0
same pressure requirements

same filling time
same filling start
fixed sealing time
Temperature control:
0
0
0
uniformity
constancy of temperature level
short cooling time
Demolding system:
0
0
0
short demolding times

short movements
weak forces
FIGURE 3
Main steps of
mold design.
The variety of requirements placed on the mold

clearly indicates the complexity of the designing task
and, hence, the difficulty of design and of the designers task. To be able to use computers as aids in
accomplishing this task, it is necessary to systematize
the designing process, i.e., to divide it into several
phases with well defined tasks (Figure 3).7*
The first phase consists of establishing the mold
type. For example, in this phase, it is established
which type of mold (normal, hot-runner, cold-runner,
slide mold, e t ~ . is
) ~best suited for the purpose at
hand, how many mold separation levels are needed
for demolding, at what points it will be necessary to
provide slides or core pullers.
The second design phase includes the dimensioning
of the parts and functions of the mold selected in the
first phase. The third phase is the compilation of production documents (e.g., drawings, lists of parts, etc.).
The tasks in the first phase are mostly of a mental and
creative nature; hence, they cannot be described rigorously by means of data and rules, i.e., they cannot
be represented by algorithms.
Here, too, a good program structured as described
above can lead the designer to decisions along a logical path. In other words, the designer is guided toward the solution step by step, by running through
computational and graphic variants of the principles
involved.
The problems faced in the second design phase
involve questions of component dimensioning. These
tasks can be handled, for example, by flow, heat, or
mechanical equations and solved directly by computer. The use of computers for accomplishing these
tasks in cooperation with the designer is frequently
referred to as CAE (computer-aidedengineering). Examples of individual tasks that can be solved by dividing the dimensioning phase into individual steps
that can be solved by means of computer programs
are shown in Figure 4.
The first design step is the rheological mold design,
because this step is not expected to be affected by
restrictions generated by the results obtained in the
other steps. In this case, the parameters obtained from
a computer simulation of the mold-filling process are,
for example:
0
0
$
0
0
102
information concerning the position and number of

weld lines
flow behavior of the melt, i.e., pressure requirements, heat generation
melt strain
VOL. 5 , NO. 2
Energy balance for
FIGURE 4
Steps of mold
design during
dimensioning
phase.

On the basis of these results, the designer can then
directly repeat the computer simulation of the moldfilling process, e.g., by changing the thermal boundary conditions, by use of flow promoters or flow inhibitors, or by varying the position and number of
gates until the result meets his requirements. It is also
possible to run through optimization programs in which
the computer itself will vary certain input parameters
(e.g., gate or molding cross sections) until the desired
result, for example obtaining identical volume flow
rates or pressure gradients for certain regions of the
mold, is achieved.
Similarly, computer programs can be used in thermal mold design to determine the position and number
of cooling channels, to check the resulting uniformity
of temperature control and, if necessary, to modify
the design early, i.e., before the mold is fabricated.
Finally, in the last part of the dimensioning phase,
it is possible to calculate the deformation of, for example, the mold cavity, cores, spider legs, etc. when
they are exposed to the calculated forces and pressures. One can also determine accurately what consequences this will have for later use (e.g., higher or
lower closing forces, need for reinforcements, etc.).
FIGURE 5
Comparison of
different types o
computers.
Pocket calculator with nrinter

- Progratvming with specific fixed-function keys
- Limited memory capacity
-Low cost
- Simple calculations
Deskton comnuter
- Programming in interpreter languages

-Memory extension is possible
- Some computers are capable of using graphics
- Comprehensive calculations are possible

- Relatively high computation speed
Mainframe commter with

alnhanumeric
and aranhic terminal
- Programming in compiler language
- Very high memory capacity

-High investment cost
- Short access and computation times
-Peripherals can be added on to achieve
CAE, CAD or CAM link
104
1.3. Computer Types and Use Areas

The previously described use of computers in the
dimensioning phase requires only a computer with
main memory capacity and computation speed comensurate with the task at hand. In many cases, programmable pocket calculators can be used advantageously (Figure 5).
In most cases, they have the capabilities of permanent program memory and peripherals to print out
the data. They are suitable for performing even comprehensive calculations. The relatively low memory
capacity is, in most cases disadvantageous, as is the
long computation time relative to larger units.
It is not absolutely necessary to use very large and,
hence, expensive computers for dimensioning programs. In the engineering area, particularly for designing purposes, however, a purely numerical display of results frequently lacks the desired clarity.
The use of graphic peripherals and, in particular, the
use of computers permitting interactive programming
(dialog with the designer), definitely offers an advantage.
For example, a desktop computer, because of its
higher memory capacity and higher computation speed,
is much more efficient than a pocket calculator. Moreover, operating instructions and background information related to programs appear in plain language
on the screen, obviating the need for additional instruction material.
Desktop computers also provide convenient capability for display of functions or bar diagrams on a
video screen, hard-copy device or plotter, or for use
of a printer to print data for filing.
Still larger computers are needed for convenient
interactive computations and for integrated processing
of data related to mold design and drawing preparation. These computers offer adequate memory capacity, high computation speed, and the use of self-madee.g., Fortran-application programs.
Noteworthy in this respect are programs known as
finite elements programs, for example, for solving
flow problems or for storing entire catalogs of individual parts (macros or standardized components) from
which molds can be put together in module fashion
on a graphics screen.
The activity camed out-as described-by the designer and the computer, is summarized in the concept
of CAD (computer-aided design).
Working with a broad range of computing and
drawing programs is substantially simplified when selection menus are used. In this manner, it is possible
by lightly touching areas on a digitizing board deVOL. 5 , NO. 2

picting various symbols, to direct the computer to
calculate the corresponding functions (Figure 6).
Despite the large number of program functions involved, clarity is ensured. Moreover, symbols are usually more readily comprehensible than the mnemonic
devices frequently used in purely alphanumeric data
processing. Several graphics systems currently offer
this menu technique.
For example, it is possible, on the one hand, to
represent graphically on the screen the computation
results from the dimensioning phase, such as filling
patterns, pressure variations, isotherms, etc. and, on
the other, by use of graphics-equipped computer systems, it is possible, with the aid of the computer to
solve additional design tasks extending into the third
design phase (compilation of production documents).
The following sections will show the mold designer
the advantages offered by the use of such integrated
CAE/CAD systems.
FIGURE 6
Menu (index field
of programs).
2. COMPUTATION PROGRAMS FOR

DESIGN P U R P O S E C A E
In the dimensioning phase of design, the designer
calculates the various functional elements of a mold.
He can perform flow, thermal, and mechanical analyses very rapidly and clearly by use of several computational aids, the systematic use of which will be
explained in the following and illustrated by way of
examples taken from the areas of injection, blow and
foam molding. At this point, the reader is referred to
Section 12* which deals with design methods for
compression molds.
2.1. Rheological Design

Flow considerations based on empirical methods or
computation programs offer to the designer in the
dimensioning phase insight into and information about
the flow and molding processes that will take place
in the finished mold.
The basic considerations leading to the development of strategies (systematic design), methods (e.g.,
process modeling) or computation programs (solution
of basic equations) are nearly the same for the processes considered, i.e., injection, blow, and foam
molding.
The only difference lies in the target values of the
design (Figure 7) which, of course, depend strongly
on the particular process considered.
*Refers to original German publication-Translator.
FIGURE 7
Selection of
target values.
Foam Molding
Injection Molding
Mold-filling characteristics
Injection pressure requirements
Heat generation and distribution
Melt strain
Mechanical strength
Blow Molding (Parison Formation)

Pressure requirements
Heat generation and distribution
Reversible elongations
Velocity distribution
Swelling characteristics
Foam Molding
Mold-filling characteristics
Pressure variation along flow path
Temperatures
The development of use programs for flow design

for injection molds is most advanced. For this reason,
a few examples of computer use for this process will
be given first, before dealing with differences from,
and parallels to, blow molding and foam molding.
105

2 .I . I . Rheological Design of Injection Molds
The rheological effects in the mold-filling process
are influenced by the shape of the molding, gate position, process parameters, and the type of material.
Whereas the nature of mold-filling is determined primarily by the shape of the molded part and gate position, process and material characteristics also exert
a substantial effect on the characteristic parameters of
the filling process (e.g., pressure, temperature, shear
rate, shear stress).
Mold-filling characteristics are described by the filling pattern. This pattern shows the location of the
melt front at different times.
For a finished mold, a filling pattern can be obtained
by considering a number of partial fillings. By the
filling pattern method developed at the IKV,2,475a
simple graphic method is used to draw a filling pattern
into a developed view of the molding. This does not
require a computer; the filling pattern, however, can
also be drawn interactively with CAD support.
Many investigators have recommended the use of

FEM-finite elements method-for obtaining the filling pattern. We, too, are working on the development
of this method. The advantage of this method is that
the designer no longer has to produce a sometimes
quite complicated developed view of the part. The
computer itself introduces the filling pattern into the
geometry of the molded part.
To this end, it is first necessary to introduce the
geometry of the part into the computer and to structure
the FEM network.
This work requires very good, detailed knowledge
of the finite elements method and is quite time consuming. Without structuring programs which still have
to be developed, the effort involved is too great for
practical purposes.
FEM programs also require large computers and
long computation times (ca. 1 h). The programs that
follow manual determination of the filling pattern have
computation times of the order of seconds. The mold
FIGURE 8
Developed view of
a molded cup.
106
VOL. 5,NO. 2

designer, therefore, will use the filling pattern method
and the computational capabilities based on it, until
convenient programs or faster computers become
available.
A prerequisite for the use of this method is a twodimensional plot of the molded part, i.e., a developed
view. Figure 8 shows this for a molded cup.
The filling pattern, as obtained by use of the design
method (Figure 9), gives the designer the initial, essential information about the mold filling process he
should expect.
As can be seen, the body of the cup is filled first,
starting from the pinpoint gate in the center of the
base. After reaching line A-B, the molten material
also flows into the handle region, where it splits into
three streams. The body is filled shortly after flow
front 16 is reached. In the subsequent course of the
filling process, the handle region is filled exclusively,
FIGURE 9
Filling pattern of a
molded cup.
FIGURE 10
Segmentation of a
molded cup.
I
,11111
107

