PERPETUATION OF LIFE:

Cell Cycle and Cell Divisions

Do you know that 28 days
from now, every single
layer of skin that covers
your body will all be gone
and replaced by a set of
completely new ones?
And that you began as a
single cell called a zygote?
The zygote is the product of
the union of your fathers
sperm and your mothers
egg cells. It is but one
tenth of a millimetre. How
did you reach the size you
now have? Thats the
question!!!
For multicellular organisms
like you, cell division, which
causes an increase in cell
number, can lead to
growth or repair of
damaged body parts.
For unicellular organisms
like protozoa and simple
algae, cell division is a
form of asexual

reproduction that produces

new individuals.
Therefore cell division is
as important as life itself
without which life cannot be
continued.

chromosomes) is passed on
to the daughter cells.
Mitosis ensures that each
daughter cell receives a
complete set of
chromosomes.

FUNCTIONS OF CELL DIVISION:

MITOSIS: Making Copies of

Itself
Allows one parent cell to
divide in order to produce
two new daughter cells.
Every time a cell divides, it
must ensure that a complete
and faithful copy of genetic
information found in the
DNA (packaged into

Every part of your body,

every cell in your skin,
muscle or blood, originated
from but one cell and hence
contains identical sets of
chromosomes and copies of
genetic information.

 Cells go through a cycle of

alternating stages of
division and rest from
division.
The non-dividing stage is
called INTERPHASE, which
is devoted largely to cell
growth.
Most actively dividing cells
spend some 90 percent of
their time at interphase.
When cells divide, two parts
may be involved namely:
the nucleus and the
cytoplasm.
In mitosis, nuclear division
involves four stages
namely, prophase,
metaphase, anaphase
and telophase.
CYTOPLASMIC DIVISION,
also called as cytokinesis,
may or may not occur.
If it does, it happens
simultaneously with the last
stage of nuclear division
and uninucleate

daughter cells (cells with

one nucleus each) are
produced.
If cytokinesis does not
follow nuclear division, cells
become multinucleate, or
contain more than one
nucleus.
Epithelial cells on the inner
linings of your cheek and
walls of your digestive
organs are made up of
uninucleate cells. The
cells of your skeletal
muscles, on the other hand,
are multinucleate.

When cells divide faster

than they should, they may
develop into cancerous
growth.
When cell divide too slowly,
wounds take a while to
heal, damaged tissues are
not repaired soon enough.
If the nerve cells in our
brain ceased to divide, this
results to memory loss.

STAGES OF THE CELL CYCLE:

Some cells complete this

cycle of interphase and
mitosis within 24 hours,
while others may take years
before they go through the
process of cell division.

INTERPHASE is the stage

between two successive
cell divisions.

However, cell division may

not always go on as it
normally should. Some
cells may divide too fast,
while others may divide too
slowly or not at all.

Gap 1

Interphase includes three

phases and are as follows:

Synthesis phase
Gap 2
INTERPHASE (GROWTH
PHASE)

 Gap 1 (G1) phase is the

period when the cell
increases in size in
preparation for cell division.
Synthesis (S) phase is
the period during which the
DNA is synthesized and
chromosomes are
duplicated.
Each strand of the
double stranded
chromosome
produced is called a
sister chromatid.
Gap 2 (G2) phase is the
period when the cell
synthesizes proteins and
continues to increase in
size.

PROPHASE is when
chromosomes coil up into
rod shaped structures,
nucleoli and nuclear
membrane disappear.
Prophase:
o

chromosomes condense

nuclear envelope
disappears

centrioles move to opposite

ends of the cell

Spindle fibers are formed

Although DNA
synthesis is confined
to a narrow window
at S phase, the
synthesis of
organelles occurs
throughout
interphase.

MITOSIS (NUCLEAR DIVISION)

METAPHASE involves the

alignment of the double
stranded chromosomes at
the equatorial plate, with
the kinetochores attaching
the chromosomes to the
spindle fibers.
ANAPHASE begins with the
division of the kinetochores
and ends with the migration
of single stranded
chromosomes to the poles.
TELOPHASE is also known
as reverse prophase,

hence involves the

uncoiling of chromosomes,
re-appearance of the
nucleoli and nuclear
membrane and
disappearance of the
spindle fibers.
CYTOKINESIS in plant cells
involves the formation of a
cell plate that eventually
develops into the cell wall
and the middle lamella.
On the other hand,
cytoplasmic division in
animal cells occurs with the
formation of a cleavage
furrow.
MEIOSIS: Reduction in
Chromosome Number
SOMATIC CELLS = body
cells
Cells of the human body
contain 46 chromosomes
while body cells of fruit
flies, cats and dogs have 8
chromosomes, 38
chromosomes and 78
chromosomes, respectively.

