MUHAMMAD
SOHAIL
AHMAD
BASIC ELECTRONIC
PROFESSOR:
SAAD
MASOOD
What is Inductor?
Theory of Inductor
A current through a conductor produces a magnetic field surround
it. The strength of this field depends upon the value of current
passing through the conductor. The direction of the magnetic field is
found using the right hand grip rule, which shown. The flux pattern
for this magnetic field would be number of concentric circle
perpendicular to the detection of current. Now if we wound the
conductor in form of a coil or solenoid, it can be assumed that there
will be concentric circular flux lines for each individual turn of the
coil as shown. But it is not possible practically, as if concentric
circular flux lines for each individual turn exist, they will intersect
each other. However, since lines of flux cannot intersect, the flux
lines for individual turn will distort to form complete flux loops
around the whole coil as shown. This flux pattern of a current
Mutual Inductance
Inductance due to the current, through the circuit itself is called self
this whole of the flux links with second coil, the weber-turn in the
second coil would be N21 due to current i1 in the first coil. From
this, it can be said, (N21)/i1 is the weber-turn of the second coil due
to unit current in the first coil. This term is defined as co-efficient of
mutual inductance. That means, mutual inductance between two
coils or circuits is defined as the weber-turns in one coil or circuit
due to 1 A current in the other coil or circuit.
Formula or Equation of Mutual Inductance
Now we have already found that, mutual inductance due to current
in first coil is,
(6), we get,
This is an ideal case,
when the whole changing flux of one coil, links to another coil. The
value of M practically not equal to (L1L2) as because the whole flux
of one coil does not link with other, rather, a part of the flux of one
with other, then value of K will be one. This is an ideal case. This is
not possible, but when K nearly equal to unity, that means,
maximum flux of one coil links to other, the coils are said to be
tightly coupled or closely coupled. But when no flux of one coil links
with other, the value of K becomes zero (K = 0), then the coils are
said to be very loosely coupled or isolated.
Mutual Inductance of two Solenoids or Coils
Let us assume two solenoids or coils A and B respectively.
Co
il A is connected with an alternating voltage source, V. Due to
alternating source connected to coil A, it will produce an alternating
flux as shown. Now, if we connect on sensitive voltmeter across coil
B, we will find a non zero reading on it. That means, some emf is
induced in the coil B. This is because, apportion of flux produced by
coil A, links with coil B and as the flux changes in respect of time,
there will be an induced emf in the coil B according to Faradays law
of electromagnetic induction. This phenomenon is called mutual
induction. That means, induction of emf in one coil due to flux of
Si
milarly, if the alternating voltage source was connected to coil B and
induced voltage is measured by connecting voltmeter across coil A,
the voltmeter gives a non-zero reading. That means, in this case the
emf will be induced in coil A due to flux linkage from coil B. Let us
consider coil A and B have turns N1 & N2. If the entire flux of coil A
links with coil B, then weber-turns of the coil B due to unit current
of coil A, would be (N21)/i1, where, 1 & i1 is flux and current of coil
A. As per definition this is nothing but mutual inductance of coil A
and B, M. That is,
Inductances in Series
Lets coil or inductance A and B are connected in series. The self
inductance of coil A , is LA and that of coil B is LB. Now again
2.
Types of Inductor
Toroidal Inductor constructs of a circular ringformed magnetic core that characterized by it is magnetic with
high permeability material like iron powder, for which the wire
wounded to get inductor. It works pretty well in AC electronic
circuits' application.
The advantage of this type is that, due to its symmetry, it has a
minimum loss in magnetic flux; therefore it radiates less
electromagnetic interference near circuits or devices.
Applications of Inductors
In general there are a lot of applications due to a big variety of
inductors. Here are some of them. Generally the inductors are
Sensors
Transformers
4.
5.
Filters
Motors
Capacitors
tare into the sky most days and you'll see some huge capacitors
capacitors we use in electronics, they store energy in exactly the same way.
Let's take a closer look at capacitors and how they work!
Photo: A typical capacitor used in electronic circuits. This one is called an electrolytic capacitor and it's rated as
4.7 F (4.7 microfarads), with a working voltage of 350 volts (350 V).
What is a capacitor?