weld lines being formed as the three melt streams flow
together in the handle to form two weld lines. As a
result of diverting the melt after melt front 21 and of
the ensuing mixing, the weld line formed is less critical than that formed after flow front 22.
Information based on this interpretation of the filling behavior is now transferred to the computer. In
this step (segmentation), on the basis of the filling
pattern, the molded part is divided into basic geometric shapes (disk segments, plates, cylinders)6(Figure 10). The structure of the individual segments is
characterized by a numerical code (tree structure) and
together with the geometric data is introduced into the
computer as input data.
Additionally, the computer program for determining, for example, the temperatures, shear rates, and
pressures in the individual segments requires data concerning the expected process parameters, e.g., melt
temperature, mold wall temperature, and filling time.
For the example under consideration, the following
data were selected:
Material: polypropylene
Melt temperature: 230C
Mold wall temperature: 50C
Filling time: 0.5 s
The calculation differentiates among different individual flow paths: In the case of the cup molding,
one of these flow paths reaches to the edge of the
body and three flow paths are in the handle region.
For the flow path in the body, computation gave the
following information:
Tem-
True
Flow
Row
Pressure
Pressure
per-
Dissi-
Shear
Shear
Seg-
Site
Time
Needed
Gradient
aNre
pation
Rate
Slress
ment
(mm)
(s)
(bar)
(barim)
(C)
(C)
(11s)
(Pa)
2782.4
226.0
4.7
858.4
107401
2829.3
2909.5
223.5
197.7
0.9
10.2
858.6
583.6
109211
112307
~~
I Disk
2Plate
24.5
28.5
0.0633
0.0849
3 Disk
73.5
0.3838
61.9
73.2
201.1
4Plate
78.5
0.4240
216.1
3023.4
193.3
1.2
576.3
116704
5 Plate
84.5
0.4781
234.0
3024.6
188.3
1.5
513.6
116749
Thus, the body is filled in 0.4781 s, the required

pressure being 234 bar. The melt temperature drops
to 188C. Calculations for the flow path in the handle
region for line B-C gave the following:
108
True
Tem-
Flow
Flow
Pressure
Ressure
pera-
Dissi-
Shear
Shear
Seg-
Site
Time
Needed
Gradient
Iure
pation
Rate
Smss
ment
(mm)
(s)
(bar)
(barim)
CC)
(C)
(lis)
(Pa)
1D
24.5
0.0633
61.9
2782.4
226.0
4.7
585.4
I0740 I
2P
28.5
0.0849
73.2
2829.3
223.5
0.9
858.6
109211
3D
73.5
0.3838
201.1
2909.5
197.7
10.2
583.6
112307
4P
78.5
0.4240
216.1
3023.4
193.3
1.2
576.3
116704
5P
84.5
0.4781
234.0
3024.6
188.3
1.5
513.6
I 16749
6P
89.5
0.4823
262.2
5628.0
190.0
2.3
5531.3
217243
7P
94.5
0.4856
292.0
5922. I
191.8
2.4
7018.2 228593
nP
99.5
0.4887
322.0
5961.6
193.6
2.4
7522.3
2301 16
9P
104.5
0.4919
351.2
5823. I
195.4
2.4
22471 1
I0 P
109.5
0.4%8
377.3
5203.7
196.6
2.1
7166.3
4805. I
II P
114.5
0.4989
409.1
6320.0
198.7
2.6
10571.2
243950
12 P
117.0
0.5oOO
425.0
6343.4
199.7
1.3
11011.7
244854
200862
where D = disk and P = plate. Up to the fourth

segment, the two flow paths are identical. After the
body has been filled, the handle region is filled within
0.0219 s, because the entire volume flows into this
zone. This generates high shear velocities and shear
stress, causing an increase in melt temperature to 200C
in the handle region and requiring a high pressure of
a total of 425 bar.
These calculations revealed the problem areas early,
i.e., before the fabrication of the mold. In this case,
too, we were able to confirm these problem areas fully
by subsequent practical tests with the cup mold cavity,
viz.
The mold has a tendency to overfill at the edge of
the cup. The reason is the high pressure prevailing
in this area after the body is filled
The weld line after flow front 22 represents a critical
region. For short filling times, the melt temperature
drops, and the flow fronts weld together poorly.
This results in a clearly visible weld line which is
a weak spot in this critical area
The handle region is sensitive to excessively fast
injection: Excessive temperatures (high dissipation)
cause material damage in the form of scorching
According to the first design, the weld line is in an
area which during use is exposed to high alternating
bending loads. These weak spots can be prevented,
for example, by changing the wall thickness in the
handle region and thus displacing the flow line. The
correctness of this assumption is now confirmed by a
new computer simulation.
Increasing the wall thickness in the lower handle
VOL. 5, NO. 2

region from 1 to 2 mm causes faster material flow in
this region (Figure 11).
The weld lines are formed in a noncritical area. The
disadvantage of this measure is a 0.3 cc increase in
volume of the molding which requires a 4-s increase
in cooling time.
A calculation with unchanged process parameters
now gives the following results for the body
True
Tem-
Flow
Flow
Pressure
Pressure
pera-
Dissi-
Shear
Seg-
Site
Time
Needed
Gradient
ture
pation
Rate
ment
(mm)
(S)
(bar)
(barlm)
("C)
("C)
(11s)
I D
24.5
0.0621
62.3
2795 6
226.2
4.7
875.2
107909
2P
28.5
0.0833
73 6
2841.5
223.7
0.9
875.4
109680
3D
73.5
0.3765
201.8
2912.0
198.5
10.2
595.1
112402
4P
15.5
0.3922
207.7
2985.6
196.4
0.5
581.6
I15245
5P
84.5
0.4741
234.2
3005.0
188.8
2.2
509.1
115991
where D = disk and P = plate.

A change in molding volume and the attendant change
in volume flow causes slight deviations from the values calculated for the body.
The flow path in the handle region shows more
pronounced changes (Figure 12).
The pressure required dropped by 75 bar. This reduced the risk of overfilling at the edge of the cup.
At the handle connection (segment 4), the temperature
of the material increased by 3C as a result of an
increase in volume flow. The temperature, when the
weld line was reached, was higher (203.7"C). This
resulted in better welding and less strength deterioration.
Weld line displacement is advantageous from the
standpoint of molding quality and processing. Whether
these advantages compensate for the increase in molding volume and cycle time must be checked in each
case by an economic analysis.
Another advantage of computer simulation accrues
through the use of optimization programs. This is
shown on the example of pressure drop during the
injection phase, which depends strongly on filling time:
0
FIGURE 11
Change in weld
line position by
changing the
wall thickness.
On slow injection, the material undergoes fast cooling during mold filling. The viscosity and, hence,
the pressure required increase
On very fast injection, frictional losses are very
high. These losses are reflected in higher pressure
requirements. This effect is greater than the drop
in required pressure as a result of reduced viscosity
resulting from the higher temperature. For very low
filling times, the pressure requirement increases
p O h p , 9 ~ S
3M =
,
3 =
=
250%
yI%
05s
FIGURE 12
Reduction in filling
pressure by
wall-thickness
optimization.
lborl
The pressure requirement as a function of filling

time is determined by these two opposing effects. By
an optimization calculation, it is possible to determine
the filling time that will result in minimal pressure
drop (Figure 13).
In the processing temperature range, the viscosity
of amorphous materials is more highly temperaturedependent than that of partly crystalline materials.
Hence, amorphous materials show a pronounced pressure minimum, particularly for thin-walled moldings.
In filling-time optimization, in addition to the pres-
109

FIGURE 13
Pressure drop
against filling time
for a molded cup.
300
FIGURE 14
Balancing.
Batancmg
Gates
8de-by-srde
runners
Hot-runner
systems
different molds. Here, computer programs can be used

for balancing (Figure 14).
The objective here is to adapt the runner geometry
so that different flow lengths are attained at the same
time (and with the same pressure drop). An example
of the balancing runner-mold system is given in Figure
15.
Before balancing, the smaller mold was filled first.
By reducing the diameter of runner A from 7 to 4
mm, the filling of both molds is completed at the same
time. The risk of overfilling is thus reduced.
For purposes of balancing, cold-runner manifolds
are designed for identical pressure drop within equal
times. For hot-runner systems for multiple-cavity molds
with equal moldings and multiple gates, balancing is
based on the criterion that for equal volume flow identical pressure drops should occur at all gates of the
hot-runner system.
Thus, balancing will result in the following:
for multiple-cavity molds, simultaneous filling of
the mold cavities
for multiple gates, uniform mold filling
sure drop, the temperature and shear stress must be

taken into consideration. In the case of the cup molding an increase in filling time to 0.7 s would reduce
the required pressure slightly, but the greater temperature drop would result in a weld line of lower
quality.
Additional problems arise for multiple-cavity molds,
molds with multiple gates, and runner systems feeding
110
For these uses, therefore, balancing is an important

criterion of rheological optimization.
2 . I .2. Foam Molding
In view of the described potential and advantages
resulting from the use of computation programs in
injection molding, it is desirable to apply such proVOL. 5 , NO. 2

grams to related fields, e.g., the filling process in PUR
foam molds.
At this time, however, this possibility is restricted
because of the markedly different flow properties of
reactive resins compared to thermoplastics, i.e.,
0
0
0
0
Before
-
Balancng
E-
FIGURE 15
Balancing a runner
system for two
different moldings.
lower viscosity
nearly pressure-free mold filling
different Reynolds number range
complicated reaction kinetics
Initial studies, however, show that at least the filling

pattern method described in the preceding section can
be applied in the field of RIM technology.
In Figure 16, the filling stages observed in a transparent PMMA mold are compared to a calculated filling pattern. The broken lines represent the expected
and the true weld lines. As can be seen, the agreement
is excellent. Thus, in this case as in injection molding,
it is possible to predict problem spots (e.g., air occlusions that are frequently formed at weld lines) by
use of the filling pattern method. Once again, this was
demonstrated in an actual molded part, namely the
bumper of a passenger car (Figure 17). The lower
arrow in Figure 17 points to an incompletely filled
spot, the upper arrow to an air bubble. Figure 18
shows the filling pattern for a simplified but similar
geometry. The flow front is split at the insert. To the
After
Balancing
FIGURE 16
Flow front variation
in horizontal mold
position.
Expenmenla
hllrog paltern rnelhod
111

minimizing the weld line or displacing it away from
the visible molding surface and by tailoring the disposition of the venting elements so as to achieve complete filling of the mold cavity.
As in injection molding, the task can be divided
into simple basic geometries, so that here, too, the
basic prerequisites exist for the use of computers in
the design of foam molds.
FIGURE 17
Photograph of a
bumper.
2.1.3. Blow Molding