 Prior to nuclear division,

particularly during mitosis,
each chromosome is copied
or replicated and allowed
the resulting daughter cells
to remain diploid (have
two sets of chromosomes).
Aside from the somatic
cells, our body has another
group of cells called the
reproductive cells.
These cells are destined to
become either mature
sperms or eggs and have
their way to reduce the
chromosome number into
half (haploid as opposed
to diploid).
This process is called
meiosis, which is designed
to produce gametes or
sex cells.
MEIOSIS makes a possible
way of conserving the
chromosome number from
generation to generation.
On the other hand, doubling
of chromosome sets in

zygote, to become diploid,

was facilitated upon the
union of functional mature
sperm and egg during
fertilization.
HOMOLOGUE = has the
same length and shape
resembles each other.
Homologous chromosomes
have the same set of genes
that may carry different
allele or alternative form of
genes on the same
position.
By lining up, the
homologous
chromosomes sets into
pairs. Human body cells
have two sets of 23
chromosomes.
Virtually, each set is
inherited separately from
male and female parents.
In humans, the first 22 pairs
are called somatic
chromosomes while the
remaining pair refers to sex
chromosomes.

Two different sex

chromosomes may be
present in males that is X
and Y chromosomes while
two similar X (XX)
chromosomes are present
in females.
STAGES OF MEIOSIS
Unlike mitotic cell division,
meiosis occurs in two
distinct phases, meiosis I
and meiosis II, wherein no
DNA replication happened
as the second phase
commences.
This stage between the end
and the beginning of two
phases is known as
interkinesis.
During maturation of the
sex cells from both parents,
homologous chromosomes
had a chance to exchange
genetic materials during
meiosis I.
Specifically, this happened
at prophase I, wherein the
coiled and shorten

chromosomes paired with

their respective
homologues to form
synapse.
Each homologous pair is so
close with each other
forming a tetrad, which
looks like only one
chromosome.
At some points between the
sister chromatids from each
homologue overlapped and
known as chiasmata.
These are the points
wherein crossing-over of
genetic information occurs
between the two non-sister
chromatids from each
tetrad.
This event follows slight
separation of the non-sister
chromatids revealing the
chiasma, the point where
genetic recombination
happened.
At this point, separation of
chiasma towards the end of
tetrad continues while the

nuclear envelop breaks

down and spindle fibers
begin to interact with the
tetrad.
PROPHASE I
Chromosomes begin to
condense, and homologs
loosely pair along their
lengths. aligned gene by
gene.
Crossing over (the
exchange of corresponding
segments of DNA molecules
by non sister chromatids) is
completed while homologs
are in synapsis, held
tightly together by proteins
along their lengths.
Synapsis ends in midprophase. and the
chromosomes in each pair
move apart slightly.
Each homologous pair has
one or more chiasmata,
points where crossing over
has occurred and the
homologs are still
associated due to cohesion

between sister chromatids

(sister chromatid
cohesion).
Centrosome movement,
spindle formation, and
nuclear envelope
breakdown occur as in
mitosis.
In late prophase I,
microtubules from one pole
or the other attach to the
two kinetochores, protein
structures at the
centromeres of the two
homologs. The homologous
pairs then move toward the
metaphase plate.

METAPHASE I
Pairs of homologous
chromosomes are now
arranged on the metaphase
plate, with one
chromosome in each pair
facing each pole.

 Both chromatids of one

homolog are attached to
kinetochore microtubules
from one pole; those of the
other homolog are attached
to microtubules from the
opposite pole.
ANAPHASE I
Breakdown of proteins
responsible for sister
chromatid cohesion along
chromatid arms allows
homologs to separate.
The homologs move toward
opposite poles. guided by
the spindle apparatus.
Sister chromatid cohesion
persists at the centromere,
causing chromatids to
move as a unit toward the
same pole.

TELOPHASE I and
CYTOKINESIS
At the beginning of
telophase I, each half of the

cell has a complete haploid

set of replicated
chromosomes. Each
chromosome is composed
of two sister chromatids;
one or both chromatids
include regions of non sister
chromatid DNA.
Cytokinesis (division of the
cytoplasm) usually occurs
simultaneously with
telophase I. forming two
haploid daughter cells.
In animal cells, a cleavage
furrow forms. (In plant cells,
a cell plate forms.)
In some species,
chromosomes decondense
and the nuclear envelope
re-forms.
No replication occurs
between meiosis I and
meiosis II.
A short stage between
telophase I and prophase I
happened but no synthesis
of genetic material occurs.