Take two electrical conductors (things that let electricity flow through them)
and separate them with an insulator (a material that doesn't let electricity flow
very well) and you make a capacitor: something that can store
electrical energy. Adding electrical energy to a capacitor is called charging;
releasing the energy from a capacitor is known as discharging.
A capacitor is a bit like a battery, but it has a different job to do. A battery uses
chemicals to store electrical energy and release it very slowly through a circuit;
sometimes (in the case of a quartz watch) it can take several years. A
capacitor generally releases its energy much more rapidlyoften in seconds
or less. If you're taking a flash photograph, for example, you need your
camera to produce a huge burst of light in a fraction of a second. A capacitor
attached to the flash gun charges up for a few seconds using energy from
your camera's batteries. (It takes time to charge a capacitor and that's why you
typically have to wait a little while.) Once the capacitor is fully charged, it can
release all that energy in an instant through the xenon flash bulb. Zap!
Capacitors come in all shapes and sizes, but they usually have the same
basic components. There are the two conductors (known as plates, largely for
historic reasons) and there's the insulator in between them (called
the dielectric). The two plates inside a capacitor are wired to two electrical
connections on the outside called terminals, which are like thin metal legs you
can hook into an electric circuit.
Photo: Inside, an electrolytic capacitor is a bit like a Swiss roll. The "plates" are two very thin sheets of metal;
the dielectric an oily plastic film in between them. The whole thing is wrapped up into a compact cylinder and
coated in a protective metal case. WARNING: It can be dangerous to open up capacitors. First, they can hold
very high voltages. Second, the dielectric is sometimes made of toxic or corrosive chemicals that can burn your
skin.
You can charge a capacitor simply by wiring it up into an electric circuit. When
you turn on the power, an electric charge gradually builds up on the plates.
One plate gains a positive charge and the other plate gains an equal and
opposite (negative) charge. If you disconnect the power, the capacitor keeps
hold of its charge (though it may slowly leak away over time). But if you
connect the capacitor to a second circuit containing something like an electric
motor or a flash bulb, charge will flow from the capacitor through the motor or
lamp until there's none remaining on the plates.
Although capacitors effectively have only one job to do (storing charge), they
can be put to all sorts of different uses in electrical circuits. They can be used
as timing devices (because it takes a certain, predictable amount of time to
charge them), as filters (circuits that allow only certain signals to flow), for
smoothing the voltage in circuits, for tuning (in radios and TVs), and for a
variety of other purposes. Large supercapacitors can also be used instead of
batteries.
Capacitors and capacitance
overlap to a greater or lesser extent with another set of plates threaded in between them. The degree of overlap
between the plates alters the capacitance and that's what tunes the radio into a particular station.
The size of a capacitor is measured in units called farads (F), named for
English electrical pioneer Michael Faraday (17911867). One farad is a huge
amount of capacitance so, in practice, most of the capacitors we come across
are just fractions of a faradtypically microfarads (millionths of a farad, written
F), nanofarads (thousand-millionths of a farad written nF), and picofarads
(million millionths of a farad, written pF). Supercapacitors store far bigger
charges, sometimes rated in thousands of farads.
Why do capacitors store energy?
If you find capacitors mysterious and weird, and they don't really make sense
to you, try thinking about gravity instead. Suppose you're standing at the
bottom of some steps and you decide to start climbing. You have to heave
your body up, against Earth's gravity, which is an attractive (pulling) force. As
physicists say, you have to "do work" to climb a ladder (work against the force
of gravity) and use energy. The energy you use isn't lost, but stored by your
body as gravitational potential energy, which you could use to do other things
(whizzing down a slide back to ground level, for example).
What you do when you climb steps, ladders, mountains, or anything else is
work against Earth's gravitational field. A very similar thing is going on in a
capacitor. If you have a positive electrical charge and a negative electrical
charge, they attract one another like the opposite poles of two magnetsor
like your body and Earth. If you pull them apart, you have to "do work" against
this electrostatic force. Again, just like with climbing steps, the energy you use
isn't lost, but stored by the charges as they separate. This time it's
called electrical potential energy. And this, if you've not guessed by now, is
the energy that a capacitor stores. Its two plates hold opposite charges and
the separation between them creates an electric field. That's why a capacitor
stores energy.