The relevant factor for flow considerations in continuous extrusion blow molding is the first step of the
process:
0
0
preshaping
parison formation
Here, the objective of rheological mold design is to

dimension the parison head and the nozzle so that the
subsequent processing stage
0
0
left of the insert, because of the smaller wall thickness

and higher flow resistance, the flow front lags behind
the flow front on the right. As a result, the right flow
front has already passed the insert while the left one
has not yet reached the end of the insert. In other
words, in this region of the mold a weld line is formed,
and air bubbles will be occluded if the mold cavity is
not vented at this point. The use of the filling pattern
method-in the planning stage-would have enabled
the designer to recognize the location of the weld line
and of the air bubble occlusions.
Moreover, the filling pattern method provides the
designer with an aid enabling him to optimize the
geometry of the mold cavity (wall thicknesses) by
112
molding and
cooling
will continuously yield, for example, a part of reproducible length, thickness and specified peripheral
thickness distribution.
Thus, the design of parison head and nozzle involves consideration of flow processes which-superposed by elongation processes in the thermoplastic
material-cannot be compared directly with the flow
in injection molding. These flow processes require the
application of computation methods used in the extrusion field.
In blow molding, computation methods are currently available for two basic problem areas, i.e., the
melt flow in the diversion head and the actual formation of the parison at and beyond the nozzle outiet.7-9
By use of these computation methods, it is possible
to determine the velocity, temperature, and pressure
relationships in the flow channel and, in addition, to
obtain information about the local elastic deformations
in the melt. This is important, on the one hand, in
carrying out a flow optimization for the channel and,
on the other, in determining from the elastically stored
deformations the swelling potential of the melt at the
nozzle exit.
Figure 19 exemplifies the elastic deformations determined for a spider head along the melt flow path
and the dependence of the deformations on the nozzle
slit width. From the flow condition at the nozzle exit
VOL. 5, NO. 2
CAEKAD IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

and from the swelling potential, the formation of the
parison can then be calculated. The essential parameters included in the calculation are, besides swelling,
the effects of cooling and sag caused by the weight
of the parison. The calculation makes it possible to
compensate partially for the deformations imparted in
the flow channel.
As an example, a flow study and the related layout
of a flow channel are applied here to the mandrelholder region of a blow molding machine. The finite
elements method (FEM) was used for calculation. Figure 20 shows one quarter of this region in perspective
and also the division into finite elements. The bottom
of Figure 20 shows the results obtained for two different channel geometries.
The figure depicts the velocity distribution along a
longitudinal section 1-1 in nonvectorial representation.
The effects of the changed geometry on flow properties of the melt are clearly shown at the bottom of
the figure. In this manner, even complicated channel
geometries can already be optimized in the design
phase, so that uniform melt flow is achieved and stagnation zones are largely prevented.
FIGURE 18
Constructed filling
pattern.
2.2. Thermal Design

The type of mold temperature control system has
a strong influence on economics and molding quality.
Economic fabrication results from short cycle times.
Good temperature control design, however, is also
responsible for obtaining high-quality moldings, because:
0
0
The quality of the molding surface is affected by

the mold wall temperature
Temperature differences over the molding surface
cause nonuniform properties and distortion and
through internal strain they increase the risk of stress
cracking
In mold design, a tailored layout of the temperaturecontrol system is frequently not possible because of
lack of time. The time required can be markedly reduced, however, even by use of pocket calculator
programs. lo
The cost savings achieved by omitting thermal design, however, are more than offset by the cost paid
in terms of loss of molding quality and long cycle
times. Whereas a good temperature control design is
difficult to quantify with respect to molding quality,
the following expression can be used in terms of cooling time:
CT
tk/s2
[s/mm2]
where
C,
coefficient of cooling quality
tK = cooling time
wall thickness
The lower limit of this coefficient can be determined

by calculating the cooling time for a specific material.
For example, if one calculates for CT a value of 1.5
113
CAEfCALl IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

~ _ _ _ _
~~
RGURE 19
Mean elastic
deformations along
flow channel
(velocity profile).
50
100
YU
150
(s/mm2), and under actual processing conditions

CT = 3 (s/mm2), then the production output can be
nearly doubled by improving the cooling. For unfilled,
amorphous thermoplastics and well-designed cooling,
the value of CT is below 3 (s/mm2).
2.2 . I . Procedure Followed in Temperature-Control

Design
The layout of the cooling system can be accomplished in separate steps. For different types of materials, similar calculation steps are used, but in a
different sequence.
In the following, the procedure for thermal design
of injection molds used for thermoplastics will be
described. A similar procedure can be used for molds
for thermosetting and elastomeric materials (cf. Ref.
11, Section 13).
Startingpoints of temperature-control design are the
geometry of the molding and the properties of the
material to be molded. From such data, the minimum
required cooling time is calculated (economic criterion). This is the time required to cool the molding
at a mold wall temperature that is specific for a given
material (surface quality) until dimensional stability
is attained (molding quality). The location of the cooling channels is to be calculated so that this mold wall
temperature is achieved. An additional criterion in this
respect is the uniformity of cooling, i.e., a uniform
temperature must be achieved in the zone between the
cooling channels as well as along these channels.
114
I =
200
250 mm 300
In addition to the geometric dimensions of the cooling channels and their location, specific requirements
placed on the temperature-controlsystem (e.g., a temperature controller) are calculated. These include the
temperature of the cooling medium, pressure drop and
capacity requirements.
Moreover, thermal design makes it possible to obtain insight into external mold temperatures and heat
given off to the environment. An accurate calculation
can be made, however, only after the mold dimensions
have been established. Because these dimensions are
obtained only as a result of mechanical design and
after a selection of standard components, this heat at
first can only be estimated. As an additional step the
thermal behavior of the mold at startup and during
process interruptions can be studied. The individual
steps in temperature-control design are as follows
(Figure 21):
1. Cooling Time Calculation. If polymer characteristics, melt temperature, and the maximum wall
thickness of the molding are known, it is possible to
calculate the minimum required, i.e., economically
optimal, cooling time. Cooling the molding in a shorter
time would produce too low a wall temperature and
thus poor surface quality.
2. Heat Balance. During the cooling time, energy
must be removed from the polymer in the form of
heat absorbed by the mold. In addition, heat exchange
with the environment occurs and at first must be estimated. Because the sum of the heat fluxes in the
VOL. 5 , NO. 2
Mandrel holder ring
Inner spider leg
mold is zero, the heat flux to the mold can be obtained

from the coolant.
3. Coolant Flow Rate. Heat-exchange with the
coolant results in an increase in coolant temperature
between the coolant inlet and the coolant outlet. This
temperature difference should not exceed 5C as more
intensive cooling at the inlet and less effective temperature control would cause nonuniformities at the
FIGURE 20
Top: Mandrel
holder region of
diversion head in a
blow molding
machine. The figure
shows a quarter
segment of the
mandrel holder and
mandrel holderving
and staggered
spider legs (left)
and of the FEM
structure [of the
flow path] with 130
elements and 846
nodes (right). I, II
and 111 identify the
planes that were
investigated.
Bottom: Effect of
changes in
geometry in the
mandrel holder
region on velocity
distribution in the
polymer melt
(HDPE). Top:
Section along line
1-1 of the depicted
geometry. Bottom:
Changed geometry
of section 1-1.
outlet. Given a permitted temperature difference, the

required coolant flow rate can be calculated.
4. Cooling Channel Diameter. The diameter of
the cooling channel is usually standardized by the
equipment manufacturers (6, 8, 10, and 12 mm). It
is possible to calculate the minimum diameter for a
given permitted pressure drop. The maximum diameter is obtained from the requirement of turbulent flow.
115
FIGURE 21
Thermal design.
Thermal Design
Temperalure of
cooling channel
Coolmg bme calculatron
Locatmn 01
cwlmg channels
Heat balance
Pressure dmp
calculation
Cwlmg throughout
Heal exchange
wrfh the envwnmenl
Turbulent llow
Rough layout of
c w h g System
Segmenred
layout
I
bmulalmn calculabon
116
Local
Temooral
VOL. 5, NO. 2
CAEICALI IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

5. Cooling Channel Temperature. From the cooling channel diameter, coolant flow rate, and coolant
characteristics, the heat transfer coefficient of the coolant
can be calculated. For a given coolant temperature,
the temperature at the wall of the cooling channel can
be calculated.
6. Location of the Cooling Channels. The distance
between the cooling channels and the molding wall
and the distances among the cooling channels themselves are determined on the basis of the following
three criteria:
0
The heat introduced by the molding must, because

of the calculated temperature difference, flow from
the mold wall (surface temperature of the molding)
to the cooling channel wall
The geometry must be calculated so that a reliable
nonuniformity between cooling channels is not exceeded (cooling error)
To minimize fabrication costs and pressure, the
number of cooling channels should not be unnecessarily large
7. Pressure Drop. The total pressure drop in the