Each daughter cell is

independently undergoing
meiosis II that resembles
the different stages of
mitosis. Thus, the haploid
chromosome number of
each daughter cell remains
haploid at the end of
meiosis II that forms a total
of four haploid cells at the
end of meiosis II.
MEIOSIS II
PROPHASE II
A spindle apparatus forms.
In late prophase II,
chromosomes, each still
composed of two
chromatids associated at
the centromere, move
toward the metaphase II
plate.
METAPHASE II
The chromosomes are
positioned on the
metaphase plate as in
mitosis.

 Because of crossing over in

meiosis I, the two sister
chromatids of each
chromosome are not
genetically identical.
The kinetochores of sister
chromatids are attached to
microtubules extending
from opposite poles.

haploid set of un-replicated

chromosomes.
Each of the four daughter
cells is genetically distinct
from the other daughter
cells and from the parent
cell.

ANAPHASE II
Breakdown of proteins
holding the sister
chromatids together at the
centromere allows the
chromatids to separate. The
chromatids move toward
opposite poles as individual
chromosomes.
TELOPHASE II AND
CYTOKINESIS
Nuclei form, the
chromosomes begin
decondensing, and
cytokinesis occurs.
The meiotic division of one
parent cell produces four
daughter cells, each with a

LIFE CYCLES and MEIOSIS

Mitosis as a type of cell
division responsible for
growth, repair of tissues
and in some cases the
formation of new organisms
.
The significant feature of
mitosis was that the
chromosome number did
not change during the
division so that the
daughter cells carried the
same number of
chromosomes as the parent
cell.

In contrast, meiosis is
summarized as resulting in
daughter cells with half the
chromosome number of the
parent cell and is thus often
referred to as a reduction
division.
In animals, meiosis is
directly responsible for the
production of sex cells or
gametes. In plants, meiosis
leads to a haploid stage,
the spore, which later gives
rise to a multicellular
haploid gametophyte,
which in turn produces
gametes.
Eventually a mating
process leads to the fusion
of male and female
gametes or syngamy
resulting in a cell known as
a zygote. The zygote will
have the 2n or diploid
chromosome number in its
nucleus. Development of
the zygote through mitosis
results in the formation of
the mature organism.

GENETICS AND
INHERITANCE
Why do sexually
reproduced organisms look
the way they do?
How much of the genes of
each parent cell were
passed to the offspring?
What is the chance that a
human being can inherit
the disease of his parents?
WHAT IS GENETICS?
Genetics is the science of
heredity and variation.
Heredity pertains to the
transmission of traits called
genes, from parent to
offspring in the course of
reproduction.
Variation refers to the
differences among species.
The ideas and methods of
inheritance were initiated
by Gregor Mendel
through his experiments
using the garden pea.

He discovered the
existence of discrete
hereditary elements and
the rules in determining
their transmission from
parent to offspring.
MENDELS LAW OF
INHERITANCE
Mendels first law is called
the law of segregation.
It affirms the existence of a
pair of factors that control
each trait.
These traits must separate
at gamete formation and
randomly fused together at
fertilization.
This theory gave us the
idea that the concept of
hereditary factors as
discrete physical entities
are not blended or altered
when present in the same
individual.
The law applies only to
diploid organisms that form

haploid gametes during

sexual reproduction.
Moreover, it applies only to
traits controlled exclusively
by a single gene pair in
which one of the two alleles
is dominant over the other.
Mendels second law, called
the law of independent
assortment, expresses the
concept that traits are
inherited independently.
It generally shows the way
how one pair of factors
assorts independently
during gamete formation.
This law applies only to
gene pairs on different
pairs of homologous
chromosomes.
That is, one gene pair on
one pair of homologous
chromosomes and the other
gene pair on another pair of
homologous chromosomes

THE GENE AND INFORMATION

PROCESSING IN THE CELL:
A gene is a unit of
information that directs the
activity of a cell or
organism during its lifetime.
It passes the message
along the progeny when a
cell or organism divides or
reproduces.
For this reason, the gene is
also a unit of inheritance.
In the classic experiments
of George Beadle and
Edward Tatum, the gene
was shown to carry
information required to
make a single enzyme or,
as the hypothesis was later
modified, a single protein.
Actually, a single gene
carries the information for
the synthesis of a single
polypeptide chain,
whereas many proteins
consist of a number of
polypeptide chains.