C = Q/V
So the more charge you can store at a given voltage, without causing the air
to break down and spark, the higher the capacitance. If you could somehow
store more charge on the sphere without reaching the point where you created
a spark, you would effectively increase its capacitance. How might you do
that?
Forget about the sphere. Suppose you have a flat metal plate with the
maximum possible charge stored on it and you find the plate is at a certain
voltage. If you bring a second identical plate up close to it, you'll find you can
store much more charge on the first plate for the same voltage. That's
because the first plate creates an electric field all around it that "induces" an
equal and opposite charge on the second plate. The second plate therefore
reduces the voltage of the first plate. We can now store more charge on the
first plate without causing a spark. We can keep on doing that until we reach
the original voltage. With more charge (Q) stored for exactly the same voltage
(V), the equation C = Q/V tells us that we've increased the capacitance of our
charge storing device by adding a second plate, and this is essentially why
capacitors have two plates and not one. In practice, the extra plate makes
a huge differencewhich is why all practical capacitors have two plates.
How can we increase the capacitance?
It's intuitively obvious that if you make the plates bigger, you'll be able to store
more charge (just as if you make a closet bigger you can stuff more things
inside it). So increasing the area of the plates also increases the capacitance.
Less obviously, if we reduce the distance between the plates, that also
increases the capacitance. That's because the shorter the distance between
the plates, the more effect the plates have on one another. The second plate,
being closer, reduces the potential of the first plate even more, and that
increases the capacitance.
dielectric) worked so well, but it's heavy, impractical, and hard to squeeze into
small spaces. Waxed paper is about 4 times better than air, very thin, cheap,
easy to make in large pieces, and easy to roll, which makes it an excellent,
practical dielectric. The best dielectric materials are made of polar molecules
(ones with more positive electric charge on one side and more negative
electric charge on the other). When they sit in the electric field between two
capacitor plates, they line up with their charges pointing opposite to the field,
which effectively reduces it. That reduces the potential on the plates and, as
before, increases their capacitance. Theoretically, water, which is made of
really tiny polar molecules, would make an excellent dielectric, roughly 80
times better than air. Practically, though, it's not so good (it leaks and dries out
and changes from a liquid to ice or steam at relatively modest temperatures),
so it's not used in real capacitors.
Artwork: Left A dielectric increases the capacitance of a capacitor by reducing the electric field between its
plates, so reducing the potential (voltage) of each plate. That means you can store more charge on the plates at
the same voltage. The electric field in this capacitor runs from the positive plate on the left to the negative plate
on the right. Because opposite charges attract, the polar molecules (grey) of the dielectric line up in the
opposite wayand this is what reduces the field.
Chart: Different materials make better or worse dielectrics according to how well they insulate the space
between a capacitor's plates and reduce the electric field between them. A measurement called the relative
permittivity tells us how good a dielectric something will make. A vacuum is the worst dielectric and is given a
relative permittivity of 1. Other dielectrics are measured relative (by comparing them) to a vacuum. Air is
roughly the same. Paper is about 3 times better. Alcohol and water, which have polar molecules, make
particularly good dielectrics.
When clouds drift through the sky, ice particles inside them rub against the air
and gain static electrical chargesin just the same way that a balloon gets
charged up when you rub it on your jumper. The top of a cloud becomes
positively charged when smaller ice particles swirl upward (1); the bottom of a
cloud becomes negatively charged when the heavier ice particles gather lower
down (2). The separation of positive and negative charges in a cloud makes a
kind of moving capacitor!
As a cloud floats along, the electric charge it contains affects things on the
ground beneath it. The huge negative charge at the bottom of the cloud repels
negative charge away from it, so the ground effectively becomes positively
charged (3). The separation of charge between the bottom of the cloud and
the ground beneath means that this area of the atmosphere is also, effectively,
a capacitor.
Over time, enormous electrical charges can build up inside clouds. If the
charge is really big, the cloud contains an enormous amount of electrical
potential energy (it has a really high voltage). When the voltage reaches a
certain level (sometimes several hundred million volts), the air is transformed
from being an insulator into a conductor, and electricity will flow through it as
though it were a metal wire, creating a giant spark better known as a bolt
of lightning (4). The cloud behaves like a flash gun in a camera: the huge
electrical energy stored in its "capacitor" is discharged in an instant and
converted into a flash of light