cooling system, feed lines and return lines is calculated. The result is then compared with the pressure
of the water supply system.
8. Heat Exchange with the Environment. Following determination of the external mold dimensions, the-initially estimated-heat exchange with
the environment can be checked.
9. The result of cooling system layout can be checked
and optimized by use of simulation programs capable
of representing the temperature variations in the mold.
Such a simulation program also enables one to examine the startup process. These steps can be accomplished by two types of programs:
From the cooling time calculation to the calculation
of the heat exchange with the environment (steps
1-8), programs with alphanumeric output are used,
because the number of data involved is small
The computer simulation gives molding and mold
temperatures as a function of location and time.
Such an amount of data cannot be represented clearly
in alphanumeric fashion; hence, the use of simulation programs which provide a graphic output is
indicated (cf. Figure 24)
Calculations by alphanumeric programs are based
on simplifying assumptions. For example, for an initial, fast layout the molding may be simplified to a
plate, and the calculations are first carried out for this
plate.'*
For more complicated moldings with comers and
ribs, etc., this method is reasonable as an approximation which can serve as a basis for more accurate
temperature-control design, but it is not sufficient.
Higher accuracy can be achieved by dividing the
molding into several regions (segments) that influence
each other only slightly.I3 Each of these segments
contains a cooling element (cooling channel, cold finger, etc.) and is characterized by the shape of the
molding region to be cooled. The following is taken
into account:
Different molding thicknesses requiring different
degrees of heat exchange
The change in coolant temperature in the cooling
system. In view of the uniformity criterion, this
change is slight, but-as will be shown in the following section-it is clearly discernible
Different types of segments, e.g., comers, core
regions, and round molding regions
Different cooling elements. For example, one segment could contain a drilled baffle plate, the next
segment a tubular cold finger, and another segment
may be cooled by means of a single or double-coil
cold finger
Difference in heat exchange. For example, the core
regions give off less heat to the environment than
do mold cavity regions
Division into segments thus offers a substantially
more accurate design. The assumption that the segments do not influence each other, however, gives
rise to errors. The computer simulation makes it possible to quantify these errors, because the mold is
considered as a whole. Hence, the computer simulation is eminently suited for checking and optimization.
2.2.2. Layout of Cooling Systems
The results of thermal design will be explained by
the following example of a simple molding (Figure
22).
The results of design for a simplified molding are
as follows: The cooling time calculation gives for a
polystyrene molding a minimum cooling time of 26.3
s at a melt temperature of 230C, mold wall temperature of 40C, and a mean demolding temperature of
80C. Determining for the cooling time is, in this case,
the thickest molding region. With a down time of 5
117
FIGURE 22
Layout of a cooling
system for a
simplified molding.
+
I
1.4
a ,v
I
l 3
+
I
i.4
T27
I
k2+7u4+
k7A
I
27
All messvremems,n mm
~~~~
FIGURE 23
Segmented layout
of a m l i n a system.
counted for as pressure loss. The remainder of this

capacity is needed for cooling.
These results were obtained by simplified consideration of the molding as a plate of uniform thickness.
Figure 23 shows the results of a segmented layout. In
contrast to the calculation for a simplified molding,
the position of the cooling channels in the individual
segments is different. The following values were calculated for an in-series arrangement of the cooling
channels (coolant inlet in segment 1).
In the segmented layout, the increase in coolant
temperature is taken into account. To obtain equal
heat fluxes, for increasing coolant temperature, the
channels must be closer to the molding. Although the
temperature difference between the coolant inlet and
coolant outlet is only 5"C, the cooling channel distances amount to 9 mm (segment 1, segment 12).
Equal surface temperatures for regions of different
wall thickness can be achieved by changing the distance between the channels and the molding. Thus,
in segment 3 compared to segment 1, this distance
must be increased because for equal temperature differences the heat flux is reduced as a result of the
smaller wall thickness.
Distance between
molding and
cooling channel
(mm)
Segment
s, the cycle time is 31.3 s. Thus, it is necessary to

remove from the molding a heat flux of 1243 W.
Assuming that a 5% fraction of this heat is given off
to the environment, the coolant absorbs a heat flux of
1181 w.
For a volume flow rate of 60 cc/s, the temperature
difference between the coolant inlet and coolant outlet
is 5C. For a cooling channel diameter of less than
33 mm, the flow will be turbulent. The cooling channel diameter was given as 12 mm.
The layout for the simplified molding gives for a
20C coolant inlet temperature a distance of 27 mm
between all channels and the molding wall, which
ensures adequate uniformity. This uniformity is expressed by the cooling error which for amorphous
materials amounts to 5-10% and in the exemplified
calculation was 2.3%. The cooling channel wall temperature was 29C.
For a flow velocity of 53 c d s , the pressure drop
is 0.04 bar. The required cooling capacity of the coolant supply system is 1245 W, of which 3 W is ac118
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
8
9
10
11
12
31
30.5
38.5
31
28
21
26
25
31.5
30.5
22.5
21.5
Coolant
temperature
at segment
outlet ("C)
Cooling channel
wall temperature
20.4
20.8
21.2
21.6
22.0
22.4
22.8
23.2
23.6
24.0
24.4
24.8
25.8
26.2
21.0
27.3
21.4
27.8
28.2
28.6
29.3
29.1
29.9
30.3
("C)
The alphanumeric layout can thus be carried out in

two steps of different accuracy.
1. Layout based on a simplified molding
2. Segmented layout
This example shows that even for simple moldings
increased accuracy leads to improved temperaturecontrol design. For more complicated moldings, the
differences are substantially greater.
VOL. 5,NO.2
FIGURE 24
Optimization of the
cooling system.
0 =98 W / m z . K /
-.?TK = 25 "C
Step size = 20 mm
Grid dimensions
80 x 80
No. of cycles: 5
.,
+..
...........
c*+
*.
AW
= 50 W / m . K
uw
= 15 m m V s
AF
= 0.3 W / m . K
uF
=0,08 m m V s
ZOOC
=200oc
:KO=
3Fo
t,< = 9 s
fN
= 4s
I.
~~
FIGURE 25
Variation of mold
temperature with
time.
f-g
Position of calculated temperature variations
Center of
mold,
\
adiabatic
.._
..
Q,...................
o.......
1'
Mold edges, convection
0
50
L
.E
.
E
Time (s)
72
Time (s)
72
119
CAEJCALI IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

2.2.3. Computer Simulation
The temperature variation in the mold with respect
to location and time can be calculated and plotted by
use of simulation programs.
The geometry of the mold, molding, and cooling
system as well as the boundary conditions relative to
the environment and the starting conditions (e.g., melt
temperature) are introduced into the computer. By
means of a difference method the temperatures are
then calculated as functions of time and location.
The result is a drawing of isotherms for a molding
and mold cross section of interest. Such isotherms can
be drawn for different times. The computer simulation
clearly reveals cooling nonuniformities. The result of
individual cooling changes in the improved mold can
be checked by computer simulation. Isotherms before
and after optimization are given, as an example, in
Figure 24. This example shows very clearly the large
temperature differences at the mold cavity wall for

the cooling layout represented on the left side of the
figure. A change in the location of the cooling channels reduced the temperature differences and resulted
in greater uniformity. Thus, the simulation program
can be used to compare local temperature gradients
for different cooling conditions. It is also possible to
plot the temperature gradients at different times for
one cooling condition.
Figure 25 shows the change in temperature gradient
of a mold with time for a startup process. The heatup
of the mold with increasing number of cycles is clearly
revealed. The point at which quasi-steady-state processing conditions are reached, i.e., the point in time
at which the effect of the startup process is completed,
can thus be determined.
Simulation programs are suitable for checking and
optimization of the cooling system layout. They can
also provide a plot of temperature changes with time.
2.2.4. Cooling of Molding Corners
FIGURE 26
Nonuniform
temperature profile
in corners.
8 W/dK
FIGURE 27
Segmentation of a
corner.
The equations employed for segmented layout can

also be used to determine the dimensioning criteria
for special problem areas. In this case, computer simulation is used for control. An example of this is the
layout of a cooling system for molding comers.
At the comers of a molding, the core and the cavity
show different temperatures if the distance between
the cooling channels and the molding in the two mold
regions is the same. A computer simulation clearly
reveals these temperature differences (Figure 26). The
increase in temperature leads to slower cooling of the
material in the core region. The molding is distorted
in the sense that the angle of the molding becomes
smaller. This effect can frequently be prevented by
lowering the core temperature. In doing so, however,
the straight zones of the molding are cooled faster on
the side of the core so that the molding is now distorted
in these regions and becomes warped toward the side
of the mold cavity or shows on this side increased
internal strain that could lead to stress cracking in use.
The uniformity of cooling can be improved by segmented layout. To this end, the molding is divided
into segments (Figure 27). The heat fluxes that must
be removed from the molding during cooling are proportional to the volumes to be cooled:
QI _
-
Q2
b, ~ / 2
bl
2 * b2 ~ / 2 s2/4 2(b2
~/4)
= 0.5
120
bl
b2
for
< bZ
VOL. 5 , NO. 2
CAEICALI IN INJECTION, BLOW,

ai
where
AND FOAM MOLDING
distance between the center of the cooling

channel and the molding in segment i
Qi
heat flux in segment i
bi
width of segment i
bi
s = molding thickness
w w 2
A temperature gradient can be viewed as analogous

to a gradient of electric potential. In analogy to ohmic
resistance, a heat resistance can be defined for a
temperature gradient:
potential gradient
temperature gradient
U =I * R
A8
Q * WW
where
width of segment i
=
1
27rLh
0.077 + ln(b21d)
ln(b,Id)
2
For given q and bi and known diameters, it is possible to calculate the required distance b2 by means
of computer programs for segmented layout.
For the region of practical importance, distance b2
can be described by an approximated solution:
bl/d = 214
U = potential difference
I = current
resistance
A 8 = temperature difference
bl/al = 0.514
b2 - 33.7 mm - 2d (1.43
+ 0.0143 b,)(bl/al) + 0.74 bl
Q = heat flux
WW = heat resistance
For the same temperature difference between the
wall of the molding and the wall of the cooling channel
in two segments, we have
Increasing the heat flux in the comer region reduces

the distortion of the molding angle and produces equal
temperatures for core and cavity cooling. Computer
simulation clearly reveals this improvement (Figure
28). The temperature in the molding comer is reduced
from 46 to 34C (cf. Figure 26).
2.2.5. Thermal Design of Blow Molds

The large number of computer programs for thermal
design of injection molds can also be used directly
for blow molds provided certain unusual features of
The heat resistances of the segments can be desuch molds are taken into consideration.
scribed as functions of the geometry and thermal conInjection molding, in general, involves symmetrical
ductivity of the mold construction m a t e ~ i a l : ~ . ~ ~ bilateral cooling of the molding. Blow molding, on
the other hand, involves the problem of differential
cooling of the inside and outside of the molding. Most
ww, = of the heat is removed from the outside via the moid.
In addition, however, it is possible to remove heat
convectively, by internal cooling of the molding. In
where
each case, an asymmetric temperature distribution exists across the wall thickness (Figure 29).
L = segment length
The programs for cooling calculation can be applied
directly only to moldings with a symmetrical temA = thermal conductivity of the mold construction
perature distribution. The following considerations,
material
however, also make it possible to determine the required cooling time when the internal and external
d = diameter of cooling channel
cooling of a molding are different.
121
FIGURE 28
Improvement of
uniformity in
corners.
3,,=20 "C
QF0=2oo0c
9j-i = 25C
3" =2O0C
tK=9S
t N = 4s
Step size: 2mm
FIGURE 29
Asymmetric
temperature
distribution in
a molding.
QE = maximum
demolding
temperature;
QW = mean mold
wall temperature.
corrected wall thickness s'. Thus, to be able to use