In the classic experiments

of George Beadle and
Edward Tatum, the gene
was shown to carry
information required to
make a single enzyme or,
as the hypothesis was later
modified, a single protein.
Actually, a single gene
carries the information for
the synthesis of a single
polypeptide chain,
whereas many proteins
consist of a number of
polypeptide chains.
The complex activities of
single cell and multicellular
organisms are controlled
and guided by set of genes
in the chromosomes.
Essentially, the blueprints
contain information for
synthesis of the species
proteins.
Since proteins make up
both cytoarchitechture and
the enzymes direct
metabolism, the nature of

proteins made will

determine the structural
and functional
characteristics of the cell or
organism.
DNA can explain the entire
agenda of information
encoding, processing,
replication and modification
of a cell.
DNA is a blueprint that
directs the destiny of a cell
during its lifetime.
It is also the material of
immortality since DNA
passes from generation to
the next in order to
maintain genetic continuity
between the parent and the
progeny.
DNA creates a messenger
molecule of complementary
structure rather than
perform the job of creating
proteins directly.
The necessity of using a
messenger lies in the
importance of DNA, the

primary gene material, and

the dangers that lurk in the
cytoplasm where protein
synthesis occurs.
Although DNA is a relatively
stable, it can be degraded
by enzyme DNAses or
altered by changes in its
immediate environment.
Just as a soldier does not
enter the thick of battle
during a war, DNA is
sequestered behind the
lines of nuclear membrane.
It is a protected site to
produce one, none or many
copies of messenger
molecule that will affect the
production of specific
protein.
The production of a
messenger molecule from a
DNA template is called
transcription.
The messenger molecule is
a particular species of RNA
called messenger RNA
(mRNA).

The mRNA will later join

with the ribosomes of the
cytoplasm and some other
accessory molecules to
synthesize a protein. This
step is called translation.
Thus, the specialized
information or code for the
assembling of amino acids
into a protein is first
transcribed from DNA onto
an RNA and then translated
into a protein.
The DNA itself undergoes
replication whenever a cell
divides so that the
information of one
generation may be passed
along to every member of
the next generation.
A high fidelity is required
during the process of
encoding information and
transmitting that
information to assemble
protein and replicate the
blueprint.

If the message becomes

garbled at any step, lack of
coherency in proteins will
occur.
However, some changes in
message is possible within
the conservative nature of
information apparatus.
The production of a
messenger molecule from a
DNA template is called
transcription.
The messenger molecule is
a particular species of RNA
called messenger RNA
(mRNA).
The mRNA will later join
with the ribosomes of the
cytoplasm and some other
accessory molecules to
synthesize a protein. This
step is called translation.
Thus, the specialized
information or code for the
assembling of amino acids
into a protein is first
transcribed from DNA onto

an RNA and then translated

into a protein.
The DNA itself undergoes
replication whenever a cell
divides so that the
information of one
generation may be passed
along to every member of
the next generation.
A high fidelity is required
during the process of
encoding information and
transmitting that
information to assemble
protein and replicate the
blueprint.
If the message becomes
garbled at any step, lack of
coherency in proteins will
occur.
However, some changes in
message is possible within
the conservative nature of
information apparatus.
Physical alteration in the
substructure of DNA leads
to changes in the coded

sequence called
mutations.
These mutations provide
new genetic sequences to
be tested in the course of
evolutionary modifications.
TYPES OF MUTATION:
MODIFICATION OF
INFORMATION
The message in DNA is read
in terms of the linear array
of bases in one direction
along the coding strand.
Each word or codon is
consists of triplet of bases.
For instance ACT, TAG and
CAT.
A change in the sequence
of triplet codons is termed
as mutation.
Addition of an extra
base.
This insertion of an extra
base drops the reading
frame one letter back from
the point of insertion and

thus change all the codons

subsequent to it.
It can be in two forms:
If the insertion occurs in the
beginning of the gene
message, it will probably
halt production of the
protein. This is the kind of
mutation that may underlie
a number of genetic
diseases in human, which
an enzyme is missing.
Should the insertion occur
towards the end of the
gene tape, then only
one or several terminal
amino acids would be
affected and a functional
but slightly altered protein
would be produced.
For example, CCT GGA GGA
may change to CCA TGG
GGA G. This is commonly
occurred in the retroviruses,
which probably explain the
fast emerging of their new
strains.

 Deletion of a base from

a gene.

A similar shift in the reading

frame would occur if a base
were deleted from the
gene.
In this case, the reading
frame would advance one
letter and all the
subsequent codons would
be changed.
In this type of mutation,
there is a strong probability
that no functional protein
would be produced.
For example, it could have
no effect and/or helpful or it
could be fatal if it leads to
malformation or lack of
production of the important
proteins.
Should the insertion occur
towards the end of the
gene tape, then only
one or several terminal
amino acids would be

affected and a functional

but slightly altered protein
would be produced.
For example, CCT GGA GGA
may change to CCA TGG
GGA G. This is commonly
occurred in the retroviruses,
which probably explain the
fast emerging of their new
strains.

A similar shift in the reading

frame would occur if a base
were deleted from the
gene.
In this case, the reading
frame would advance one
letter and all the
subsequent codons would
be changed.
In this type of mutation,
there is a strong probability
that no functional protein
would be produced.
For example, it could have
no effect and/or helpful or it
could be fatal if it leads to

malformation or lack of
production of the important
proteins.
Substitution, is a type of
mutation in which one base
is substituted for another.
This type of mutation is
less likely to eradicate the
synthesis of a protein.
In such an event, an amino
acid is substituted for
another, because only a
single codon is changed.
If the new amino acid is
similar in its properties to
the original one, no damage
would be expected to
result.
Example, in humans, the
blood disease sickle-cell
anaemia is caused by the
substitution of valine for
the usual glutamine.
Although only one base
substitution and one amino
acid change occur, the
properties of valine are

sufficiently different from

those of the glutamine that
haemoglobin produced
cannot adequately carry
out its oxygen transport
function.
The agents that cause
mutations are known as
mutagens.
Among the most potent of
mutagens are various
chemical and ionizing
radiation, such as x-rays
and cosmic rays; alpha,
beta and gamma rays,
which are ionizing radiant
produced by a variety of
radioactive elements.
Ultraviolet light, which is
a high-energy radiation,
although not energetic
enough to strip electrons
from an atom.
GENETIC ENGINEERING
Refers to a broad group of
procedures by which the
machinery of genetic

information is intentionally
altered.
The biologist becomes an
engineer and reconstructs
the DNA molecule or the
whole genome within the
nucleus for purposes of
ameliorating specific
genetic diseases or gaining
a better understanding of
the genetic apparatus.
DNA RECOMBINANT
PROCEDURES
The best known examples
of genetic engineering.
DNA from a foreign
organism, usually an
entirely different species, is
introduced to and
integrated with an existing
genome.
A new, hybrid genome is
obtained with
characteristics of the donor
organism reflected in the
recipient.

For recombinant DNA

studies, the major tools are
restriction enzymes,
plasmids and viruses.
Restriction enzymes
were isolated and act like a
pair of scissors to permit
the DNA to be cut at
precise regions.
A plasmid is a small
circular piece of DNA lying
outside the chromosome in
bacteria and some yeast.
It may contain a single
gene, a few genes or many
genes.
In many bacteria the
plasmid contains genes that
confer resistance to many
kinds of antibiotics
In one recombinant
technique, foreign DNA is
incubated with plasmids
that have been opened by
restriction enzymes.
These enzymes create in
the plasmids sticky

ends that readily permit a

reassembling of DNA
strands.
The foreign DNA is
incorporated into the
plasmids, which then close
and are taken up by
recipient bacteria.
When the bacteria divide,
the plasmid undergoes
replication and passes on to
each daughter cell.
Another technique for
bringing foreign DNA into a
bacterium is the use of
viral particles as a
vector.
Viral DNA is incubated
with foreign DNA fragments
and incorporates this
foreign DNA into its
genome.
The virus then invades a
bacterial cell and integrates
its total genome, foreign
and viral DNA, into bacterial
chromosome.

This technique is called

transduction.

GENETIC ENGINEERING
INVOLVING THE WHOLE
GENOME
Has been carried out in the
union of nuclei from
different species.

CLONING

Usually the chromosomes

of one species remain
functional, while those of
the other species tend to
break down.

A technique in which many

copies of a single gene,
chromosome or whole
individual may be
produced.

However, some
chromosomes of the second
species may continue to
function within the
combined nucleus

Non-reproductive
tissues are used in cloning
entire individuals thus,
sexual recombination is not
involved.

These experiments are

most useful for delineating
the specific functions of the
genes on the few
chromosomes of the second
species that continue to
function.

Cloning in carrots for

instance, was carried out by
using fully differentiated
cells from the vascular
tissue of the plant, which
are ordinarily not capable of
producing a new organism.

 By manipulating the
medium in which these
cells were grown, mature
cells were retuned to the
embryonic conditions in
which they could produce
all the components of a
new carrot.
In the case of vertebrates,
the cloning of frogs has
been achieved, but only by
placing nuclei of mature
cells into eggs of the
organism from which the
transplanted nucleus was
taken.
The only purpose of the egg
cytoplasm seems to
provide, is a hospitable
environment for growth and
development.
With advancing technology,
scientists have been able to
successfully clone small
animals such as mice and
have recently cloned an
adult mammal.