the computer program, it is necessary only to replace
the true wall thickness s with the corrected wall thickness s'.
This corrected wall thickness s' can be determined
from the ratio between the heat flux at the outer wall
and that at the inner wall of the molding. The following relationship holds:
where
5
qw
heat flux at the outer wall
qk = convective heat flux at the inner wall

s = Molding fhickness
= true wall thickness of the molding
s' = corrected wall thickness
As shown in Figure 30, the calculation assumes an

asymmetric temperature distribution of a blow-molded
part having wall thickness s. Extending the curve so
as to obtain a symmetrical shape results in a temperature distribution for an imaginary symmetrically cooled
molding of wall thickness s (see Fig. 30). For this
imaginary molding with symmetrical temperature distribution, the cooling time can be calculated directly,
the cooling time for the asymmetrically cooled blowmolded part of wall thickness s corresponding to the
cooling time of the symmetrically cooled part having
122
For the simple case of the ram air process where

convective heat loss is negligible, i.e., q k + 0, we
obtain for the corrected wall thickness
s' = 2s
In using the computer program, it should be kept

in mind that because of the lower contact pressures
at the cooled mold wall in blow molding, heat transfer
is less pronounced than in injection molding. This
means that in the case of blow molding one should
assume less effective thermal conductivity than in inVOL. 5, NO. 2

jection molding. By effective thermal conductivity is
meant a constant effective mean value which within
the same time leads to the same degree of cooling as
the actual temperature-dependent thermal conductivity. This is not a fundamental characteristic of a substance, because it can change under different processing conditions.
Experimentally, the effective heat conductivity can
be obtained by determining the mean demolding temperature as a function of cooling time. The thermal
conductivity value can then be calculated directly by
the cooling time formula. l 6
By taking into account these special features, all
computer programs for the thermal design of injection
molds (dimensioning of cooling channels, layout of
cooling channels) can also be applied directly to the
design of blow molds.
In this manner, by calculating and simulating thermal conditions in the blow mold, the designer can
quickly achieve an optimal layout of the cooling system for a given product even in the design phase.
This is also true for the special problem of cooling
blow-molded parts in the region of weld spots (flash).
In this regions, melt accumulations usually occur, and
it is these accumulations that in the last analysis determine the cycle time for the part. By applying to
these spots in the mold programs for the simulation
of temperature variations locally and with time, it is
possible, during design, to determine the effect of
intensive cooling in these regions, for example, by
use of additional cooling channels, cold fingers, or
mold inserts with improved heat conductivity at these
spots. In this manner, uniform and rapid cooling of
the entire molding can be achieved.
FIGURE 30
Corrected molding
thickness.
Relamsh,p
Bsse-load cnse
2.2.6. Thermal Design of Foam Molds
To obtain a sufficiently thick, compact external skin,

particularly for integral-skin foamed parts, and to
maximize the removal of heat generated in the curing
reaction, cooled metallic molds of high heat conductivity are used.
For part quality to be reproducible from cycle to
cycle, it is desirable to keep the mold wall temperature
at the beginning of each cavity filling always at the
same level. Moreover, the objective of the cooling
system layout should be to keep the local temperatures
at different points of the mold at a most favorable
level for foam formation.
Whereas, at least for thermoplastics, material properties, e.g., thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat capacity are known, they are not known for
PUR processing, which complicates thermal design
' I -"
123

in this case. This situation is complicated even further
by the fact that the quantity of heat generated per unit
time during molding varies with the mold wall temperature, component temperature, activator and blowing agent contents, and molding thickness. J*
Despite this situation, obvious similarities exist with
the thermal design of injection molds: It is necessary
to have as uniform a mold wall temperature as possible
during the entire molding process and to ensure the
same mold temperatures at the beginning of each mold
filling. Experience accumulated and the computer programs used in injection molding render thermal design
of foam molds plausible-for example, by introduction of representative quantities. Additional work is
needed to adapt this process to the conditions in RIM
foam molding.
2.3. Mechanical Mold Design

The reliable functioning of a mold also depends on
correct dimensioning of its components. In particular,
this includes the design of the moving apparatus, where,
for example, in molds with slides or core pullers, the
motion sequences and required gears must be determined. The designer is primarily interested in making
sure that, under load, the mold will not be distorted
beyond permissible limits.
To this end, two design criteria must be kept in
mind. On the one hand, the elastic deformations generated perpendicular to the closing direction as a result
of the internal mold pressure must be completely eliminated to compensate for the thermal contraction of
the polymer and prevent demolding problems. On the
other hand, excessive plate deflections caused by forces
in the closing direction must not generate an inadmissible gap in the separation line which would cause
the formation of flash. Finally, the designer must take
into account the frictional and gravitational forces acting on the molding and mold components, such as
ejectors, guides etc.
Computer programs are already available for many
of the cited dimensioning problems. The application
potential of such programs will be presented in the
following sections.
2.3 . I . Computing Aids for Mold Dimensioning
The preceding design criteria show that mold components must be dimensioned not for a requisite strength
but for permissible deformation. To this end, the designer has at his disposal for the preliminary calculation of deformation several calculation methods which
124
vary depending on the complexity of load conditions

and component geometries.
Basic Load Cases. By means of analytical formulas, important dimensioning parameters can be determined rapidly and economically. These parameters
include, for example, the maximum deformation of
mold plates, the expansion [lifting] of the mold cavity
or the compression of the core perpendicular to the
closing direction. Some of these equations are collected in Figure 3 1.
The corresponding programs can be offered by the
computer in the form of a selection menu and can be
used interactively by the designer. The use of a computer offers special advantages when, for a given load
and permissible deformation, the programs determine
a minimum dimension of a component (e.g., minimum plate thickness or minimum external radius of
a mold vavity). This can be done only iteratively and
would be very time-consuming without the use of a
computer.
For these simple methods, the assumptions made
with respect to the loads exerted on individual mold
components must be satisfied. For this reason, such
simplified calculations involve a significant error only
when deformations of several components must be
considered simultaneously.
Overlapping Loads. The same programs that describe the basic load cases also serve as a basis for
an overlap method whereby individual and total deformations in structures consisting of several basic
components can be calculated. l9
After the mold has been reduced to an equivalent
spring system, this structure, the type of load cases,
the geometry data, and the total load are introduced
into the computer. In this manner, by connecting the
individual elements in series and in parallel, the total
deformation can be calculated (cf. Section 2.3.2).
Deformations for Any Geometry. For complicated structures, when simplifying equations are used
for the computation and assumptions are made about
the overlap, the overlap method gives a good approximation of the expected deformation. With such
a serial program, deformations arising at different
spots can be calculated. Higher accuracy can be achieved
by use of the finite elements method.
In the case of highly complicated molds for automotive gear shift panels, bumper coverings, etc., it
should be kept in mind that the deformations at the
edges of the mold frequently cause overfilling. Moreover, the measures taken to increase the rigidity of
such molds-including those for foam molding-are
frequently so comprehensive that when they are conVOL. 5 , NO. 2

sidered as a whole, they can be described only approximately by simple, basic equations. When accuracy requirements for a mold are very high,
deformation analysis by the finite elements method is
entirely justified despite the large amount of time and
computation required.
Many ready-for-use FEM program packages are
currently available for deformation calculations that
are important for mechanical mold design. * Figure
32 shows the results of a FEM deformation analysis
by means of such a program. These results elucidate
mold cavity under the load of the closing force and
internal mold pressure. The deformations shown in
this figure are enlarged by a factor of 50.
For the designer who handles a variety of different
molds in terms of mold dimensions and molding shapes
and therefore cannot gain experience, i.e., who always has to handle new problems, FE programs represent a very valuable aid, because by use of the finite
elements method even highly complicated structures
can be described and checked by computer. Basically,
the time needed for an FE analysis depends on the
convenience offered by the hardware and software for
data preparation. This will be discussed again later.
In the practical use of the finite elements method,
however, it has been found time and time again that
the computational results are influenced by the description of the molded part as given by the FE network and by the type of elements used. Therefore, in
addition to the experience which is assumed to enable
the user, for example, to structure the network favorably, all results must be checked against reference
standards. To evaluate an FEM calculation, the designer can, for example, use limiting deformation values, which can be determined quickly by the described, simple method.
Determination of Demolding Forces. In injection
mold design, the demolding [ejection] system is of
special importance, because together with the gate
system it exerts a strong influence on this design. In
addition to the geometric requirements that must be
taken into account, for example, to determine the most
favorable demolding directions, the forces generated
during demolding must also be known to be able to
determine the demolding principle and to dimension
the demolding system.
By knowing the factors influencing the demolding
force and the mechanism of action of these factors,
it is possible, among other things, to reduce the demolding force by slightly changing the molding or to
eliminate production problems by a tailored change
in process parameters.
undeformed
under clamp force
FIGURE 32
Deformation of the
cavity under clamp
force and pressure
load by FEM.
L m
under clamp force and internal pressure
As a rule, the demolding forces arise through the

interaction between the lifting of the mold caused by
the pressure of the melt injected into the mold cavity
and the shrinkage of the solidifying molding compound. These interactions lead to contact pressure on
the female die and the core and, depending on the
prevailing frictional conditions, require large demolding forces.
Demolding forces can be calculated by the following relationship
because-in the broadest sense-these forces are frictional in nature. In the above expressions,
F = demolding force
=
coefficient of friction
125
C'JCAD
IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

on the core as a function of cooling time tK. The
program will determine for each time interval
N = normal force
= contact pressure
PF
A = pertinent contact surface of

molding/mold cavity
The static coefficient of friction can be determined
from the results given in Ref. 2. These static friction
coefficients assume special significance because the
studies described in Ref. 2 involved the same adhesion
mechanism that underlies demolding. This was no so
for previously determined coefficientsbecause in most
cases these were measured in the laboratory on separately injection-molded test specimens.
Based on the statement that the force F required to
push the molding away from the core is given by the
product of the supporting surface area A, the static
coefficient of friction, and the radial stress acting on
the core (which is equal to the contact pressure pi=),
a solution algorithm can be formulated on the basis