PLANT FORMS and

FUNCTIONS:
Cell shape varies in both
plants and animals.
The shape of the cell is
highly correlated to its
function, location and its
relationship with other
cells.
For example, the tubular
shape of the xylem is
located from the tip of the

roots to the tip of the leaf

blade, which generally
functions to transport water
all over the plant body.
In animals, the spherical
shape of the red blood
cells (RBC) allows faster
rate of circulation within the
blood vessels for quick
exchange of gaseous
materials (carbon dioxideoxygen) needed by the
other cells throughout the
body.
In multicellular organisms,
similar cells are organized
into loose sheets or bundles
and perform a specific
function. These groups of
cells are called tissues
which are further arranged
in discrete structures of
definite shape known as
organs.
Organs carry out specific
function within the
organism.

A number of organs may be

associated to form an
organ system.
PLANT TISSUES
Plant tissues are classified
into general classifications:
meristematic and
permanent tissues.
Meristematic tissues are
found at the growing ends
of roots and stems as well
as in the peripheral areas of
stems. These tissues have
the tendency to contain
undifferentiated, small and
compact cells.
Permanent tissues are
made of differentiated cells
that can be further grouped
into as lining tissues,
fundamental tissues and
vascular tissues.
Lining tissues are
generally called as
epidermis.

This is a thin-walled layer of

cells that is used for
protection.

On some epidermal layers,

a thick cuticle of wax is
secreted to prevent water
loss of the plant.

In some older plants, the

surface of the roots and
stems consist of a tissue
made-up of several corky
cells that are resistant to
water called periderm.

Fundamental tissues are

located at the interior of the
plant. This kind of tissue is
further classified into three:
parenchyma,
collenchyma and
sclerenchyma.
The most abundant and
widely distributed are the
parenchyma, which is
characterized by a thinwalled cells and highly
diffuse in arrangement.
Most of the tissues that you
eat in the fruit, roots of the

carrots and stem of the

potato are made of
parenchyma cells.
PARENCHYMA
Mature parenchyma cells
have primary walls that are
relatively thin and flexible,
and most lack secondary
walls.
When mature, parenchyma
cells generally have a large
central vacuole.
Diagrams of "typical" plant
cells often depict
parenchyma cells because
they are the least
specialized structurally.
Parenchyma cells perform
most of the metabolic
functions of the plant,
synthesizing and storing
various organic products.
For example,
photosynthesis occurs
within the chloroplasts of
parenchyma cells in the
leaf. Some parenchyma

cells in stems and roots

have colorless plastids that
store starch.
The fleshy tissue of many
fruits is composed mainly of
parenchyma cells. Most
parenchyma cells retain the
ability to divide and
differentiate into other
types of plant cells under
particular conditions-during
wound repair, for example.
It is even possible for
scientists to grow an entire
plant from a single
parenchyma cell.
Cells with irregular
thickening make up the
collechyma that makes
the stem of the pechay
hard to chew.

Sclerenchyma, on the
other hand is made of thickwalled cells that impart
structural support for the
plant.

This may form a fibrous

layer that can also exist as
the hard part of many seed
shells and pits.
The gritty particles that you
can feel in your mouth
when you eat the fruits of
chico or pear are actually
sclerenchyma cells.

COLLENCHYMA
Grouped in strands or
cylinders, collenchyma
cells help support young
parts of the plant shoot.
Collenchyma cells have
thicker primary walls than
parenchyma cells, though
the walls are unevenly
thickened.
Young stems and petioles
often have strands of
collenchyma cells just
below their epidermis (for
example, the "strings" of a

celery stalk, which is a

petiole).
Collenchyma cells lack
secondary walls, and the
hardening agent lignin is
absent from their primary
walls.
Therefore, these cells
provide flexible support
without restraining growth.
At maturity, collenchyma
cells are living and flexible,
elongating with the stems
and leaves they supportunlike sclerenchyma cells.

SCLERENCHYMA
Also functioning as
supporting elements in the
plant, but with thick
secondary walls that are
usually strengthened by
lignin, sclerenchyma cells
are much more rigid than
collenchyma cells.

Mature sclerenchyma cells

cannot elongate, and they
occur in regions of the plant
that have stopped growing
in length.
Sclerenchyma cells are so
specialized for support that
many are dead at
functional maturity, but
they produce secondary
walls before the protoplast
(the living part of the cell)
dies.
The rigid walls remain as a
"skeleton" that supports
the plant, in some cases for
hundreds of years.
Two types of sclerenchyma
cells, known as sclereids
and fibers, are specialized
entirely for support and
strengthening.
Sclereids which are
shorter than fibers and
irregular in shape, have
very thick, lignified
secondary walls.

Sclereids impart the

hardness to nutshells and
seed coats and the gritty
texture to pear fruits.
Fibers, which are usually
arranged in threads, are
long, slender, and tapered.
Some are used
commercially, such as
hemp fibers for making
rope and flax fibers for
weaving into linen.
The vascular tissues are
primarily the xylem and
phloem.
Xylem serves as a
continuous passageway for
the transport of water and
dissolved solutes in an
upward direction. Xylem
loses their living material
upon maturity but still
retain its function.
Phloem transports the food
within the plant body until it
remains alive to perform its
function.

GENERAL BODY PLAN

Plants are eukaryotic,
multicellular,
photosynthetic and nonmotile organisms.
This includes the
angiosperms (flowering
plants), gymnosperms
(cone-bearing plants),
ferns and bryophytes
(mosses and liverworts).

The shoot system

includes all the plant
structures above the
ground, which can be
grouped as vegetative and
reproductive parts.
Vegetative parts consist
of the stems and leaves
Reproductive parts
include flowers, fruits and
seeds

Green algae has recently

included under the plant
kingdom.

MONOCOT AND DICOT

A typical plant body of an

angiosperm is generally
divided into two major
systems namely, root
system and shoot system.

ROOTS

The root system is

generally found below the
ground although some have
modifications to grow
above the ground like those
found in orchids
(epiphytes).

PARTS OF A TYPICAL PLANT

The roots is a cylindrical

structure that originated
from the radicle (embryonic
root).
This generally developed
into tap or fibrous root
type system.
Tap root has distinct
primary root

Fibrous root, the primary

root is not well distinct from
the secondary roots.
A root is typically a nongreen structure usually
found beneath the surface
of the soil.
Plant roots are typically
used for their anchorage in
the substratum.
It is also used for
absorption of water and
inorganic salts to continue
their metabolic activities.
Other roots are modified to
perform other functions
such as:
support (brace, prop and
clinging roots)
food storage (enlarged
roots of carrots and sweet
potatoes)
photosynthesis (green
aerial roots of orchids)
reproduction
(adventitious roots)

 protection (with presence

of spines).
MODIFIED ROOTS
STEMS
Stem is the continuation of
the root above the soil.
There is no sharp
demarcation line that exists
between the root and the
stems.
Generally, stems conduct
water and minerals from
the roots to other parts of
the plant. It is also the site
of production and support
of the leaves.
Stems also perform
photosynthesis (with green
pigments) and storage of
food materials.
Stem can be considered as
herbaceous if it is
generally soft and green,
short-lived and with
stomata-bearing epidermis.

The monocot groups mostly

have this kind of stem (i.e.
grasses, rice and corn).
On the other hand, it is said
to be woody if it is hard
and generally covered with
cork.
Shrubs and trees, typically
dicots, possess this kind of
stem.
Externally, the swollen part
of the stem is called node,
where branches, buds and
leaves originate.
Internode is the portion of
the stem between two
nodes.
At the tip of the stem,
underdeveloped structures
that typically give rise into
leaves, shoots or flowers is
located and known as
buds.
Leaf axil is the angle
formed between the stem
and petiole of the leaf.

When the leaf has fallen,

the mark that remains in
the stem is called leaf
scar. In some cases,
especially in herbaceous
stems, pores may be
located on the stem called
lenticels that function for
gaseous exchange.
Externally, the swollen part
of the stem is called node,
where branches, buds and
leaves originate.
Internode is the portion of
the stem between two
nodes.
At the tip of the stem,
underdeveloped structures
that typically give rise into
leaves, shoots or flowers is
located and known as
buds.
Leaf axil is the angle
formed between the stem
and petiole of the leaf.
When the leaf has fallen,
the mark that remains in
the stem is called leaf

scar. In some cases,

especially in herbaceous
stems, pores may be
located on the stem called
lenticels that function for
gaseous exchange.
LEAVES

composed of vascular
tissues.
Petiole it is the
cylindrical stalk or
sometimes appeared as
narrow structure that
supports the blade.

A leaf is an expanded,
dorso-ventrally flattened
structure attached to the
node of the stem.

Stipules this are typically

an outgrowth found at the
base of the petiole in dicot
plants.

It is usually contains the

green pigment
(chlorophyll), although
other plants have other
color pigment like yellow
(xantophyll) and orange
(carotene), that primarily
use for photosynthesis.

Ligules sheet-like
extension at the base of the
leaf blade of monocot
plants.