of the energy and impulse conservation equations and
the general stress-elongation reactions. For moldings
that can be calculated as cylindrical sleeves, a computer program is presented in Refs. 22 and 23, which
enables one to calculate the normal stress ur acting
movable plate side

of the mold.
k4-4
0
0
0
0
the actual temperature distribution 6

the difference in temperature, A+, compared to the
preceding time interval
the variation of the modulus of elasticity E
the variation of the linear coefficient of thermal
expansion a
and, subsequently, the variations of

0
the radial displacements u of the individual layers

the tangential stresses u,
the radial stresses u,
The effect of the factors influencing the melt temperature, mold wall temperature, stress-relaxation,
molding wall thickness, internal molding radius, and
cooling time on radial stress u,can thus be determined
by computer.
From this radial stress and the static coefficient of
friction, the demolding force can be calculated. To
be able to estimate the number of ejection pins, in
addition to the demolding force, it is also necessary
to know the load-bearing capacity of the plastic at
demolding. Information concerning this subject can
be found in Ref. 2.
The serial results can also be applied to rectangular
sleeves. In this case, the main stress-building process
occurs during the cooling as a result of hindered longitudinal shrinkage. As was shown for the cylindrical
sleeve, the tangential stress-like the stress in the side
walls of rectangular sleeves-is largely independent
of the radius. Hence, for the rectangular sleeve, too,
the stress may be expected to be independent of sleeve
length.
As shown in Ref. 22, the formula
can be used to describe the theoretical relationship

between the demolding forces for square sleeves and
rectangular sleeves (with thin, long sides) and the
demolding forces for cylindrical sleeves under identical boundary conditions (wall thicknesses, cooling
conditions).
2.3.2. Application Examples
The various design methods are suitable for mechanical dimensioning of all types of molds, and they
126
VOL. 5, NO. 2

have been used successfully in the injection molding
area for some time. Although molds for foam or blow
molding are similar to injection molds in design and
function, designers in these areas have until now carried out mechanical mold dimensioning only on rare
occasions. This can be explained on the basis that,
because of the very low internal mold pressures of
5-10 bar in these two processes compared to injection
molding, the designers rarely face the problem of excessive mold deformation.
This is particularly true for blow molding where
the molds are of compact design and highly rigid. In
the future, however, foam molds will have to be designed for permissible deformation with the aid of
dimensioning programs, because new foam-molding
systems will operate at higher mold pressures, i.e.,
40 bar. The following sections describe an application
of the overlap and finite elements methods.
2.3.2.1. Maximum Deformation at the Separation Level. The overlap method will provide the designer in a very short time with information about,
for example, the maximum deformation of an injection mold at the separation level. This is shown schematically in Figure 33.
The individual mold elements can be viewed as
springs which-connected in series and in parallelrepresent an equivalent spring model. This model, the
characteristics of the individual elements (shape, dimensions, and type of load) and the total load p are
sufficient to enable the designer to determine the individual deformations and their overlap and thus the
desired total deformation G,, at the separation level
(cf. Table I).
In this case, the total deformation G,, at the separation level is 0.709 mm. To reduce this very high
value, only a maximum total deformation of the system is introduced into the computer program and, for
example, the thickness of the mold plate is then increased by iterative computation until the stiffness of
the total system becomes adequate.
2.3.2.2. Lifting Behavior of a Foam Mold. The
required mechanical rigidity of the mold and the mold
holder is determined by the maximum internal mold
pressure during the curing reaction. Despite the relatively low pressures [in foam molding], because of
the often very large moldings sizeable deformations
can occur, causing the mold to heat up. Because of
the low viscosity of the PUR reaction mixture, even
small gaps at the separation level cause the appearance
of flash which must be removed in a costly posttreatment step.
The possibility of checking the lifting effects at the
separation level by computer will be demonstrated by
TABLE I
Calculated Deformations
Deformation
Element
Type of Load
(mm)
Mold plate
Support bar
Support column
Platen
Bilaterally clamped shear and flexure

Compression, right parallelepiped
Compression, cylinder
Clamped all around, round opening
0.09315
0.02857
0.12126
0.08724
FIGURE 34
Undeformed
structure of a
quarter of a plate.
FIGURE 35
Deformed quarter
of a plate.
CAE/CAD IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

the example of a simple test mold. This mold consists
essentially of two plates the upper one of which was
made from a 26-mm-thick sheet of PMMA. The lateral
boundary of this mold cavity consisted of a steel ring
which was disposed between the lower steel plate and
the PMMA plate and was secured with four screws.
The pretension of the mold halves was adjusted so
that lifting of the mold halves at the screw sites as a
result of circumferential surface load exerted by the
internal mold pressure was prevented.
For reasons of symmetry, a quarter of a plate is
sufficient for checking mold deformations by the FE
method. Figure 34 shows the structure of the undeformed, and Figure 35 that of the deformed quarter
plate.
FIGURE 36
Test mold.
Along edge 1, the displacements of the nodes in

the y-direction is equal to zero and for edge 2 displacements in the x-direction are prevented. With the
exception of the screw-secured site, all other nodes
are freely deformable. Computation and measurements gave the same maximum bending in the center
of the plate (W,,, = 1.7 mm).
Figure 37 shows the bending lines along sections
A and B of Figure 36. Whereas in the plane of the
section high screw pretension prevents lifting of the
two mold halves, at some distance from the secured
sites the internal mold pressure causes the mold to
open allowing the reaction mixture to leak out.
This simple example shows how quickly a lack of
mold dimensioning can lead to mold failure and offquality moldings or at least make parts post-treatment
or cycle extension necessary.
3. COMPILATION OF PRODUCTION
DOCUMENTS-CAD
FIGURE 37
Deformation of the
plate along sections
A and B.
w,
3(
l
3.1. A CAD Work Station
= 0.5 mm
128
Fsec.
= 1 7mm
The computers needed for the design tasks discussed in the foregoing, i.e., mold layout and dimensioning, must have sufficient storage capacity,
data processing speed, and standard peripherals such
as an alphanumeric terminal, a printer, and corresponding storage capability. For design purposes,
however, a purely numerical data display is often not
sufficiently informative. The linking of such CAE programs with a graphic data processing system offers
additional advantages. These linked systems can provide computer-aided solutions for the best-known design task, namely, the compilation of production documents. This type of system has come to be known
as CAD, and it is capable of preparing engineering
drawings, parts lists, flow charts, purchase order lists,
etc.
sec 9
In computer-aided design with CAD, the graphics

unit replaces all functions of the previously used drawing board. In other words, the computer describes
geometric elements+.g., points, lines, curves-, it
shows their relative disposition, e.g., by combining
the contours to show components, it stores data and,
finally, displays data graphically. For these tasks, interactive devices such as alphanumeric and graphic
video screens (Figure 38) are available for convenient
data input to the computer. The output devices used
for documentation of the finished drawing are, for
VOL. 5 , NO. 2

example, hard-copy units or plotters capable of reproducing the screen display as as photocopy or China
ink drawing. Permanent data storage is achieved by
use of magnetic tape or magnetic disk devices. Additional peripheral units such as a printer and a digitizer can be used to complete the CAD system.
Many turnkey type systems are available for compiling production documents. 24*27 Separate software
products that are compatible with various EDP systems are also a~ailable.~*.*~
The different systems show
noteworthy differences in terms of component description by the computer. For example, there are pure
2D systems and 3D systems with line-, surface-, or
volume-oriented description and intermediate versions
of all these systems. Correspondingly, the type of
input required from the designer for the description
of components also varies. In some cases, it is necessary to define volume elements, such as cylinders
and rectangular parallepipeds, as well as their position
and correlation; in other cases, the construction of the
drawing and model can be based closely on conventional procedures used with the drawing board.
The advantages of CAD in mold design thus do not
lie in the transition from manual to machine drawing
preparation per se. The storage, computation, and
comparative capabilities of computer systems are the
ones that really facilitate the designers work. In fact,
today a large amount of design work consists of repetitive tasks: selecting standardized components,
searching for detailed information in catalogs, and,
finally, representing these parts in a drawing. Such
tasks also include the shading, dimensioning, and labeling which are required repeatedly for each drawing.
CAD units can substantially reduce these routine tasks;
by storing standardized parts or other frequently used
objects in data files and by use of suitable selection
and drawing programs, more time is left to the designer for creative work and thus for his actual assignment-the design of parts.
Another substantial advantage lies in the filing of
drawing data in a computer system. Thus, the system
always contains the most recent information about the
drawing which the designer can call up at any time
for checking purposes, modify it, correct it, or use it
for other drawings. This means faster access to needed
information and greater design reliability, because the
right data are always available.
Finally, a simpler and faster exchange of information between different departments of a given company is possible when, through the CAD system, those
involved in production planning have direct access to
drawing data. The reason is that mold drawings are
frequently needed for repairs or adjustment work.
FIGURE 38
Arrangement of
peripheral units of a
CAD work station
for injection mold
design.
computer
a
PTOtter
In the following sections, it will be shown how

mold designers can make special use of the advantages
offered by CAD.
3.2. Computer-Aided Drawing of Molds

Injection molds are usually built from standardized
components such as mold plates, centering devices,
and slats. These are available from manufacturers of
standard equipment (e.g., Refs. 30-32). Most mold
elements that are not used for mold construction are
also standardized and can also be obtained as standard
equipment. These include, for example, sprue bushings, hot-runner nozzles, cartridge heaters, cold fingers, cooling system connections, and many others.
In addition, a large number of standardized parts, such
as screws, nuts, and washers, are used in all molds.
The same can be said for molds for foam and blow
molding. In recent times, in foam molding, in particular, increasing requirements are being placed on mold
life and molding quality (dimensional stability, surface finish), and the higher processing pressures used
require more rigid mold construction. For efficient
production, the steel or aluminum molds needed for
these reasons should be built from standard commer129

cia1 components or components that are self-made but
standardized.
Because of the large quantity of standardized components, variants d e ~ i g n *is~ a. ~suitable
~
method for
the compilation of production documents. The method
handles primarily dimensional variants, even if products offered by several manufacturers of standard
components are taken into consideration.
3.2. I . Building a Standard Components File

In mold design, the conditions for the use of CAD
systems are thus particularly favorable, because these
systems are very well suited for the variants design
method. Standardized components, DIN-standardized
and other standard parts can be stored as macros in
data files. Such parts include frequently used components or component assemblies made by specific
companies, e.g., hydraulic or electric drives, gears,
etc. At our Institute, for example, a data file was built
for standard components used in injection molds.
The injection mold can be viewed as a mechanical
assembly consisting of prefabricated mold plates, slats,
and the ejection system. To build a mold from these