A typical leaf has the following

parts:
Leaf blade it is also
called as lamina and refers
to the thin, flattened part of
the leaf. The lamina is
characterized by the
presence of veins

FLOWER
A flower is defined as a
modified twig, which is
derived from a bud.
It is highly adapted for
reproduction (sexual) thus
producing fruit and seeds
(perpetuation of species).
A typical flower is
composed of two main

parts namely essential

parts and accessory parts.
Essential parts are divided
into two main types
namely, pistil and stamen.
Pistil the female
reproductive part that
consists of the following:
a. Stigma enlarged tip with
opening and function for
acceptance of the pollen
grains
b. Style slender, tube-like
part above the ovary where
matured pollen grain
traverses
c. Ovary the swollen basal
portion containing ovules
Stamen the male
reproductive part that
consists of the following:
a. Anther the site for pollen
grain production
b. Filament the stalk that
supports the anther

 On the other hand,

accessory parts do not
participate directly during
reproduction but highly
contribute to the success of
fertilization in plants.
Sepals commonly greencolored, leaf-like parts that
form the outermost floral
whorl; collectively known as
calyx.
Petals it forms the floral
whorl next to the sepals;
collectively known as
corolla.
If the flower possesses all
the essential and accessory
parts, it is said to be
complete flower,
otherwise an incomplete
flower.
Incomplete flower that only
contain the female parts
are called pistillate flower
while staminate flower if
only the male parts are
observed in the flower.

In cases that staminate and

pistillate flowers are found
in separate plant body, it is
said to be dioecious.
Plants with both staminate
and pistillate flowers are
also known as
monoecious.
Pollination is the transfer
of pollen grains from anther
to the stigma of the same
flower.
Before pollination, the
pollen grain mother cell and
the egg mother cell must
undergo meiosis.

Double fertilization
occurs in plants, one sperm
nucleus fertilized the
matured egg while the
other sperm nucleus
fertilized the two polar
cells.
After fertilization, the seed
that houses an immature
plant develops and
becomes enclosed in a
protective structure called
fruit.
A fruit is the ripened ovary
and the seed is the
matured ovule.

Pollen grains become

haploid and then divide
mitotically two times
producing tube nucleus and
two sperm nuclei.
The haploid egg cell
produces an eightnucleated embryo sac.
This is followed by
fertilization, the union of
male and female gametes.

PLANTS BASIC PHYSIOLOGIC

ACTIVITIES
Plants are generally
autotrophs and obtain raw
materials from their
environment.

 Water and dissolved

minerals from soil move
into roots in the root hair
region.
Nutrients then move
through the cortex and into
the stele via endodermis.
From the stele, most
minerals moved along with
water in xylem, which is
continuous throughout the
plant.
In contrast, animals are
heterotrophic, meaning
that they must obtain their
food (pre-fabricated organic
compounds) from the
environment.
They cannot manufacture
their own food.
Examples of heterotrophs
include mycotrophs
(plants that obtain their
nutrient source from a
fungus like Indian pipes
(Monotropa), decomposers
(fungi, bacteria),
carnivores, and herbivores.

Some parasitic plants

(holoparasites like dodder
(Cuscuta) and dwarf
mistletoe that lack
chlorophyll are obligate
heterotrophs that can only
obtain their nutrients from
another plant.
Other parasites, like
mistletoe (Phoradendron)
and Indian paintbrush are
green and can make their
own organic compounds
but obtain water and
minerals from a host plant
(Hershey).
Finally, some plants, like
the carnivorous species,
feed both autotrophically
and heterotrophically.
In this condition, plants
need to be efficient in
obtaining and conserving
water for their cells and
tissues.
Plants contain about 80% to
90% water but the daily
amount that plant needs for

growth and maintenance of

tissue is small compared to
the amount lost during
guttation (loss of liquids
from the ends of the
vascular tissues in the
margin of the leaf) and
transpiration (evaporation
of water from the plant
surface).
If the water loss from
leaves is not replaced by
the water transported up
from the roots, the plant
wilt and die.
Water diffuses out of the
plant during transpiration
through the stomata.
Most of the water absorbed
by roots is lost by
transpiration.
During the transpiration,
energy from the sun
evaporates water from cell
walls.
Although this results in a
movement of water in the
xylem, this energy is

neither stored nor used to

bring about vital reactions
involved in the synthesis of
foods, in assimilation,
growth and reproduction.
Water may also evaporate
through cuticle of the leaf
(cuticular transpiration) or

through the lenticels in the

stem (lenticular
transpiration).
The water lost in the two
pathways is considerably
smaller than that through
the stomates.