elements, some of the dimensions of elements such
as plate length, plate width, hole distance, diameter,
etc., must be identical. These dimensions are referred
to as the basic dimensions.
Moreover, for each type of standard components,

type-specific dimensionsmust be indicated within a basic
dimension. These include, for example, the slat width
or the width of an ejection system. Finally, every type
of standardized component of a given basic dimension
comes in different heights (or thicknesses), is made of
different materials, and is available at different prices.
The data file also contains standard components that are
independent of the basic dimensions, e.g., guide sleeves
and guide pins, ejectors and sprue bushings.
To make it easier for the designer to select a suitable
component in terms of type, size, and material of
construction, search programs compatible with the data
files and capable of screening the stored stock of standard components have been developed. In mold design, one starts with the mold plate on the stationary
[injection] side of the mold, because this plate determines the basic dimensions. The selection of the other
elements needed to build the mold requires no further
basic dimension-determining input. This reduces the
input effort and eliminates possible sources of error.
The selection and search routines include the variants drawing programs. These programs contain the
essential features of the display logic for the standardized components in the required views. The logic
consists more or less of converting the dimensions
into coordinates and-in
a few cases-to consider
shape variants as a function of certain dimensions.
FIGURE 39
Drawing of a
molding.
Molding
130
VOL. 5, NO. 2

In the next step-the preparation of detail drawFor graphic display of standard components, only
ings-one creates in the same manner as before a
the most necessary user calls offered by the T2000 drawing software used at our I n ~ t i t u t ewere
~ ~ . ~ ~ standard component in all three views: plan, longitudinal section, and cross section. The designer now
employed and collected in a subroutine. These are:
freely draws in the details. Here, too, it may be very
advantageous to be able to use some regions from the
0 definition of a group
drawing of the molding (e.g., the contour of the part)
0 creation of a point
(Figure 42). Considerable time can be saved by using
0 creation of a path from starting point to end point
a few variants that cannot be referred to as compo0 creation of a circular arc in clockwise direction from
nents, e.g., threaded connections for the cooling sysstarting point to end point with indication of the
tem. One could imagine additional uses for such varmidpoint
iants programs in the drawing of frequently repeated
0 establishment of line type
mold elements. For example, it would be possible to
create separate macros for different types of gating,
With these five user calls, all standard components
e.g., sprue gates or tunnel gates. In the detail work,
can be represented and suitably structured into groups
too, thanks to the graphics system the designer is
for further interactive manipulation. In this manner,
substantially faster than an engineering draftsman.
a simple interface was created permitting uncomplicated insertion of the variants program into other CAD
systems.
3.2.2. Example of Mold Design

After the molding has been designed and the mold
type established, the computer programs for the rheological, thermal, and mechanical design provide, among
other things, geometry data which are the starting
quantities for mold design. These data include the
dimensions of the runner and cooling systems or minimum plate thicknesses.
One begins with the drawing. In mold design, one
starts with the injection-molded article and designs
from the inside out by positioning around the projection of the mold cavity a fitting mold plate selected
from the standard components file. It is particularly
advantageous if the part was also designed with the
aid of the CAD system, because then the drawing of
the part in the required view can be copied into the
mold plate (Figure 39).
For all additional mold plates which are now created
and assembled in similar fashion, only the required
plate thickness is needed as an input parameter (Figure
40).After the plates are created, the system will make
the additional standard mold elements, such as guide
parts, cold fingers, ejection pins, and much more,
following automatically. In this manner, one obtains
very quickly, by combining the individual mold elements, the framework for the general drawing. By
means of the graphic functions placed at his disposal
by the CAD system, the designer can now supplement this framework with free designs, e.g., additional openings, cooling loops, etc., and semiautomatically shade or dimension the general drawing
(Figure 41).
MoMing
SeleClion
of mold plete
after /eying out the
cooling system
selection of
pleren
Sel9Clion
moving
pletens
Of
completion Of
drawing on the
side of moving
oleten
...
..
131
FIGURE 40
Drawing with
standard mold
components.
FIGURE 41
Mold drawing
before the
introduction of
details.
3.3. Additional Applications of CAD

The capabilities of the CAD graphics system do not
only facilitate the designers drawing preparation job.
The designer can also exploit the graphic display capability for the solution of complex computation problems.
Finally, the Production Planning Department can
convert, with CAD support, the information contained
in the finished mold and component drawings more
effectively than before, for example, into processing
programs for numerically controlled (NC) machines.
3.3.1. Linking CAD and CAE
In all phases of mold design, the designer must
solve dimensioning tasks with the aid of control and
optimization calculations. Regardless of the calculation method, the linking of CAD software with calculation algorithms gives the following advantages
0
The user is freed of routine tasks

Errors in data transfer from drawings to calculation
algorithms are avoided
Automated calculation with integrated linking to
the geometry stored in the computer makes it pos-
132
sible to perform comprehensive calculations which

in the past were not performed because of lack of
time
Graphic display, despite much higher data density,
offers very high clarity and complete documentation
Two examples of mold design will illustrate these

advantages. For thermal mold design, the designer
has at his disposal the previously mentioned programs
for calculation of temperature variations in the mold.
These programs require a large amount of input data,
including information about mold geometry, initial
temperatures, and material characteristics, such as heat
conductivity. If one then calculates, for example, the
temperature variations with time at different points of
the mold, a large amount of output data is generated.
As shown in Figure 43, however, all this information
is displayed rapidly and clearly by means of CAD
graphics.
The graphics software can pick up the geometry
data internally from the CAD mold description and,
similarly, display the computer results within the contours of the geometry. Figure 43 clearly depicts the
heatup of a mold.
FEM programs offer similar application possibilities. For such programs, the preparation of structural
data and the evaluation of computation results often
take up most of the time required to examine the
solution alternatives and design optimization by the
finite element method. By use of the component geometry stored in the computer, model preparation and
structural description can be linked directly with the
CAD system, a network can be automatically generated, or the network can be optimized interactively
with the designer.
The back-transformation of computationresults into
the CAD system occurs similarly. For example, Figure 32 which shows the mold deformations calculated
by the finite elements method was produced directly
with the aid of our graphics unit.
3.3.2. Linking CAD and CAM
Many of the parts data used in mold design are also

needed for production planning. The planning of work
processes or of entire work process sequences depends
strongly on the geometric shape of the work piece,
maximum dimensions, material used, etc. Communication between the Production Planning Department
and the Design Department via a CAD unit results in
much faster information exchange.
Thus, at the time of CAD design, besides the geoVOL. 5 , NO. 2
FIGURE 42
Example of a
detailed drawing of
an individual part
produced with the
aid of a computer.
133
FIGURE 43
Isotherms in the
mold after several
cycles.
after 1 cycle
r
A w = 50 W / m K
uW =
15 m m 2 / s
A,
= 0'3 W / m K
aF
=0,08 m m 2 / s
8 W/m2K
= 98 W/m2K
= 25
OC
= 20G
--
9,c=
9"
zu "C
= 20
OC
Grid: 80x80
Step size: 2mm
metric information, additional parts data concerning

the standard components used can be selected automatically from data files and, for example, collected
in a parts list. These data may include, for example,
the number, description, quantity, and price of the
parts which can then be used directly to prepare other
documents, such as product lists, work plans, distribution lists etc.
Finally, it is possible to link NC parts programming
134
with a CAD system. For such CAM-computer-aided

manufacturing-two concepts are n ~ t e w o r t h yAc.~~
cording to one concept, many manufacturers of CAD
systems offer interfacing devices for their graphics
package whereby the geometric component information can be transferred to commercial, off-line, universal NC parts programming systems; such as EXAPT or COMPACT 11. The input of production
technology data can then be made directly into the
VOL. 5, NO. 2

NC program system. Every CAD/CAM package should
provide such an interface.
The second concept integrates the CAD graphics
system and NC parts programming so that the NC
application software can make use of the, sometimes
very comprehensive, capabilities of the CAD system.
The parts program is derived directly from the internal
component representation.
On the basis of the stored component geometry, the
NC parts programmer describes the tool pathways in
an interactive graphic dialog at the CAD work station.
The tool pathway sequence is established either by
the NC parts programmer by a method involving individual steps or it is created automatically by the
CAD/NC application software programs of the
turnkey CAD system in accordance with the given
parts geometry. In general, turnkey CAD systems can
support different types of tool pathway control:
0
0
0
0
Point-to-point control (e.g., for drilling)

2lI2-axial control for contour and pocket metal
cutting and for lathe work or comparable processes
3-axial control for surface work (e.g. metal cutting)
or
5-axial control for surface, face and pocket treatment processes (e.g., metal cutting), but in most
cases only in the form of basic capabilities
From the component geometry, the tool pathway

data are automatically calculated as a function of the
tool to be used, often taking into consideration any
sectioning. The geometry model is thus coordinated
with a geometric NC tool path model. The NC parts
programmer enters production-related technological
information into another data file. From the generated
tool path model, which was calculated as a function
of the tool to be used, and from the NC technological
model, for example, an APT-source program is then
written. By means of an external postprocessor, control hole strips specific for a given machine can be
made from this code.
As a result of the graphic properties of the CAD
system, visual checking can easily be performed for
correct tool path definition and collisions. The tool
paths can later be manipulated as geometric data or
adapted to a modified geometry.
4. OUTLOOK
The potential uses of computers in dimensioning

and compilation of production documents presented
in this article apply, at first, only to the design field.
The efficiency-improving effect of such an approach,

however, is not necessarily limited to design work.
This approach can be applied to the activities that
follow design, such as production planning, tool preparation and even molding production. This is due to
improved design, higher quality of production documents and increased use of standardized parts. In the
long term, the computer will be used for central data
management of all intracompany data and will connect
all departments of a company with each other. The
first connecting line between individual solutions, some
of which are already available, are the EDP-linked
areas of molding design, mold design, production
planning, mold fabrication, and molding production.
Molding design and mold design, at any rate, cannot be completely separated from each other. Combining these two areas presupposes that molding design, too, will be computer-aided. Not only will the
generated molding geometry data be used in mold
design, but so will the supplementary information,
such as the identification of visible surfaces and dimensions, which in the interest of good mold design
may be altered.
A partially automatic transformation of molding geometry to mold cavity and core geometry has already
been achieved by means of the PROREN program
system.35
In the future, automatic input of a 3D molding
description from the CAD geometry data file into computer programs for the analysis of, for example, parts
stability or filling behavior should also be possible.
The next step in the direction of integrated computer
use is CAD-CAM linking. This link has already been
achieved in many instances. In the production of injection molds, the use of CAM systems is important
primarily in the area of contoured molds. As described
above, this area will grow out of molding design.
Although the CAD user may still be satisfied with
the use of two-dimensional graphics software for the
preparation of drawings, he will certainly need 3D
software when he plans to derive directly from the
molding geometry, for example, information for multiaxial metal cutting. Under these conditions, he will
have to take into his stride substantially higher equipment costs and expect longer design times.
In view of the wide applications potential for the
use of computers in the design field as described in
this article, many a mold fabricator will ask which
computer system he should use in his business and
for what purposes and which computer programs are
available to him.
The computer classification described in the first
section can provide some orientation in this respect.
135
CAEJCALI IN INJECTION, BLOW,
AND FOAM MOLDING
Thus, a programmable pocket calculator should suffice for minor calculation tasks, e.g., determining the
filling pressure for simple injection-molded parts or
the minimum required cooling time. To solve such
problems, an investment of ca. lo00 German marks
(DM) is required, and the calculation time is of the
order of a few minutes. Because the operation of these
calculators is based on the manufacturers programming commands, the various individual programs for
rheological, thermal, or mechanical design obtainable, for example, from IKV or from various raw
material producers must be adapted to each particular
calculator.
A similar situation exists with respect to the nextlarger class of computers, the desktop computer. At
a cost of about 2000-30,000 DM, these computers
offer greater convenience, for example, video screen
display, data storage capacity, and computation speed,
so that, for example, filling studies can be performed
by dividing the moldings into simplified basic elements. To this end, data processing times of up to
several hours must be expected.
Fast calculation of comprehensive tasks, the buildup
of large data banks and the simultaneous linking of
several work stations to one computer are possible
only with larger computers. In addition to a core memory of 2-3 Mbytes, external data storage on disk or
magnetic tape devices is feasible. These systems cost
at least 50,000-100,000 DM. With such systems it is
possible to use a wide range of commercially available
off-line software. At the present time, only a small
number of available program packages are suitable for
mold design. In the area of injection molding, for
example, MOLDFLOW and Cornell University offer
programs for rheological design. These software packages, can be used only against payment of relatively
high user fees or are sold as a turnkey system in
conjunction with a computer system. An important
criterion is also that rheological, thermal, and mechanical mold design, as in the CADMOULD program developed at IKV, can be carried out within a
closed system.
Note also that users of finite elements programs
should have access to computer systems that are at
least in this size class. In future years, FEM programs
will certainly find wider use because more convenient
input and output programs that will improve the handling of FEM will then become available. Hence,
when buying a computer, one should at least make
sure it has adequate enlargement potential.
The linking of computation and drawing programs
can-as shown in the preceding sections-be a particularly useful aid in support of the designers work.
136
For this CAE and CAD area, in addition to large and

rapidly accessible memory and computation capacity
for the elaboration of drawing data, expensive peripheral units, such as a graphics screen, plotter, and
digitizer, are needed. Including the required drawing
software, CAD systems today cost 800,000-1,000,000
DM. The investment cost increases considerably if
several graphics work stations are to be linked or if
it is desirable to convert the drawing documents into
production NC programs.
For integrated CAE/CAD/CAM use in mold fabrication only partial solutions are currently achievable.
In fact, only a small number of CAD software packages and systems that satisfy the requirements of mold
fabrication are currently available.24For a CAD/CAM
description of frequently very complicated molds used
in injection molding, three-dimensional CAD software is required. This software will aid in automatic
conversion of drawing data into CAM data and will
use the following equipment: Parts description will be
accomplished with a volume model which defines
complex bodies as an interrelationship of simple, basic
space elements. Moreover, it must be possible to represent penetrations of any surface and the roundness
at these contours. Finally, simple treatment of shrinkage dimensions and draft angles must be possible.
Currently available CAD programs that satisfy this
requirement lack an interface for self-produced CAE
computer programs written, for example, in FORTRAN programming language or they lack suitable
modules for transfer to the widely used CAM-NC
programs. Suppliers of CAD software will certainly
need a few more years to eliminate these difficulties.
When designers of foam, blow, and injection molds
make use of the advantages offered by CAE and CAD,
this will, in the not too distant future, lead to rapid
expansion in the industrial uses of integrated CAE/
CAD/CAM systems.
NOMENCLATURE
Symbol
Meaning
A,
aF
aw
=
=
b
bi
CT
d
E
f
I
=
=
=
-
heat flux in segment i

thermal conductivity of the molding
thermal conductivity of the mold construction
material
distance between the center of the cooling channel
and the molding
distance between cooling channels
width of segment i
coefficient of temperature control quality
cooling channel diameter
modulus of elasticity
deflection
current
VOL. 5 , NO. 2

L
I
P
AP
Q
QK
QKS
QL
QTM
Qu
9W
qk
R
r
S
t
tK
U
V
ww
a9P
4s
QE
6FU
6 U
QTK
6 W
6w.o
Aw
AF
ur
segment length
flow length
pressure
pressure loss
heat flux
convective heat flux
heat flux from polymer
radiant heat flux
heat flux to the cooling medium
heat flux to the environment
heat flux on the outside
convective heat flow on the inside
resistance
radius of flow cross-section
wall thickness of molding (true)
corrected wall thickness
time
cooling time
potential difference
volume flow rate
heat resistance
heat transfer coefficient
temperature
temperature difference
maximum demolding temperature
temperature of molded part
temperature of surroundings
temperature at cooling channel wall
mean mold wall temperature
wall temperature
thermal conductivity of mold construction material
thermal conductivity of the molded part
radial stress
tangential stress
diameter
REFERENCES
1. U. Lichius, doctoral dissertalion, RWTH [Technical University of
Rhein-Westfalen] Aachen, 1983.
2. H. Bangert, doctoral dissertation, RWTH Aachen, 1981.
3. G. Menges and P. Mohren, Anleitung fur den Bau von Spritzgiesswerkzeugen [Guide to the Construction of Injection Molds], Carl Hanser
Verlag, Munich, 1974.
4. U. Lichius, Final Report on Research Project AIF 5634, 1980, File

No. B 8044.
5. G. Menges, U. Lichius, and H. Bangert, Plastverarbeiter. 33(11),
671-676 (1980).
6. L. Schmidt, doctoral dissertation, RWTH Aachen, 1981.
7. U. Masberg, doctoral dissertation, RWTH Aachen. 1982.
8. B. Junk, doctoral dissertation, RWTH Aachen, 1978.
9. K. Beiss, diploma [masters] thesis, IKC, 1978; advisor: K. Junk.
10. G. Wiibken and W.Kemper, papers presented at Designing Injection
Molds with the Aid of Programmable Pocket Calculators, a seminar of the
Society of German Engineers-Plastics [VDI-K], 1983.
11. H. Feichtenbeiner, engineering thesis, IKV, 1982.
12. E. Schiirmann, doctoral dissertation, RWTH Aachen, 1979.
13. 0. Kretzschmar, diploma [masters] thesis, IKV. 1981; advisor: U.
Lichius.
14. S. S . Kutaletadze and V. U. Borishanskii, A Concise Encyclopedia
of Heat Transfer, Pergamon, Oxford, 1966.
15. S. On,unpublished engineering thesis, IKV; advisors: 0. Kretzschmar and T. Schacht.
16. K. Bungeroth, engineering thesis, IKV, 1982; advisor: K. Esser.
17. K. Schwanitz, doctoral dissertation, RWTH Aachen, 1974.
18. H. Schwesig, doctoral dissertation, RWTH Aachen, 1978.
19. U. Miiller, diploma [masters] thesis, IKV, 1983; advisor: 0.
Kretzschmar .
20. Anonymous, ISIS Software Report, Infratest Information Services,
Munich, 1980.
21. P. Steinke, doctoral dissertation, RWTH Aachen, 1982.
22. S. Schruder, diploma [masters] thesis, IKV, 1980; advisor: H. Bangert .
23. H. Cordes, Difference Method for Determining Stress Build-up in
Sleeves, unpublished work conducted at IKV; advisor: H. Bangert.
24. M. Eigner and H. Maier, Einfuhrung und Anwendung von CADSystemen. Leirfaden fur die Praxis [Introduction and Use of CAD Systems.
A Practical Guide], Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich and Vienna, 1982.
25. P. Wurr, Maschinen Werkzeug, Coburg, 9, 2 6 3 0 (1982).
26. H. Grabowski, M. Eigner, and H. D. Hahn, FBIle 29(3), (1980).
27. H. Crabholz and M. Mack, Konstruktion Design, (Mar), 1981.
28. Collective authorship, Three-DimensionalComponent Generation with
PROREN 2, technical bulletin, Isykon Co.
29. P. Patt, H. Prior, and H. Schmeink, Documentation Concerning the
DETAIL 2 System, Science Center Laboratory [WZL], RWTH Aachen,
Feb. 1980.
30. Anonymous, Handbook for Shapes and Molds, Standard Components
Catalog, Hasco Co., Liidenscheid.
31. Anonymous, DME Standard, Standard Components Catalog, DME
Deutschland Neuenstadt Co. (boiling apparatus).
32. Anonymous, Strack Standard Mold Components, Standard Components Catalog, Strack-Norma GmbH, Wuppertal.
33. H. G. Kirschen, Konstruktion Elemenre Methoden, 4, (1981).
34. Anonymous, CAD/CAM System T 2000 from Draft to Finished
Work Piece, technical bulletin, Dietz Technovision, Miilheim Ruhr.
35. Seifert, H., Geometric Conversion of Technological Information for
Three-Dimensionally Recorded Plastic Moldings and Molds, Final Report
on AIF Research Project, 1982.
137

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CAE/CAD in Injection

Th. Schacht, U.Maier, K. Esser, 0.Kretzschmar, and Th. Schmidt

ADVANCES IN POLYMER TECHNOLOGY

mold layout. The chief point of focus here is a system

CAEJCAD IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

signers with no data processing experience can use

molded parts and the increasing number of required

CAEICAD IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

1.2. Designing a Mold and Use of the Computer

receiving and distributing the melt

ADVANCES IN POLYMER TECHNOLOGY

OueQ of molded peR

Depending on the requirements to be placed on the

CAEICAD IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

same pressure requirements

short demolding times

The variety of requirements placed on the mold

information concerning the position and number of

Energy balance for

ADVANCES IN POLYMER TECHNOLOGY

CAEJCAD IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

Pocket calculator with nrinter

- Programming in interpreter languages

- Comprehensive calculations are possible

Mainframe commter with

- Programming in compiler language

- Very high memory capacity

1.3. Computer Types and Use Areas

CAEICAD IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

2. COMPUTATION PROGRAMS FOR

2.1. Rheological Design

ADVANCES IN POLYMER TECHNOLOGY

Blow Molding (Parison Formation)

The development of use programs for flow design

CAEICAD IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

Many investigators have recommended the use of

CAEJCAD IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

ADVANCES IN POLYMER TECHNOLOGY

CAEICAD IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

Thus, the body is filled in 0.4781 s, the required

where D = disk and P = plate. Up to the fourth

CAEICAD IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

where D = disk and P = plate.

ADVANCES IN POLYMER TECHNOLOGY

The pressure requirement as a function of filling

CAEJCAD IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

different molds. Here, computer programs can be used

sure drop, the temperature and shear stress must be

For these uses, therefore, balancing is an important

CAEICAD IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

Initial studies, however, show that at least the filling

ADVANCES IN POLYMER TECHNOLOGY

hllrog paltern rnelhod

CAEICAD IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

2.1.3. Blow Molding

Here, the objective of rheological mold design is to

left of the insert, because of the smaller wall thickness

CAEKAD IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING

2.2. Thermal Design

The quality of the molding surface is affected by

coefficient of cooling quality

The lower limit of this coefficient can be determined

CAEfCALl IN INJECTION, BLOW, AND FOAM MOLDING